RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

W h a t is R e s e a r c h ?
D e fin itio n : R e s e a rc h is d e fin e d a s c a re fu l
c o n s id e r a tio n o f s tu d y r e g a r d in g a p a r tic u la r
s o c io lo g is t E a r l R o b e r t B a b b ie ,
“R e s e a rc h is a s y s te m a tic in q u ir y to d e s c r ib e ,
e x p la in , p r e d ic t, a n d c o n tr o l th e o b s e rv e d
p h e n o m e n o n . I t in v o lv e s in d u c tiv e a n d d e d u c tiv e
m e t h o d s .”
I n d u c tiv e r e s e a r c h m e th o d s a n a ly z e a n o b s e rv e d
a p p ro a c h e s a re a s s o c ia te d w ith q u a lita tiv e
q u a n tita tiv e a n a ly s is .
W h a t a r e th e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f r e s e a r c h ?

 G o o d r e s e a r c h fo llo w s a s y s te m a tic a p p r o a c h to c a p tu r e a c c u r a te

o r d r a w in g c o n c lu s io n s .

 T h e a n a ly s is is b a s e d o n lo g ic a l r e a s o n in g a n d in v o lv e s b o th

 R e a l -t i m e d a t a a n d k n o w l e d g e i s d e r i v e d f r o m a c t u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s

 T h e r e i s a n i n -d e p t h a n a l y s i s o f a l l d a t a c o l l e c t e d s o t h a t t h e r e a r e

 I t c r e a te s a p a th fo r g e n e r a tin g n e w q u e s tio n s . E x is tin g d a ta h e lp s

 I t is a n a ly tic a l a n d u s e s a ll th e a v a ila b le d a ta s o th a t th e r e is n o

 A c c u r a c y is o n e o f th e m o s t c r itic a l a s p e c ts o f r e s e a r c h . T h e

e n v ir o n m e n t to c o lle c t d a ta . A c c u r a c y is m e a s u r e d in th e
R e s e a r c h is c o n d u c te d w ith a p u r p o s e to :
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of
research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of
following broad groupings:
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as
exploratory or formulative research studies);
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are
known as descriptive research studies);
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies with this
object in view are known as diagnostic research studies)
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research
studies).
W h a t is th e p u r p o s e o f r e s e a r c h ?
T h e r e a r e th r e e m a in p u r p o s e s :
1.E x p l o r a t o r y : A s t h e n a m e s u g g e s t s , r e s e a r c h e r s c o n d u c t e x p l o r a t o r y
s tu d ie s to e x p lo r e a g ro u p o f q u e s tio n s . T h e a n s w e rs a n d a n a ly tic s
th a t h a v e n ’t b e e n e x p lo r e d b e fo r e . T h is e x p lo r a to r y p r o c e s s la y s th e

2.D e s c r i p t i v e : I t f o c u s e s o n e x p a n d in g k n o w le d g e o n c u r r e n t is s u e s
th r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f d a ta c o lle c tio n . D e s c r ip tiv e r e s e a r c h d e s c r ib e th e
p r im a r y p u r p o s e s o f d e s c r ip tiv e s tu d ie s a r e d e s c r ib in g , e x p la in in g , a n d
in th e 2 1 s t c e n tu r y p o s s e s s th e m o r a l r ig h t to r e c e iv e a c o n s id e r a b le

3.E x p l a n a t o r y : C a u s a l o r e x p la n a to r y re s e a rc h is c o n d u c te d to
u n d e r s ta n d th e im p a c t o f s p e c ific c h a n g e s in e x is tin g s ta n d a r d
u n d e r s ta n d th e e ffe c t o f r e b r a n d in g o n c u s to m e r lo y a lty .
Research philosophy
Research philosophy, also known as philosophical paradigm or research paradigm, refers to the set of beliefs,
assumptions, and principles that guide and underlie the researcher's approach to conducting research and acquiring
knowledge. It is a fundamental aspect of research methodology and shapes the researcher's perspective on how
knowledge is gained, what counts as valid knowledge, and how research should be conducted. There are several main
research philosophies or paradigms that researchers commonly draw upon:

1.Positivism: Positivism is rooted in the idea that knowledge can be gained through objective observation,
measurement, and empirical evidence. Researchers following this philosophy believe that the world operates
according to certain universal laws that can be discovered through systematic research and observation.

2.Interpretivism: Interpretivism emphasizes the subjective nature of reality and the importance of understanding the
meanings and interpretations that individuals attach to their experiences. Researchers who adopt an interpretivist
perspective often use qualitative methods to explore the complexities of human behavior and social phenomena.

3.Constructivism: Constructivism holds that knowledge is actively constructed by individuals based on their
experiences and interactions with the world. Researchers following this philosophy are interested in how people create
and interpret their own realities, often using qualitative methods to explore individual perspectives.
4.Pragmatism: Pragmatism seeks to combine elements from different philosophies to address practical research
problems. Pragmatists focus on what works and may use a variety of research methods and approaches to
answer research questions effectively.

5. Critical Theory: Critical theory aims to examine and challenge power structures, social inequalities, and
dominant ideologies. Researchers following a critical theory perspective often engage in research that promotes
social change and challenges existing norms.

6.Post-Positivism: Post-positivism acknowledges the limitations of purely objective observation and

measurement. It accepts that researchers and their biases can influence research outcomes and emphasizes the
importance of critical reflection.

It's important to note that the choice of research philosophy has significant implications for various aspects of the
research process, including the research questions, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and the
interpretation of findings. Researchers should carefully consider their underlying philosophical assumptions and
how they align with their research goals and objectives.

The selection of a research philosophy should be informed by the research topic, the nature of the research
questions, and the researcher's own beliefs and values. It also helps establish a foundation for the overall
research design and methodology.
The Essence of Research Philosophy
Research philosophy deals with the source, nature and development of knowledge. In simple terms, research
philosophy is belief about the ways in which data about a phenomenon should be collected, analysed and used.
Although the idea of knowledge creation may appear to be profound, you are engaged in knowledge creation as part
of completing your dissertation. You will collect secondary and primary data and engage in data analysis to answer
the research question and this answer marks the creation of new knowledge.
In respect to business and economics philosophy has the following important three functions[2]:
1.Demystifying: Exposing, criticising and explaining the unsustainable assumptions, inconsistencies and confusions
these may contain.
2.Informing: Helping researchers to understand where they stand in the wider field of knowledge-producing
activities, and helping to make them aware of potentialities they might explore.
3.Method-facilitating: Dissecting and better understanding the methods which economists or, more generally,
scientists do, or could, use, and thereby to refine the methods on offer and/or to clarify their conditions of usage.
In essence, addressing research philosophy in your dissertation involves being aware and formulating your beliefs
and assumptions.
In essence, addressing research philosophy in your dissertation involves being aware and formulating your beliefs and
assumptions. As illustrated in figure below, the identification of research philosophy is positioned at the outer layer of
the ‘research onion’. Accordingly it is the first topic to be clarified in research methodology chapter of your dissertation.
The "Research Onion" is a conceptual framework introduced by Saunders et al. (2007) to illustrate the layers of
decisions that researchers need to make when designing and conducting research. This framework guides
researchers through various stages of research, starting from the outermost layer (research philosophy) to the inner
layers (research approach, research strategy, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and time horizon).
Let's focus on how research philosophy fits into the Research Onion model:

1.Research Philosophy (Outer Layer): The outermost layer of the Research Onion is the research philosophy. This
is where researchers decide on their fundamental beliefs about the nature of reality, knowledge, and the appropriate
way to gain understanding in their field. Different research philosophies, such as positivism, interpretivism, and
constructivism, shape the researcher's approach to research design and data collection methods.

2.Research Approach (Layer 2): The second layer involves choosing a research approach, which is closely related
to the research philosophy. It refers to the overall strategy used to conduct the research. For instance, a researcher
following a positivist philosophy might choose a quantitative research approach, while someone aligned with an
interpretivist philosophy might opt for a qualitative approach.

3.Research Strategy (Layer 3): In this layer, researchers select the research strategy that outlines the general plan
for conducting the study. Common strategies include experiments, surveys, case studies, ethnography, and more.
The research strategy further refines the approach chosen in the previous layer.
4.Data Collection Methods (Layer 4): In the fourth layer, researchers decide on specific methods for collecting
data. This might involve surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, content analysis, and so on. The choice of
data collection methods depends on the research strategy and approach selected in previous layers.

5.Data Analysis Methods (Layer 5): The fifth layer focuses on the methods used to analyze the collected data.
Quantitative research might involve statistical analysis, while qualitative research often employs coding, thematic
analysis, or narrative analysis. The choice of analysis methods is guided by the nature of the data collected and the
research approach.

6.Time Horizon (Innermost Layer): The innermost layer of the Research Onion deals with the time horizon or
temporal scope of the research. Researchers decide whether their study will be cross-sectional (data collected at
one point in time) or longitudinal (data collected over an extended period).

The Research Onion model emphasizes that each layer builds upon the choices made in the previous layers. The
choices at each layer are interconnected and should align to create a coherent research design. Starting with the
research philosophy, researchers work their way inward, making decisions that progressively refine and shape the
research process.
Each stage of the research process is based on assumptions about the sources and the nature of knowledge.
Research philosophy will reflect the author’s important assumptions and these assumptions serve as base for the
research strategy. Generally, research philosophy has many branches related to a wide range of disciplines. Within
the scope of business studies in particular there are four main research philosophies:
1.Pragmatism
2.Positivism
3.Realism
4.Interpretivism (Interpretivist)
Pragmatics
Pragmatics “recognise that there are many different ways of interpreting the world and undertaking research, that no
single point of view can ever give the entire picture and that there may be multiple realities”.
Pragmatists use whatever combination of methods necessary to find answers to research questions. At the same
time, it has to be noted that pragmatists do not have to use multiple methods; rather they use method or combination
of methods that advances a specific research in the best possible manner.
Positivism:
As a philosophy, positivism adheres to the view that only “factual” knowledge gained through observation (the
senses), including measurement, is trustworthy. In positivism studies the role of the researcher is limited to data
collection and interpretation in an objective way. In other words, the researcher is an objective analyst and she
distances herself from personal values in conducting the study. In these types of studies research findings are
usually observable and quantifiable.
Positivism depends on quantifiable observations that lead to statistical analyses. It has been a dominant form of
research in business and management disciplines for decades. It has been noted that “as a philosophy, positivism is
in accordance with the empiricist view that knowledge stems from human experience. It has an atomistic, ontological
view of the world as comprising discrete, observable elements and events that interact in an observable, determined
and regular manner”.
Realism Research Philosophy
Realism research philosophy relies on the idea of independence of reality from the human mind. This
philosophy is based on the assumption of a scientific approach to the development of knowledge. Realism can
be divided into two groups: direct and critical.
 Direct realism, also known as naive realism, can be described as “what you see is what you get”. In other
words, direct realism portrays the world through personal human senses.
 Critical realism, on the other hand, argues that humans do experience the sensations and images of the real
world. According to critical realism, sensations and images of the real world can be deceptive and they usually
do not portray the real world.

Interpretivist
Interpretivist approach is based on naturalistic approach of data collection such as interviews and observations.
Secondary data research is also popular with interpretivism philosophy. In this type of studies, meanings emerge
usually towards the end of the research process.
The most noteworthy variations of interpretivism include the following:
 Hermeneutics refers to the philosophy of interpretation and understanding. Hermeneutics mainly focuses on
biblical texts and wisdom literature and as such, has a little relevance to business studies.
 Phenomenology is “the philosophical tradition that seeks to understand the world through directly experiencing
the phenomena”.
 Symbolic interactionism accepts symbols as culturally derived social objects having shared meanings. According
to symbolic interactionism symbols provide the means by which reality is constructed.
Positivism - Research Methodology (research-methodology.net)
The Choice of Research Philosophy
The choice of a specific research philosophy is impacted by practical implications. There are important philosophical
differences between studies that focus on facts and numbers such as an analysis of the impact of foreign direct
investment on the level of GDP growth and qualitative studies such as an analysis of leadership style on employee
motivation in organizations.
The choice between positivist and interpretivist research philosophies or between quantitative and qualitative
research methods has traditionally represented a major point of debate. However, the latest developments in the
practice of conducting studies have increased the popularity of pragmatism and realism philosophies as well.
Moreover, as it is illustrated in table below, there are popular data collection methods associated with each research
philosophy.
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research;
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
 Desire to be of service to society
 Desire to get respectability. However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies.
 Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to
understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel)
people to perform research operations.
Types of Research
 Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of

generating new knowledge about it.

 It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on

clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to

knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

 Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises

the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and

supervisors.
Classification of Types of Research
There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time
required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to
one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical Research

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge, regardless of its
practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a
particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary
analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

For example, a philosophical dissertation, since the aim is to generate new approaches from existing data without
considering how its findings can be applied or implemented in practice.
Applied ResearchHere, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied
research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in fields such as engineering,
computer science and medicine. This type of research is subdivided into two types:

1.Technological applied research: Technological applied research, often referred to as "applied technology research,"
focuses on using existing scientific knowledge to develop practical applications, innovations, and technologies that
address specific real-world problems or needs. This type of research aims to bridge the gap between scientific
discoveries and their practical implementation in various industries and fields. It involves translating theoretical
knowledge into tangible products, processes, or solutions that have practical utility. Example of Technological
Applied Research: Developing a more efficient and environmentally friendly method for purifying drinking water
using nanotechnology-based filtration systems.

2.Scientific applied research: Scientific applied research, also known as "applied science research," involves applying
existing scientific principles, theories, and methodologies to address practical issues or questions. This type of
research aims to provide practical insights and solutions by using scientific methods to analyze and understand
specific real-world phenomena. While it may lead to technological advancements, the primary focus is on advancing
scientific understanding and knowledge while providing practical benefits.
Example of Scientific Applied Research: Studying the impact of air pollution on
respiratory health in a specific urban area by collecting air quality data, conducting
medical tests on residents, and analyzing the correlation between pollutant levels
and health outcomes.

In summary, technological applied research focuses on creating practical

applications and innovations based on scientific knowledge, while scientific applied
research uses scientific methods to address practical issues and contribute to
understanding and knowledge advancement. Both types of research play critical
roles in addressing real-world challenges and driving progress in various domains.
According to your Depth of Scope
Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is a type of research that aims to gain insights, generate ideas, and develop a
deeper understanding of a subject or phenomenon, especially when there is limited existing knowledge
or prior research on the topic. It involves exploring a research question or problem with an open mind,
often using qualitative methods, in order to formulate hypotheses, identify variables of interest, and
refine the research design for further investigation.
Example : Exploring Microplastic Pollution in Freshwater Lakes
Explanation: In this case, exploratory research would involve investigating the presence and potential
impacts of microplastics in freshwater lakes, an emerging environmental concern with limited existing
data.
Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research is a type of research that aims to provide a detailed and accurate portrayal of a subject,
phenomenon, or situation. It involves systematically observing, documenting, and describing the characteristics,
behaviors, and attributes of the subject under study. Descriptive research does not involve manipulating
variables or establishing cause-and-effect relationships; rather, it focuses on painting a comprehensive picture of
the research topic.
Example: Describing Biodiversity in a Rainforest Ecosystem
Explanation: In this case, descriptive research would involve conducting a comprehensive study to document the
different species of plants, animals, insects, and microorganisms present in a rainforest ecosystem.
Explanatory Research
Explanatory research, also known as causal or cause-and-effect research, aims to identify and understand the
relationships between variables and to explain why certain events or phenomena occur. It goes beyond describing
correlations and seeks to uncover the underlying mechanisms that lead to specific outcomes. Explanatory research often
involves conducting experiments or using statistical techniques to establish causal connections between variables.
Research Question: Does increased pesticide use lead to a decline in pollinator populations?
Explanation: In this case, explanatory research would seek to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between pesticide
use and pollinator populations. The research would involve manipulating the level of pesticide use (independent variable)
and observing its impact on pollinator populations (dependent variable).

Correlational Research

Correlational research involves examining the statistical relationships between variables to determine if changes in one
variable are associated with changes in another variable. Unlike explanatory research, which aims to establish cause-and-
effect relationships, correlational research focuses on identifying patterns and connections between variables without
implying causation. It helps researchers understand the degree and direction of the relationship between two or more
variables.
Research Question: Is there a correlation between deforestation rates and changes in local climate patterns?
Explanation: In this case, correlational research would seek to determine whether there is a statistical relationship
between the extent of deforestation (independent variable) and variations in local climate patterns (dependent variable)
over a specific period.
According to the Type of Data Used
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is a research method that focuses on exploring and understanding complex phenomena, experiences, and
social processes through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It involves studying the subjective perspectives of
individuals and groups, aiming to uncover insights, meanings, and patterns within a specific context. Qualitative research often
employs methods such as interviews, observations, focus groups, and content analysis to delve into the richness and depth of
human experiences and interactions. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an
event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).
Example: Exploring Local Perceptions of Climate Change Impact
Explanation: Qualitative research could be used to investigate how local communities perceive and experience the impacts of
climate change in their region.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is a research method that involves the systematic collection and analysis of numerical data to
understand, describe, and explain phenomena. It focuses on quantifying relationships between variables, using statistical
methods to analyze patterns, trends, and associations. Quantitative research aims to provide objective and empirical insights
into the relationships among variables, allowing for generalizations and predictions.
Example : Assessing Water Quality in a River Ecosystem

Explanation: Quantitative research could be used to measure and analyze various water quality parameters in a river ecosystem
to determine its overall health.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental Research: Experimental research is a research method that involves manipulating one or more independent
variables to observe the effects on a dependent variable while controlling for potential confounding factors. It aims to establish
cause-and-effect relationships between variables by systematically testing hypotheses and comparing experimental and control
groups.

Research Question: Does exposure to increased levels of ultraviolet (UV) radiation lead to changes in the growth rate of marine
phytoplankton?

Experimental Design: Researchers set up controlled laboratory experiments using different containers of water. They expose one
group of containers to higher levels of simulated UV radiation (experimental group) and keep another group shielded from UV
radiation (control group). Both groups receive the same nutrient conditions and temperature.
Non-Experimental Research: Non-experimental research, also known as observational research, involves observing and
describing phenomena without manipulating variables. It focuses on studying relationships, patterns, and trends that naturally
occur in real-world settings.

Research Question: What is the relationship between tree canopy cover and local temperature in urban neighborhoods?

Observational Design: Researchers collect data from various urban neighborhoods, measuring the percentage of tree canopy
cover (independent variable) and recording local temperature measurements (dependent variable).

Quasi-Experimental Research: Quasi-experimental research is a research method that shares some characteristics with
experimental research but lacks full control over certain variables. In quasi-experiments, researchers manipulate an
independent variable to observe its effects on a dependent variable, but they may not have complete control over
random assignment or other factors that would typically be present in a true experimental design. Quasi-experimental
designs are often used when it's not feasible or ethical to conduct a controlled experiment.
Research Question: Does the implementation of a new waste recycling program lead to a reduction in household
waste generation?
Quasi-Experimental Design: Researchers want to assess the impact of a new waste recycling program introduced in
a city. They choose two neighborhoods: Neighborhood A, where the recycling program has been implemented, and
Neighborhood B, where the program has not been introduced yet.
According to the Type of Inference

Deductive Investigation
Deductive research involves starting with a general theory or hypothesis and then testing it through empirical observations and
data collection. It follows a structured and systematic approach, moving from theory to specific observations or predictions.

Example: Increased levels of air pollution lead to higher rates of respiratory illnesses.

Hypothesis: In cities with higher air pollution levels, there will be a higher prevalence of respiratory illnesses among residents.

Inductive Research
Inductive research involves making generalizations or developing theories based on specific observations or patterns. It moves
from specific data or observations to broader theories or conclusions.

Observation : In a particular wetland ecosystem, the presence of a certain species of frog is associated with higher water
quality indicators.

Pattern: Multiple wetland ecosystems across different regions also show similar correlations between frog presence and water
quality.
According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal Study (also referred to as Diachronic Research)

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a
number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas.
For example, a cohort study that analyses changes in a particular indigenous population over a period of 15 years.

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a
given time.
According to The Sources of Information
Primary Research
This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists
of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research
Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally
based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.
According to How the Data is Obtained
Documentary (cabinet)
Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a
particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a
case study.

Field
Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory
Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its
relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through
field or laboratory research.
Conceptual vs. Empirical:
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts
or to reinterpret existing ones.
On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based
research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type
of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate
the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he
thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.
Such research is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them
to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence
gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.