GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 1

Simple present and present continuous Stative and dynamic verbs

Grammar notes (p. 10, Exercise 6) Grammar notes

The aim of this controlled accuracy practice is to focus on
the uses of the simple present and present continuous
which students most commonly confuse.
Form
At this level, the form and use of these basic tenses is
revision, so students can be expected to use the forms
accurately. Encourage students to write and use contracted
forms (e.g. I’m not, You aren’t, and He isn’t).
Meaning and use
In each of the paired sentences 1–3, the difference
is between permanent (always true) and temporary
(true now). Point this out. In 2a, for example, until our
apartment is ready shows that this is only a temporary
situation which will end or change soon.
In sentence 4a, a habit or routine is being expressed—
something that happens regularly and repetitively. In 4b, the
present continuous is most likely as we see this as a temporary
situation—one that can be changed. If we choose to write I
have some problems this semester (a possible sentence), the
implication is that the problem is permanent.
Question forms: indirect questions
Grammar notes
In object questions: who and what are followed by the
singular form of the verb even if the answer is plural (e.g.,
Who uses green? Environmentalists.); which is followed by
a noun and can therefore be either singular or plural (e.g.,
Which color means …? / Which colors mean …?).
Note that the rules for subject and object questions apply in
all tenses: Who painted a white dove as a symbol of peace?
Simple present and present continuous continued
Grammar notes (p. 11, Exercise 7)
In sentence 1a, the situation is generally true, but in 1b,
it’s a situation that’s only true now—something happening
at the moment. Some students may have learned that
verbs like have, feel, and love are stative verbs and never
used in continuous tenses. Tell them that this isn’t always
the case—it depends on the context. There’s a tendency
in modern English to use verbs like love, like, need, and
want in continuous forms to emphasize temporariness and
immediacy. For example, McDonald’s advertising campaign
uses the slogan I’m lovin’ it!
In sentence 2a, the situation is permanent, i.e.,
unchanging. In 2b, this action is happening now.
In sentence 3a, the speaker chooses the present continuous
because the phrasal verb looking for talks about an action.
In 3b, look refers to someone’s appearance or state.
Dynamic or action verbs involve the performance of an
action: running, throwing, cleaning, etc. By contrast, stative
verbs do not express an action—they express existence,
thoughts, beliefs, etc. It becomes complicated when verbs
that are usually stative verbs are used dynamically. For
example, I think chocolate is delicious is stative because it is
an opinion (not an action), but I’m thinking about going to
Spain on vacation is an active mental process (the thought
is actively going through your head).
Question forms: direct questions
Grammar notes
There are two main ways of asking questions: directly and
indirectly. Both types of question have the same meaning,
but we use indirect questions when we want to be more
polite, more formal, or less confrontational.
Students often have problems with word order here.
Having learned What time is it?, it is tricky to remember to
invert is and it when making the indirect question: Do you
know what time it is? Be aware of this and provide plenty
of written and spoken practice. A quick and easy way of
prompting students to self-correct is to cross your hands at
the wrist, which visually shows students they have failed to
invert subject and verb correctly.
Subject and object questions
Grammar notes
In an object question, the question word is the object of
the sentence. In a subject question, the question word is
the subject. Common errors include omitting the auxiliary
in object questions (What it means?) or getting the subject
and auxiliary word order wrong (Where they are going?).
Students sometimes apply object question rules to subject
questions (Which color does it mean happiness?).
Object questions follow a regular pattern as shown in the
following table:
Question Auxiliary Subject Main verb
word (or modal) verb
What does yellow mean?
Where are they going?
What can you see?
Subject questions, in which the question word is the
subject of the sentence, are simple in that they follow the
same pattern as an affirmative sentence:
Question word Auxiliary and/or main verb
Which color means happiness?
What uses green as a symbol?
Who can swim?
is crying?

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 Exercises 4 Write questions for these answers.
1 Where do people where white at funerals?
1 Complete the exchanges with the simple present
People wear white at funerals in East Asian
or present continuous form of the verbs.
countries.
1 A: They have (have) really 2 When did Hong Kong become independent
good seafood here. It’s what I usually from the UK? Hong Kong became
eat (eat) when I come independent from the UK in 1997.
(come) here. 3 How many European countries use the euro?
B: Oh, I’m vegetarian. I don't eat (not / About half the European countries use the euro.
eat) seafood. 4 What does "Ciao" mean in English?
2 A: Oh, no! It 's raining (rain) again! Ciao means both “hello” and “goodbye” in
B: Yeah, I’m afraid it rains (rain) a lot English.
here at this time of year. 5 Which two South American countries don't have
3 A: You work (work) at the university, a coast? The two South American countries
right? that don’t have a coast are Paraguay and Bolivia.
B: Normally, yes. But I 'm not working (not /
work) there at the moment. I 'm taking 5 Look at the interview with a travel writer. Write
(take) a year off. I 'm writing (write) a the questions.
book, actually. I’m about halfway through.
1 How did you become a travel writer?
2 Complete the sentences with the simple present or I became a travel writer by writing about my
present continuous form of the verbs. travels on a blog. A magazine saw it and liked
what I did and asked me to write for them.
1 I don't remember (not / remember) my first day 2 What are the qualities you need to be a travel writer?
of school. The qualities you need to be a travel writer
2 We prefer (prefer) the blue hats to the are a love of travel, independent thinking, and
red ones. cultural sensitivity.
3 Kate isn’t sure about going to the conference, 3 What are you working on at the moment?
but she 's thinking (think) about it. At the moment, I’m working on an article about
4 They’re in the kitchen. They 're having some of the smaller ethnic cultures in Southeast
(have) lunch. Asia.
5 Ben doesn't realize (not / realize) what he 4 Who usually chooses your destinations?
needs (need) to do. I usually choose my destinations. However,
6 I think (think) this jacket sometimes a magazine will ask me to go to a
belongs (belong) to Lauren. particular place.
5 How do you prepare for a trip?
3 Choose the correct options to complete this excerpt
from a book about the world’s cultures. I prepare for a trip by reading as much as
possible about the place I’m visiting and getting
The word “culture” 1 comes from / is coming from advice from other authors who know the place.
the Latin “colere," which 2 means / is meaning
to cultivate and grow. Culture 3 is / is being the 6 Rewrite the direct questions as indirect questions.
characteristics, knowledge, and behavior of a 1 What language do they speak in Mauritius?
particular group of people. This 4 includes /
Do you know what language they speak in Mauritius?
is including language, religion, cuisine, social
2 Where is Robert Fisher’s office?
habits, music, and arts. Today, cultural diversity
Could you tell me where Robert Fisher's office is?
across the planet 5 increases / is increasing faster
3 Which terminal does the flight leave from?
than ever. This is because people 6 move / are
moving more easily and freely around the planet. Do you know which terminal the flight leaves from?
At the same time, and as a result, more and more 4 Where did Julia go?
Could you tell me where Julia went?
people, especially the younger generation, 7 feel /
are feeling that they 8 don’t belong / aren’t belonging to 5 Do people usually bow when they meet?
Do you know whether/if people usually bow
a particular culture.
when they meet?
6 Why do you need a new passport?
Can you tell me why you need a new passport?

  
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 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 2
Present perfect
Grammar notes (p. 23, Exercise 7)
Aspects of form to point out in feedback:
1 Have is an auxiliary verb. The third-person form changes
to the irregular has.
2 To form the negative, not is added to the auxiliary. It’s
almost always reduced to n’t.
3 To form the regular past participle you add -ed to the
verb (which is identical to regular simple past forms). See
the inside back cover of the Student’s Book for a list of
irregular verbs.
Present perfect
Grammar notes (p. 23, Exercise 9)
1 have become = to describe something that started in
the past that has an effect on the present
2 has lost = same reason as above
3 have risen = to describe a period of time up to the present—
using since to describe the point in time when it started
4 have realized = to describe something that started in
the past that has an effect on the present
5 hasn’t gone up = to describe a period of time up to the
present using for to describe the length of period
6 have paid = to describe something that happened in a
period up to the present, but we don’t know exactly when
For and since
Grammar notes
for + a period of time. Show this visually:
<-------------------------->
a couple of days
since + a point in time. Show this visually: 1986
Just, yet, and already
Grammar notes
Just, yet, and already are adverbs regularly used with
the present perfect form. Just and already go between
the auxiliary have and the past participle. Yet is used in
negative sentences and goes at the end of a sentence.
just = it happened recently; not … yet = it hasn’t
happened but we expect it to soon / in the future;
already = it has happened earlier than expected.
Present perfect and simple past
Grammar notes
A simple way of looking at this is to ask whether we say
“when” or not. If “when” is important, then it’s a past
event (and we use the simple past). If “when” is not stated
or important, then we use the present perfect.
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Present perfect and simple past
Grammar notes (p. 25, Exercise 10)
1 has been = used with for to describe something that
began in the past and continues now
2 I started = we know when: during a bad period of work
(a specific time in the past)
3 I’ve never had = in my life up to now, but we don’t
know exactly when
4 I’ve met = with a result now / we don’t say when
5 have become = with a result now / we don’t say when
6 didn’t know = At first refers to a specific past time
7 realized = soon refers to a specific past time
8 has felt = at some time up to now, we don’t say when
The use of just in this text means only (not recently).
Present perfect and simple past form of verbs
Grammar notes
Students should recognize that the simple past is used
when we say “when” (e.g., last month, in April, a few
months ago, When). The present perfect is used when we
don’t refer to a finished past time, and often with words
like for, since, and yet.
Note that go has two participles (been and gone).
Compare Tom’s been to Paris (it’s an experience in his life)
with Tom’s gone to Paris (he’s in Paris—or on his way—
now, and is still there).
Linking words
Grammar notes
Some linking words (e.g., although, even though, while)
join clauses. They can go at the start of the first clause (e.g.,
Although he is best-known as a movie director, Luhrmann
has also directed opera) or the second clause (Luhrmann
has directed opera, although he is best-known as a movie
director).
Some linking words (despite, in spite of) use a gerund (an
-ing form) instead of a verb + subject. They can go at the
start of either clause (They have had box office success
despite being unusual; Despite being unusual, they have
had box office success).
Some linking words (e.g., however, consequently,
nevertheless) join sentences. They go between the
sentences and are followed by a comma (Luhrmann has
also directed opera. Consequently, his movies are usually
exciting). They are used in more formal, written contexts.
Although and even though have similar meanings and
uses. However, we tend to use even though when the
contrast is surprising (Even though he was a professor of
linguistics, he failed the oral exam).
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 Exercises 4 Choose the correct option to complete the
sentences.
1 Complete the sentences with the present perfect 1 I’ve lived in this part of Melbourne
form of the verbs in parentheses. Use contractions
for two years / in 2005.
where possible.
2 My sister's been a music teacher in 2000 /
1 The concert has started (start). since 2000.
2 They 've made (make) lunch for us. 3 I haven’t seen my cousins for 1995 / since 1995.
3 My sister hasn't bought (not buy) any vinyl 4 We went to Japan since three years /
records. three years ago.
4 Have you finished (finish) writing 5 Have you seen her yesterday / today?
your report? 6 I’ve worked in this office since two years /
5 We 've known (know) each other since 2015. for two years.
6 Has he seen (see) this band 7 We’ve started dance classes last month /
play live before? this month.
7 Our neighbors aren’t here. They 've gone 8 My parents saw the show in February /
(go) on vacation. since February.
8 I haven't been (not go) to a ballet for a long time.
5 Complete the sentences with the present perfect or
2 Read the sentences (1–6). Choose the correct option simple past form of the verbs in parentheses.
(a–b) to explain each sentence. has been
1 Our teacher never (go) to
1 I’ve broken my arm. France.
a My arm is better. 2 My piano lesson started (start) at
b My arm is still broken. ten o’clock.
2 They’ve recorded three albums. 3 Have you ever seen (see) a musical?
a We know when this happened. 4 She didn't work (not work) yesterday because
b We don’t know when this happened. she was very tired.
3 They’ve gone on vacation. 5 My brother got (get) married two
a They’re at home now. weeks ago.
b They’re on vacation now. 6 We 've already read (read) this
4 She’s lived here for three years. book.
a She lives here now. 7 Did you go (go) to any concerts
b She doesn’t live here any more. last month?
5 Sally’s been to Mexico.
a She’s there now. 6 Complete the conversation with the present
b She’s home now. perfect or simple past form of these verbs.
6 I’ve traveled a lot.
do enjoy go not be
a I’m talking about a general experience.
have open hear not see
b I’m talking about a specific time.

3 Put the word in parentheses in the correct place in A: What 1 did you do over the
the sentences. weekend?
B: I 2 went to a concert.
1 Have you eaten? (already) A: Lucky you! I 3 haven't seen a band play live for
2 The play has started. (just) years.
B: This was a band called The Dotcoms.
3 The train hasn’t arrived. (yet) 4 Have you heard of them?
4 He’s had coffee. (just) A: No. 5 Did you enjoy the concert?
B: Yes. It was amazing! I 6 had a great
5 We’ve seen this movie. (already)
time.
6 Has she woken up? (yet) A: Wow! Where was it?
B: It was at the new concert hall. It 7 opened
7 I haven’t sent the message. (yet)
last month.
8 My brother has heard the album. (just) A: Oh, I 8 haven't been there. Is it nice inside?
B: It’s great!

  
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 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 3
Past continuous Because, so, when, and while

Grammar notes Grammar notes

The past continuous is formed with was/were + verb + -ing
form (the present participle).
When telling a story, we use the simple past to describe
finished actions in the past, and to describe actions or
events in sequence. We use the past continuous to set the
scene for a story by describing the situation (We were living
in Spain when …) or the background events (Birds were
singing and trees were blowing in the wind …) at the time
of the story. We also use the past continuous to describe
a longer action that is interrupted by an event (We were
crossing the road when a sports car raced past us).
A timeline is a good way to contrast the two uses. Write
the following on the board:
surprised the crocodile
Because, so, when, and while are conjunctions that join
two sentences. Because gives a reason. So expresses a
consequence.
A simple way of explaining when and while is to say
that we use when with finished events in past time, and,
therefore, with the simple past; and we use while with
longer actions, and, therefore, with the past continuous.
I met Joe when he got off the bus. (= a finished event at a
moment in past time)
I met Joe while he was walking home. (= an interrupted
longer action)
However, note that native speakers sometimes interchange
when and while, e.g., When we were sitting on the beach,
Jim’s phone went off. / He sat by himself while he ate his
lunch.

Past perfect
PastNow
Were going
Grammar notes
We were going around a small island when we surprised
a crocodile In narratives, the past perfect is used to refer back to
something that happened before. It allows the speaker to
break up a sequence of events. Compare I woke up early,
Simple past and past continuous had a shower, and ate breakfast with I had a shower and
ate breakfast. I had woken early that day. It adds variety
Grammar notes (p. 35, Exercise 9) and interest to narratives.
Students sometimes misunderstand the past perfect and
Timelines can help to show the difference in meaning: think of it as a “distant” past, and say, for example, When
1 I was very young, I had lived in India. The past perfect
saw the hippo can only be used in contrast to another past to show that
it is an earlier event. A timeline is useful to show the
PastNow X
difference:
What were they doing?

2 belonged to a child   saw some shoes

X X
saw the hippo What did they do next? Past Now
X X
PastNow I saw some shoes that had belonged to a child.

Simple past and past perfect

Simple past and past continuous
Grammar notes (p. 35, Exercise 10)
1 the background situation
6 an unfinished and continuing activity, i.e., it was moving
before the storyteller saw it and continued moving after
2 to 10 (except 6): the simple past is used as these are the
events of the story—they are short completed ­actions or
sequences of actions
Grammar notes (p. 37, Exercise 8)
3 had discovered took place before archeologists began to
lift cannons (two years previously)
5/6 the ship had sunk and hit rocks (long) before the
archeologists rediscovered it.
Note that it’s possible to use the simple past (sank/hit)
because the context is clear without the past perfect.
7 had become happened before he retired
Note again that it’s possible to use the simple past
(became) here. When we relate past events in the same
order they actually happened, we don’t have to use the
past perfect.

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 Exercises 5 Read the sentences and underline the action in
bold that happened first.
1 Complete the story with the simple past or past 1 He sat down and watched TV.
continuous form of the verbs in parentheses.
2 They went out on the boat after the storm had
One weekend last summer, I 1 decided (decide) passed.
to go for a walk in the mountains. It was a perfect 3 Before we had our ice cream, we went for a
day—the sun 2 was shining (shine) and it wasn’t too swim.
hot. But while I 3 was walking (walk), I suddenly 4 He didn’t have his phone because he’d lost it.
4 saw (see) a huge bear on the path ahead 5 The movie had ended by the time we arrived
of me. I was terrified! I 5 was trying (try) to decide at the theater.
what to do when the bear 6 turned (turn) 6 They’d met each other many times before they
around and 7 ran (run) away. I started their business.
8 didn't know
(not know) I was so scary! 7 Sophie felt very excited because she hadn’t
been to a ballet before.
2 Use the prompts to write questions with the tense 8 By the time we found the store, it had closed.
in parentheses.
1 What / he / do / when / saw the lion? (past
6 Complete the text with the past perfect form of
these verbs. Use contractions where possible.
continuous)
What was he doing when he saw the lion?
be be change find
2 What / he / do / when / the lion walked go lose spend
toward him? (simple past)
What did he do when the lion walked toward him? had been
Dario and Federica 1 only
3 Who / you / speak to / when / your phone married for three days when Federica lost her
battery died? (past continuous) wedding ring. It happened on the first day of their
Who were you speaking to when your phone battery died? honeymoon. They 2 'd spent the whole day
4 What / you / do / when / your phone battery on the beach and then they 3 'd gone back
died? (simple past) to the hotel. While Federica was getting ready
What did you do when your phone battery died?
for dinner, she realized that she 4 'd lost
5 What / they / do / when / the storm started? her ring. She felt terrible because it 5 had been
(past continuous) very expensive. The young couple went back to
What were they doing when the storm started?
the beach the next day, but they couldn’t find the
3 Match the questions from Exercise 2 with these ring. Then Federica remembered something: the
answers. day before, she 6 'd changed her clothes behind a
big rock at the end of the beach. So she went back
1 e 2 a 3 c 4 d 5 b to the rock. Luckily, the ring was still there—she
couldn’t believe she 7 'd found it!
a He ran away!
b They were swimming in the ocean. 7 Complete the sentences with the simple past or
c I was speaking to my boss. past perfect form of the verbs in parentheses.
d I borrowed my friend’s phone.
e He was sitting on the grass. 1 Tania hadn't been (not be) to Bangkok before,
so she was (be) really excited.
4 Complete the sentences with the simple past or 2 He wasn't (not be) hungry because he
past continuous forms of the verbs in parentheses. 'd eaten (eat) a big breakfast.
3 My cousins didn't come (not come) to my
1 The sun was shining (shine) when we birthday party because I 'd forgotten (forget)
went (go) outside. to send them an invitation.
2 While I was running (run) around the park, I 4 The game had already started (already start)
lost (lose) my phone. got
when we (get) there.
3 They were watching (watch) TV when she 5 I didn't want (not want) to go to the movie
got (get) to their house. theater with my friends because
4 Thomas was sleeping (sleep) when the I 'd already seen (already see) the movie.
mailman rang (ring) the doorbell. 6 Paco didn't know (not know) the time because
his watch had stopped (stop) working.
7 The restaurant was (be) very busy, but
luckily we 'd reserved (reserve) a table.

  
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 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 4
Will, may, and might

Grammar notes
In simple terms, will, may, and might are used when the
speaker is not sure. Will is used when the speaker is sure.
Modal verbs are usually followed by an infinitive without
to. So, It might change NOT It might to change.
Will and will not are usually expressed in the short form:
It’ll …, It won’t … Make sure students use short forms
while speaking—using long forms is usually inappropriate
as it over-emphasizes what the speaker is saying.
Note that certainly, definitely, and probably go after will but
before won’t, so It will certainly … but It certainly won’t … .

Future forms

Grammar notes
Students often find choosing which future form to use in
English very difficult. That is because the choice of which
form to use often comes down to the “intention” of the
speaker. If asked Do you have any plans for tonight? a
speaker can choose to say I think I’ll eat out, I’m eating
out, or I’m going to eat out, depending on whether they
want to emphasize the spontaneous decision, the fixed
arrangement, or the decision made.
Consequently, it’s important to stress that English speakers
tend to use will when an intention is made at the moment
of speaking, and going to is used when the intention is
made before that moment.
The difference between going to and the present
continuous is more subtle. Arrangements are always
intentions, so it’s possible to say both I’m having dinner
with friends at 8 or I’m going to have dinner with friends
at 8. However, English speakers tend to choose the shorter
form. Intentions aren’t always arrangements, however. So,
for example, I’m going to sleep for 12 hours tonight! is an
intention but it’s not arranged—it would be odd to say I’m
sleeping for twelve hours tonight.

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 Exercises
1 Correct the mistakes in these sentences.
1 They might to go out for a meal later.
will definitely
2 James definitely will be late to the meeting.
may not
3 Some students mayn’t pass their exams.
4 I think you’ll to find a new job soon.
2 Put the words in order to make predictions with
will / won’t.
1 snow / it’ll / over the weekend
It'll snow over the weekend
2 be / will / open / the store
The store will be open
3 forget / certainly / their vacation / won’t / they
They certainly won't forget their vacation
4 be able to / find / she / our house / won’t
She won't be able to find our house
5 be able to / finish / the report / today / we’ll
We'll be able to finish the report today
3 Chiara is starting a new job. Look at her
predictions about the job and complete the
sentences with will/won’t, may/might, or may not /
mightn’t.
confident less confident
good things: good things:
learn new things good food in restaurant
meet new people can travel abroad
can speak French
4 Read the sentences (1–5). Choose the correct
option (a–b) to explain each sentence.
1 I’m getting a new computer tomorrow.
a I plan to buy a new one.
b I’ve already chosen and ordered one.
2 I’ll have some coffee, please.
a I’d already decided to have this.
b I’ve just decided that I want this.
3 He’s going to retake his exam.
a He’s just decided to do this.
b He plans to do this.
4 We leave at 6:45 tomorrow morning.
a The train leaves at this time.
b We plan to leave at this time.
. 5 He’s moving to another country for work.
a He plans to do this.
. b He already has his contract.
. 5 Choose the correct options to complete the email.
. Hi Rob,
I’m so excited because yesterday I booked a plane
. ticket for Australia! 1 I’m moving / I’ll move there for a
year! 2 I’m working / I’m going to work in Melbourne
for the first six months, but I still need to find a job.
Then, when I have some money, 3 I’m going to travel /
I’m traveling around the country for six months. The
only annoying thing is the time of my flight—
4
it’s leaving / it leaves at 4 a.m.! But there are hotels
near the airport, so I think 5 I’m booking / I’ll book
a room on the internet. I hope everything’s OK with
you. 6 Are you doing / Will you do anything this
weekend? Would you like to meet up?
Anders

bad things: bad things: 6 Complete the conversations with the correct future
can’t walk to work have to work late form. Sometimes more than one form is possible.
anymore tiring 1 A: Sorry, Adrien is busy right now.
not know anyone there B: OK, I 'll come (come) back later.
not have many days off 2 A: Do you want to go out tomorrow night?
B: Sorry, I 'm going (go) to the theater. I’ve
1 My new job may be tiring, but I’m sure already bought a ticket.
I 'll learn a lot of new things. 3 A: What are you doing tonight?
2 I won't know anyone at first, but B: I 'm going to study (study) because I have an
I 'll meet new people. exam soon.
3 I 'll be able to speak French, and I 4 A: Are you hungry? How about going out for
might be able to travel abroad for work. dinner?
4 There might be good food in the B: No, it’s OK—I 'll make (make)
restaurant. something to eat.
5 The office isn’t near my home, so I won't be able to 5 A: When do you need to be at the station?
walk to work anymore. B: My train leaves (leave) at 8:23, so I
need to be there at about 8:15.

  
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 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 5
Modal verbs
Grammar notes
Note that modal verbs are usually followed by an infinitive
without to. So, The ingredients must include a special type
of flour NOT The ingredients must to include a special type
of flour. Have to is a semi-modal because it functions like a
modal verb but it conjugates like an ordinary verb.
You are allowed to has the same meaning as can. It
expresses permission. You aren’t allowed to has the same
meaning as can’t. It expresses prohibition.
Note that have to and must have very similar meanings.
We tend to use must for a personal obligation (I must
wash my hair) and have to for rules and impersonal
obligations (You have to drive on the left).
In fact, however, on the other hand,
and consequently
Grammar note
Contrast: however and on the other hand are used to
contrast two sentences. They go at the start of the second
sentence and are followed by a comma. They are formal,
written uses.
Consequence: consequently and therefore are used
to express a consequence. They go at the start of the
sentence that shows the consequence and are followed
by a comma. They are formal, written uses.
In fact means “in reality”—it’s used to emphasize the truth
of something you say, especially one opposite to what
might be expected or what has been said before.

Students sometimes confuse mustn’t (a prohibition) and

don’t have to (no obligation). Make sure students are
aware that they have different meanings. For example,
contrast You mustn’t wear leather shoes in the gym—it’s
bad for the floor with You don’t have to wear leather
shoes in the office—some people wear sneakers.

When, as soon as, unless, until, before

Grammar notes
The important point about form to get across to students
is that English uses the present form after if, unless, and
time markers, even when talking about the future. So, If
I see Jo later, I’ll tell her NOT If I will see Jo … When I get
there, it’ll be late NOT When I will get there …
The first conditional expresses a condition which is seen as
possible. It will be contrasted with the second conditional,
used when the condition is seen as unlikely, in a later unit.
when = at that time; as soon as = immediately after;
until = up to a point in time; before = at an earlier time;
unless = if not

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 Exercises 4 Choose the correct option to complete the first
conditional sentences.
1 Correct the mistakes in these sentences. 1 If he does / will do more exercise, he gets /
doesn't have
1 She hasn’t to go to work today. he’ll get fitter.
2 If the train doesn’t / won’t arrive soon, I’m being /
2 I can to make you a sandwich.
Should I I’ll be late for work.
3 Do I should come back later? 3 You feel / You’ll feel better if you eat / you’ll eat
Does he have healthier food.
4 Has he to go to the meeting?
to
5 We aren’t allowed park here. 5 Match the beginnings of the sentences (1–6) with
must not the endings (a–f). Then complete the endings of
6 You don’t must use your phone here. the sentences with the correct form of the verbs in
2 Read the signs. Complete the sentences with the parentheses.
correct modal form. Write all the possible answers. 1 If she doesn’t leave soon, d
1 TICKETS NEEDED BEFORE ENTRY 2 They’ll have a picnic in the park next to their
You must / have to buy a ticket house f
before you enter. 3 You can’t go out b
2 TABLETS AND PHONES ALLOWED ON 4 You’ll feel sick e
THIS FLIGHT 5 Can you call me c
You don't have to turn off your tablets or 6 I think he’ll drive to the station a
phones on this flight. a if there isn't too much traffic.
3 NO PARKING (not be)
You can't / mustn't / b until you finish all your homework.
aren't allowed to park here. (finish)
4 THIS FILM IS NOT RECOMMENDED FOR c as soon as you get this message?
CHILDREN (get)
Children can't see this film. d she 'll miss her bus. (miss)
5 EXAM IN PROGRESS: BE QUIET! e if you eat all that chocolate! (eat)
You must / have to speak quietly. f unless it rains . (rain)
3 Complete the text with modal verbs and the verbs 6 Complete the conversation with the correct form
in parentheses. Use affirmative and negative forms of these verbs.
of the modal verbs.
eat exercise follow go
School lunches are very popular in the US. Most
lose not do not feel not lose
children 1 have to pay (pay) for school lunches, but
they don’t cost a lot. However, poorer families
2 don't have to pay
A: How are you?
(pay)—the school lunches are free.
B: I’m fed up! I’m trying to lose weight, but
There are strict rules about school lunches. For nothing’s working!
example, every meal 3 must include (include) A: Well, I’m sure if you 1 eat healthy
meat or fish, fruit and vegetables, and bread, food, you 2
will lose some weight. And you
potatoes or other grains. Another rule is that need to exercise, too.
school cafeterias 4 can't sell (sell) food and B: I try to eat healthily, but I never have time to
drinks with a lot of sugar and salt. exercise!
A: But you 3 won't lose weight if you
Children 5 don't have to (eat) school lunches if they 4 don't do any exercise.
don’t want to. They 6 can bring (bring) a bag
B: All right! I’ll ride on my exercise bike before I
lunch from home. There are many rules for the 5
go to bed tonight.
types of food to give children in their bag lunches.
A: No, that’s the worst time to exercise! If you
For example, children 7 have to eat (eat) fruit exercise
6
in the evening, you
every day and they 8 can't have (have) junk food 7 won't feel sleepy afterwards. And sleep is
like potato chips and candy.
also important for losing weight …
B: OK, so I’ll go for a run at lunchtime instead.
A: Great. But remember—unless you
8 follow a regular fitness program, you’ll
never lose weight.

  
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 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 6
Purpose: to, for, and so that Adverbs of manner

Grammar notes Vocabulary and grammar notes

The following forms can all be used to talk about purpose.
Infinitive of purpose: we can use to + infinitive: I locked
the door. Why? To keep burglars out.
For is used with nouns or -ing to talk about the purpose of
an object or action: I went to the supermarket. Why? For
some apples. / It’s a can opener—it’s for opening cans.
Watch out for common errors. You can’t say: I went to
the supermarket for shopping. And you can’t say for +
infinitive: I locked the door for to keep burglars out.
So that is followed by a clause and we often use it with
modal verbs: I locked the door so that no burglars could
get in.
Note that in order to + infinitive and so as to + clause are
more formal ways of expressing purpose.
Note that adverbs of manner (e.g., quickly, rapidly, slowly)
don’t go at the start of sentences. Viewpoint adverbs like
amazingly generally do go at the start of sentences. Other
words are wrong because of context—you can’t damage
something sadly or release somebody slowly.
Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective.
Note that when an adjective ends with -y it changes to -i
(for example, temporary ➞ temporarily).
incredibly = unbelievably
amazingly = very surprisingly
gradually = slowly, step by step
deliberately = on purpose (not accidentally)

Certainty and possibility

Grammar notes
Modal verbs are always followed by an infinitive without to.
We use be + -ing (a present participle) when expressing
certainty or possibility about things happening now, around
now, or as a future plan (compare present continuous).
We use have + past participle (been, done, gone, etc.)
when expressing certainty or possibility about past events
(compare present perfect forms).
Note that past participles were discussed in Unit 2 when
the students studied the present perfect form.

May, might, and could

Grammar notes
Might, may, and could have very similar meanings when
expressing possibility. You cannot usually use can to express
possibility (an error students often make). We only use
the modal can to make general statements about what’s
possible, e.g., It can be very cold in Toronto in winter.
We cannot use couldn’t when expressing improbability.
Similarly, mustn’t is not used to express impossibility. Point
out to students that modals have many meanings, and
often the past form or negative form of a modal can have
a very different use to the present or affirmative form.
Not is generally shortened to n’t in can’t and couldn’t, but
might not and mightn’t are both used, and may not (but
not mayn’t) is used.

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 Exercises 4 Read the sentences (1–4). Choose the correct
option (a–b) to explain each sentence.
1 Match the beginnings of the sentences (1–7) with
the endings (a–g). Then complete the endings of 1 John must be asleep.
the sentences with the infinitives of these words. a I’m sure John is asleep.
b It’s possible that John is asleep.
ask buy catch get give see watch 2 That can’t be my phone. Mine’s in my pocket.
a It’s impossible that it’s my phone.
1 I’ve joined a gym b b It’s possibly not my phone.
2 She’s going to the supermarket e 3 Your keys might be in your bag.
3 He bought some flowers f a Your keys are definitely in your bag.
4 I went to the station c b It’s possible that your keys are in your bag.
5 We opened the box a 4 That woman with Frank could be his wife.
6 I turned on the TV g a I’m certain that she’s Frank’s wife.
7 Emilia called d b I think it’s possible that she’s Frank’s wife.
a to see what was inside. 5 Read the pairs of sentences. Rewrite the first
b to get more exercise. sentence using a present modal verb.
c to catch my train.
d to ask me a question. 1 It’s impossible that that’s Martin’s car. His car
e to buy some food for dinner. is in the garage.
That can't be Martin's car .
f to give to his wife.
g to watch my favorite series. 2 I’m sure it’s cold outside. It’s snowing!
It must be cold outside .
2 Rewrite three of the sentences in Exercise 1 with so 3 It’s possible that they aren’t at home. Their car
that. isn’t outside their house.
They might not be home .
1 We opened the box so that we could see what was inside." 4 I’m sure you know each other very well. You’ve
2 I turned on the TV so that I could watch my favorite series. been friends for a long time.
3 I've joined a gym so that I can get more exercise. You must know each other very well .
3 Choose the correct options to complete the 6 Choose the correct options to complete the
conversation. conversation.
A: You look tired! A: Are we close to the castle ruins yet?
B: Well, I’m waking up at 5:30 a.m. these days. B: I think we 1 may go / may be going the wrong
A: Why? way. What did the guidebook say?
B: 1
To do / For doing yoga before I go to work. A: It said the ruins are near a small lake.
A: I’m not surprised you’re tired! Well, you should B: Oh—we passed a lake about five minutes ago!
go to bed early 2 for / so that a good night’s A: So, we 2 must drive / must have driven past the
sleep. road we need to take!
B: I’d like to, but I’m always too busy in the B: OK, oh, look—there’s the lake. We 3 can’t be /
evening to have an early night. For example, can’t have been far away now.
I’ve also started an online language course B: What’s the name of the road we’re looking for?
3
for improving / to improve my German! I’m A: Old Hill … Oh, hold on—it 4 might be /
always up until late studying grammar. might have been this one.
A: Maybe you’re doing too much. I have a great B: No, that’s Field Lane.
app on my phone that could help you. It’s A: Well, we’re near the lake, so the road 5 must be /
4
for organizing / to organize my day. must have been close.
B: Sounds interesting. Can you show it to me B: Look at the top of that hill. I can see something.
5
for / so that I can see how it works? I’m not sure, but it 6 might be / must be part of
A: Sure, but I don't have time now. My phone’s the ruins. Drive up that way!
just told me that I have to take the car to the B: OK. … Hmm—we 7 must go / must have gone the
garage 6 to / for a tune up. See you soon. Bye! wrong way again. That’s a gas station!
A: Maybe the guidebook is wrong! There
8
can’t have been / might have been a castle here!

  
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 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 7
Used to, would, and simple past
Grammar notes
In English we use used to + infinitive to talk about past
states and habits, and would + infinitive to talk about
past habits (but not past states). They are used as an
alternative to the simple past when we want to emphasize
that something was true in the past but is not true now.
Students at this level are likely to have come across used to
before, but the use of would for past habits may be new
to them.
Using used to and would often makes a story or text feel
nostalgic—we are looking back to a lost time.
Note that we tend not to repeat used to in a story as it
can sound clumsy. We often use it once, then change to
the simple past or would + infinitive, e.g., I used to live in
Warrington. It was a small town in those days, and a lot of
people worked in the local factory. Or: We used to get up
early. We’d have a quick breakfast, then we’d run out of
the house and into the fields.
We can only use used to + infinitive to talk about the past.
A frequent mistake is to say: I use to go to school every
day. The correct sentence in the present is: I usually go to
school every day.
Used to behaves like a regular verb, e.g., I didn’t use to live
in Paris and Did you use to live in Paris? Like any regular
verb, the verb use loses its past form when the auxiliary is
used.
Comparative adverbs
Grammar notes
Note that irregular adverbs have specialized comparative
forms (like irregular adjectives) and aren’t used with more or
less, e.g., We did better/worse than last time. However, the
standard adverb form is used with as … as when saying two
things are equal: We didn’t do as well/badly as last time.
Note the use of intensifiers: much, a lot, and far can be
used to intensify, or strengthen, the comparative, e.g., He
played far better than anyone else.
We use as … as to say that two things are of equal value:
Paul is as tall as Jim. (= They are of equal height.)
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Comparative patterns
Grammar notes
Note that in this section adjectives (getting smaller) and
adverbs (more quickly) are being compared. The repetition
of the comparative adjective or adverb or the repetition of
the words more or less emphasize the comparison.
Two related things can be compared using the the … , the
… structure. Note how it’s formed:
the harder, the better (with just the comparative)
The bigger they are, the harder they fall. (comparative
followed by a clause)
The steeper the path, the better the walk. (comparative
followed by nouns)
Stating preferences
Grammar notes
When stating general preferences, we use I prefer (I prefer
living in towns).
When stating specific preferences in one particular
situation we use I’d prefer or I’d rather (I’d prefer to walk
home this evening; I’d rather take a taxi).
Note that I’d prefer is followed by to + infinitive (I’d prefer
to walk) whereas I’d rather is followed by the base
infinitive (I’d rather stay here).
As and like
Grammar notes
As and like have a range of meanings. Here are a few:
As
1 Comparing: He’s as tall as me; She’s just as intelligent
(as me); It’s the same as mine.
2 “in the same way”: I wrote the essay as you suggested;
We followed the old road just as the merchants had
done.
3 Having a job, role, or use: I work as an electrician; He
used it as a bottle opener.
4 “when” or “while”: As we were driving home, we saw
an accident.
5 “because” (a reason): As it was late, we went home.
6 Referring to what is known: As I was saying, the hotel is
a long way from the beach.
Like
1 “similar to”: He is/looks like my uncle; It smelled like
cheese.
2 “for example” (such as): I love small animals, like rats and
mice.
3 “as if”: Adam sounded like he was upset; She finished
the race like a professional athlete.
4 Used in informal speech when pausing or drawing
attention to things (in modern American idiom): It was,
like, huge!; Like, we left early.
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 Exercises 4 Complete the sentences with the correct
comparative form of the adverbs in parentheses.
1 Complete the sentences with the correct form of Sometimes, you will need to use irregular
used to and these verbs. comparative forms.
1 Jack always wins when they race. Jack runs
do drive live love
faster than John. (fast)
not be not feel
2 Ruth is the most hardworking person in her
family. Ruth works harder than her
1 I used to live in Lima when I was young.
2 What did you used to do on brothers. (hard)
the weekends when you were a child? 3 Your motorcycle is really noisy. Your
used to love motorcycle runs less quietly than mine.
3 We going to the theater
when we lived in Argentina. (quietly)
4 There didn't used to be any houses here 4 The last flight is the Fastair flight. The Fastair
when I was young—it was all fields. flight arrives later than all the
5 I didn't used to feel worried when I had an others. (late)
exam at school. 5 Katy is a very slow worker. Sarah doesn’t work
6 We used to have a lovely house by the more slowly than Katy. (slowly)
water. 5 Complete the sentences so that they mean the
2 Circle the sentences in which used to can be same as the sentences in Exercise 4. Use (not) as …
replaced by would. as and the verbs and adverbs in parentheses.

1 I didn’t use to like classical music when I was a 1 John doesn't run as fast as Jack.
teenager, but now I love it. (run fast)
2 We used to visit Los Angeles often before we 2 Ruth’s brothers don't work as hard as her.
had children. (work hard)
3 When I was younger, I used to believe in UFOs, 3 Your motorcycle doesn't run as quietly as
but I don’t any more. mine. (run quietly)
4 Sean used to play basketball every day when 4 The other flights don't arrive as late as the
he was a teenager. Fastair flight. (arrive late)
5 Katy doesn't work as quickly as Sarah.
3 Complete the conversation with used to, would, or (work quickly)
the simple past form of the verbs in parentheses.
6 Match the statements (1–6) with the replies (a–f).
A: You’ve been to Singapore, haven’t you?
B: Yes, I 1 used to go (go) there often for 1 I could only find this birthday cake. Is it too
work when I was living in Malaysia. Are you big? b
going to visit? 2 I want to get fit, but jogging is so hard! f
A: Yeah, next month. Any recommendations? 3 There’s so much traffic on the roads
B: Well, I 2 left (leave) Malaysia these days. a
in 2012. Things might be different now. But, 4 What time should we go for lunch? c
I remember we 3 used to eat (eat) in a 5 The price of housing is so high here at the
great Italian restaurant. It was by the river. moment. d
I can’t remember the name, but they 6 Why are you taking another course? e
4 used to make (make) fantastic pizza. a I know—more and more people are driving.
A: OK, I’ll look for it. Anything else? b It’s fine—the bigger, the better!
B: Well, I remember I once 5 visited c The earlier the better—I’m already feeling
(visit) the zoo with my company. It hungry!
was excellent. I think they always d Yes, it’s getting harder and harder to find
6 used to take/took (take) visitors there. somewhere to live.
A: OK, thanks. Any other advice? e The more qualifications you have, the easier it
B: Yes—use public transportation! The subway is is to get a job.
great. I never 7 used to drive (drive) when f The more you run, the easier it’ll get.
I was there.

  
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 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 8
Verb patterns: -ing form and infinitive How long?

Grammar notes Grammar notes

We can use the -ing form (or gerund) as the subject of a
sentence, after prepositions, and after certain verbs.
We use the infinitive after certain verbs and after
adjectives.
Students simply have to learn and remember which verbs
are followed by -ing and which are followed by to +
infinitive. Note that likes and dislikes are usually followed
by -ing (hate doing, enjoy doing). Also note that there
is a tendency to use verb + infinitive when the action of
the second verb comes after the first, e.g., I hope to win, I
agreed to leave, I learned to drive.
Depending on their first language, some students may
get confused between the use of the present perfect with
How long. In many languages, the present simple is used
when referring to events spanning the past up to the
present. In English, this isn’t possible. Compare:
How long have you been here? = from a past time to now
How long are you here for? = from now to a future time
In English, if the present simple is used with How long,
it’s being used to ask about the future. For example, How
long does this movie last? I have to catch a bus in a hour.

Making offers and asking for help

Present perfect and present perfect continuous
Grammar notes
Grammar notes
Note that the guide uses will + infinitive to make offers:
You could use timelines to check the meaning of the (We’ll arrange everything; I’ll ask the hotel to send for
present perfect and present perfect continuous. Draw and a doctor).
label the following:
Note also the polite expressions used to ask for help:
has/have + past participle of the main verb (I wonder if you could help us?) and to apologize
(I’m afraid the luggage has gone to Rome.).
X? X? X?
 Past Now
He has walked across half of Africa.
The actions are completed (in the past but we don’t
say when) and the result is that the speaker has these
experiences now, in the present.
has/have + past participle of be + -ing form of the main
verb (a present participle)


?
Past Now
Recently he’s been walking again.
The activity has duration and happened in the recent
past—it may or may not be completed. The present
perfect continuous is used with repeated activities
that start in the past and continue to now (e.g., I’ve
been working here for two months), or if we don’t use
a duration marker such as “two months” it describes
repeated activities that are recent (Recently/Lately, I’ve
been going to the gym a lot).

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 Exercises 4 Write statements and questions with the present
perfect continuous form.
1 Choose the correct option to complete the 1 I / live / here / since / 2015.
sentences. Sometimes, both options are possible. I've been living here since 2015.
1 Would you like going / to go to the movies 2 She / not wait / long.
tonight? She hasn't been waiting long.
2 He’s pretending being / to be sick so that he 3 you / work / all day?
doesn’t have to go to work. Have you been working all day?
3 She’d prefer not speaking / not to speak to 4 They / swim / for / about an hour.
anyone at the moment. They've been swimming for about an hour.
4 I love to swim / swimming in the ocean at night. 5 he / play video games / all morning?
5 I hate to have / having to rush in the morning. Has he been playing video games all morning?
6 I recommend visiting / to visit the history
museum. It’s fascinating. 5 Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1 I’ve already eaten / been eating, so I don’t need
2 Complete the conversation with the correct form any dinner.
of the verbs in parentheses.
2 He’s had / been having that car for ages.
A: I’m going on vacation soon! 3 I haven’t seen / been seeing Jack for three years.
B: Oh, you’re so lucky. I’d really love 4 She’s studied / been studying all afternoon and
1 to go (go) away somewhere! Where now she needs a break.
are you going? 5 Sorry. Have you waited / been waiting for long?
A: To Spain. I’m going to spend all day 6 We haven’t known / been knowing each for long.
2 lying (lie) on the beach! What are you 7 I travel a lot. I’ve visited / been visiting ten
going to do over the summer? countries.
B: Well, I can’t afford 3 to travel (travel) very
far, but I’m hoping 4 to go (go) camping 6 Complete the conversation with the present perfect
somewhere near here. or present perfect continuous of the verbs in
A: At least you won’t have to get on a plane. parentheses. Sometimes both forms are possible.
I can’t stand 5 flying (fly)! A: You look tired. What 1 have you been doing?
B: Really? Well, when you’re on the plane, just (you / do)?
avoid 6 thinking (think) about where you B: I 2 've been searching (search) on the internet
are. Just relax and imagine 7 sitting (sit) for hours for a vacation destination. And I still
on a beach. 3 haven't found (not find) anywhere!
A: I’ll try. Well, anyway, I’m going to enjoy A: What about the usual place you go?
8
not working (not work) for a few weeks! B: Oh, I 4 haven't been (go) to that resort for
the last five years. I’m bored with it!
3 Complete the text with the correct form of these A: Well, why don’t you go on a bicycle trip?
verbs.
B: A bicycle trip?! I’m not sure …
drive eat get take use visit walk
5
Have you been (you / go) on one before?
A: Yes. I went on an organized tour around Rajasthan
If you’re interested in 1 taking a break from last year. It was the most amazing vacation
modern life, then La Posada del Inca Eco-Lodge I6 've ever had
may be the place for you. It’s on one of the most (have)!
beautiful islands on Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia. B: Really? It sounds very tiring!
2 Driving here is impossible because it is a A: It was fun! And I made new friends. We
car-free island. This means it’s great 3 to visit
7 've stayed (stay) in touch since our
if you enjoy 4 walking , especially as the trip. I 8 've already booked (already book) my
views are spectacular. It is possible 5 to eat next bike trip with the same company.
all your meals in the hotel; the food is simple but B: How long 9 has it been doing (it / do) these
delicious. The rooms don’t have fridges, TVs, or tours?
Wi-Fi, but they do have hot water and heating. It A: Oh, for a long time. They’re very good. You
is difficult 6 to get an internet connection on should come with me! You’d love it!
the island, so if you really need 7 to use the B: Well, yes, but I 10 haven't had (not have)
internet, you’ll have to climb up to the restaurants much time to exercise recently.
near the top of the hill. A: That’s OK. I’m going in six months. You can
start riding your bike tomorrow!

  
Grammar Summary 171

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 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 9
Passives Several, a little, lots of

Grammar notes Grammar notes

The passive voice in English is formed by conjugating the
verb be into its present, past, or future form and adding
the past participle of the main verb. It can be used with
modals (should be done, has to be done) and there is an
infinitive form (to be done).
The passive is used to show interest in the person or
thing that experiences an action rather than the person
or thing that performs the action. In other words, the
most important thing or person becomes the subject of
the sentence. Consequently, the passive is used when the
subject is unknown or unimportant (e.g., Warwick Castle
was built in the twelfth century—who built it is of no
importance to the speaker), and in formal or academic
texts (e.g., Meaning is conveyed in few words—here, we
are interested in “meaning,” not who or what conveys
it). If we want to introduce who or what performs the
action of the verb, we use the agent with by (e.g., The
supermarket was opened by the mayor.)
several = a number of (but not many)
a little = a small amount of
lots of = an informal way of saying a lot of
Pronouns
Grammar note
Note the use of they and them to refer to “the company.”
You can use a plural pronoun when the singular noun
does not specify an individual person.
Similarly, English speakers use plural pronouns instead
of he/she when the sex of a person is not known or not
relevant, e.g., The average English teacher is very hard-
working. They genuinely care about their students’
progress.

Grammar notes (p. 113, Exercise 3b)

A/an and the
Grammar notes
When we first mention new information we use a (or an
if the noun begins with a vowel). When mentioning the
same thing again, we use the, e.g., An old lady booked
into a hotel. The old lady stayed in the hotel for the next
thirty years.
We use the when there is only one of the thing we are
mentioning, e.g., the sun, the environment.
1 They (subject pronoun) refers to “the colors of the rug.”
2 Them (object pronoun) refers to “the glasses.”
3 She (subject pronoun) refers to “my daughter.”
It (object pronoun) refers to “this game.”
4 Them (object pronoun) refers to “this seller“ (note
that although “seller“ is singular, you can use a plural
pronoun when the singular noun does not specify an
individual person).

A/an, the, and zero article

Grammar notes (p. 109, Exercise 8)

1 mention something for the first time
2 talking about something in general
3 talking about something in general
4 mention something for the first time
5 p
 rices = talking about something in general;
an item = mention something for the first time
6 r eceipts = because we are talking about something in
general;
the amount = mention something which is known
7 talking about things in general
8 b
 ooks = about something in general;
the library = mention something which is known
(but we could also write a library if we don’t know
which one)

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 Exercises 4 Complete the text with the, a(n), or – (zero article).
1 A cash machine in 2 - New York
1 Are the sentences correct? If not, correct any had to be turned off because it was giving out too
mistakes with the passive.
much money. 3 The machine, in one of
1 My new book can found online or in ✓ 4 the busiest subway stations, was giving
bookstores. been 5 - ten-dollar bills instead of
2 The hole in the roof still hasn’t be repaired! 6 - five-dollar bills. As soon as 7 -
3 Your order was been sent to you ten days ago. people realized what was happening, 8 a
4 The show is watched from millions of people line developed. Within thirty minutes, news of
all over the world.was by what was happening appeared on 9 the
5 Our friends’ food being brought to the table internet, and even more people arrived. But not
when we arrived. long after, 10 an employee from the bank
came to turn it off.
2 Choose the correct options to complete the text.
5 Complete the second sentences with these
Great meal at Rexo! quantifiers so that they mean the same as the first
This new Mexican restaurant 1 has mentioned / sentences.
has been mentioned quite a lot on the radio recently,
so I decided to try it. I love Mexican food anyway! a couple of a little plenty of
We arrived at around 8 p.m. It was really busy, but several too much
we 2 gave / were given a table after just five minutes.
While our table 3 was prepared / was being prepared, 1 There’s more traffic than we want in this town.
we 4 looked / were looked at the menu. There’s a There’s too much traffic in this town.
great selection, and the prices are good. 2 There are one or two good stores on this street.
After 5 we’d ordered / we’d been ordered, our There are a couple of good stores in
food 6 was brought / brought quickly. Everything was this street.
delicious. We only had one complaint. We’d asked for 3 I have some money left, but not very much.
some tap water. But when we paid, we saw that $2 I have a little money left.
7
had added / had been added for the water. 4 We won’t be late—we have more time than we
This didn’t seem fair—tap water is free in all the need.
other restaurants in town! But overall, I’m sure Rexo We won’t be late—we have plenty of
will be a success and their delicious food will 8 enjoy / time.
be enjoyed by everyone! 5 Four or five new restaurants have opened near
my apartment.
3 Rewrite the information in the passive. Don’t Several restaurants have opened
include the agents in parentheses. near my apartment.

1 (The supermarket) has just delivered the 6 Choose the correct options to complete the
shopping. conversation.
The shopping has just been delivered .
A: OK, we’ve spent 1 a lot of / much money now.
2 (The technician) is fixing my computer.
Let’s go home.
My computer is being fixed .
B: Not yet. I still need to get 2 a couple of / lots of
3 Will (you) invite Sonia to the party?
things—just a new dress and some shoes.
Will Sonia be invited to the party?
A: Really? You already have 3 many / plenty of
4 (We) didn’t finish the work.
pairs of shoes at home—more than you need, in
The work wasn't finished .
my opinion.
5 (You) can’t use cell phones here.
B: Yes, but I 4 don’t have any / have not any shoes
Cell phones can't be used here.
that match my new coat!
6 (The manager) had called the police.
A: I see. Well, 5 how much / how many time do you
The police had been called .
need? I’m getting hungry. I only had 6 a little / a
7 Do (you) accept credit cards?
couple of breakfast.
Are credit cards accepted ?
B: I won’t be long—I promise. Why don’t you go
8 (People) don’t use the new shopping center.
isn't used to the café over there? Then I can have 7 a little /
The new shopping center .
little time to myself.
A: All right. I’ll see you in 8 a few / few minutes.

  
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 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 10
Second conditional Expressions for giving advice

Grammar notes Grammar note

Note that some of these expressions used for giving advice
The second conditional form is If + simple past, would +
are followed by the base form (If I were you, I’d … ; You
base form, OR would + base form + if + simple past.
should … ; You’d better … ; Why don’t you …), some
Note that we can also use other modal verbs (could, are followed by the infinitive (It’s probably best …), and
might) instead of would. Note also that in the examples in others are followed by -ing (It might be worth … ; Have
the box, could and couldn’t are used to talk about ability you tried …).
(they could be changed to weren’t able to and would be
able to). That’s why could(n’t) can be used in both the
result clause and the if clause. Might is used to mean it’s Linking ideas
possible that (the word could can also have this meaning).
Grammar notes (p. 125, Exercise 4a)
We use both the first and second conditional to hypothesize
about the present or future. If the speaker sees the The words in rows 1 and 2 in the table can also be used at
condition as possible, he or she uses the first conditional, the start of a sentence—in this case, they are followed by
e.g., If I win the marathon, I’ll celebrate for weeks. (The a comma.
speaker is a marathon runner and sees winning as a real The expressions in rows 3, 4, and 5 are usually used at the
possibility.) If the speaker sees the condition as impossible start of sentences.
or unlikely, he or she uses the second conditional, e.g., If
1 clearly, naturally, of course, obviously = as most would
I won a marathon, I’d eat my hat. (The speaker is not a
expect or understand
marathon runner and sees winning as highly unlikely.)
2 in fact, to be honest, actually = used for emphasizing
Often, the second conditional form is used to hypothesize
what is really true or what really happened
about something that is completely impossible:
3 B
 efore I forget, Incidentally, By the way = used to add
If I were you, I’d study more.
relevant but less important information
If I could fly, I’d go somewhere warm.
4 Anyway, Well, So = used to change the subject or return
to a subject
Second conditional form 5 A
 ll the same; Even so; However; The thing is = used for
introducing a fact that seems surprising after what was
Grammar notes said previously
It’s correct to use were in all persons when expressing the
second conditional (If I were you, … If Joe were here … ,
If there were life on other planets, … , etc.). However, it’s
also common among native speakers to use was instead.
The best option for students is to learn that both was
and were are correct with the first and second person in
second conditional sentences.

Defining relative clauses

Grammar notes
A defining relative clause gives essential information
about something (as opposed to a non-defining relative
clause, which gives additional information).
Relative pronouns replace the subject or object of a
relative clause. We use who (with people), which (with
things), whose (with possessions), where (with places), or
when (with time).
With defining relative clauses (but not non-defining
relative clauses), it’s possible to replace who or which with
that, especially in spoken English.
The relative pronoun can be omitted if it replaces the
object of a relative clause, e.g., I enjoyed the movie I saw.

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 Exercises
1 Match the beginnings of the sentences (1–8) with
the endings (a–h).
1 If I were you, d
2 People wouldn’t feel so stressed e
3 If my sister didn’t buy so many things, b
4 Which sport would you do c
5 If Paul didn’t drink so much coffee, f
6 If my parents lived closer, a
7 I wouldn’t have to use public transportation h
8 If space travel were cheaper, g
a I could visit them more often.
b she’d have more money.
c if you had more free time?
d I’d find another apartment.
e if they didn’t work so much.
f he might sleep better at night.
g would more people try it?
h if I had a car.
2 Choose the correct form to complete the sentences.
1 If you were / would be a millionaire, what would /
did you buy first?
2 People would feel / felt happier here if it were /
would be sunnier.
3 If we lived / would live in the countryside, we’ll /
we’d be able to see the stars at night.
4 If I hadn’t / didn’t have so much work to do,
I’d go / I went to bed earlier.
5 I can / could buy a new car if I’d save / I saved
more money.
6 My dad would have / had more friends if he’d be /
he was friendlier.
7 Would / Did you take a job for less money if it
was / would be closer to home?
8 If I lived / I’d lived closer to my job, I could / can
walk there.
3 Complete the sentences to make second
conditionals.
1 I don’t exercise, so I’m not very fit.
If I exercised more, I 'd be fitter.
2 She doesn’t have his number, so she can’t call
him.
had
If she his number, she
could call him.
3 You’re tired because you don’t get enough
sleep.
got
You wouldn't be tired if you
enough sleep.
4 He doesn’t study, so he won’t pass his exams.
studied
If he , he 'd pass his exams.
5 I’m sick, so I can’t go to work.
If I weren't sick sick, I 'd go to work.
4 Circle the correct relative pronoun or pronouns. Then
cross out the relative pronoun(s) that can be omitted.
1 Is that the athlete what / who won the gold
medal?
2 Those are the books that/ who I borrowed from
the library.
3 This is the website that / who has a lot of good
recipes.
4 My boss doesn’t like the report that/ who I
wrote for him.
5 I’ve just seen someone that / who I know.
5 Complete the sentences with a relative clause.
1 This is a hotel. Leo is staying here.
This is the hotel where Leo is staying .
2 The doctor has already seen those people.
Those are the people
(who/that) the doctor has already seen .
3 This man is Will. His wife likes running
ultramarathons.
Will is the man whose wife likes running
ultramarathons .
4 The first woman won a gold medal at the
Olympic Games in 1900.
1900 was the year in which the first woman won
a gold medal at the Olympic Games .
5 I got a lovely present from my sister. This is it.
This is the lovely present (that) I got from my sister .
6 Complete the text with the phrases (a–f) and a
relative pronoun or adverb if necessary.
a she grew up
b she was attacked
c story has inspired people
d was based on her life story
e lost her arm
f was living in a hotel nearby
Bethany Hamilton is an American professional
surfer 1 who lost her arm in a shark
attack at the age of just sixteen and
2 whose story has inspired people
all around
the world. On October 31, 2003, Bethany was
surfing at a local beach in Hawaii when she was
attacked. She lost sixty percent of her blood on
the way to hospital, but luckily she was saved
by the medical team there, including one doctor
3 who was living in a hotel nearby
. The attack was
terrible, but Bethany was surfing again within a
month, and in 2005, less then two years after the
day 4 she was attacked , she won
her first national surfing competition. Bethany
became well known around the world when a
film 5 based on her life story came out.
Bethany is now married and has a child. Her
wedding was by the ocean on an island in Hawaii
6 where she grew up .

  
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 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 11
Reported speech Reporting verbs

Grammar notes Grammar notes

The basic rule for reported speech is that the verb in direct
speech “backshifts,” or moves one tense back, (so present
to past, past to past perfect, can to could, will to would,
etc.), e.g.,
“I live in Brazil.”
He said that he lived in Brazil.
If the speaker uses past perfect or modals such as could,
would, and might in direct speech, the same forms are
used in reported speech.
Students also need to note that pronouns change, and
words like this, these, and here sometimes change to that,
those, and there, and time markers often change, e.g.,
“I am playing tennis here this morning.”
She said she was playing tennis there that morning.
We use reporting verbs to report a request (ask), an order
or instruction (tell), an invitation (invite), an offer, or to
remind someone to do something.
The form is: verb + object (noun or pronoun) + (not) to +
infinitive
Promise and offer have different forms. They do not
include the object after the verb, e.g., I promised to
download the photos (for her); I offered to carry the bag
(for her). The form is: verb + (not) + infinitive.

Reported speech (backshift)

Grammar notes
In reported speech, we use backshift sometimes, but not
always. Here are some guidelines:
1 If a situation is still true, backshift is not used. So, if,
two minutes ago, your friend Tom said, “I feel tired,”
you would report it as: Tom said he feels tired (because
he probably still does). If Tom said “I feel tired” a while
ago, or if it’s clearly no longer true, you would report
it with backshift, i.e., During the trip, Tom said he felt
tired. / Tom said he felt tired a few minutes ago, but he
seems fine now.
2 For general truths, backshift is optional: The expert said
that the Awá are / were an indigenous people (both
sentences are possible).
3 Sometimes backshift is optional because it depends
on what the speaker wants to say. Compare Tom said
he lives in a big house (because it’s still true) with
Tom said he lived in a big house (it’s still true but the
speaker’s more interested in the fact that he’s reporting
something said earlier).

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 Exercises 4 Complete the sentences with these reporting verbs.

1 Choose the correct option to complete the reported asked invited offered
speech sentences. reminded said told

1 “I love the hotel.” 1 “I can lend you some money.”

He said he loved / he’d loved the hotel. She offered to lend me some
2 “We arrived late.” money.
They said they were arriving / they’d arrived late. 2 “Would you like to go to the theater?”
3 “You might not enjoy the film.” He invited me to go to the theater.
She said I might not enjoy / 3 “Do you need some help?”
might not have enjoyed the movie. She asked if I needed some help.
4 “We’re leaving soon.” 4 “Don’t forget to call me later.”
They said they were leaving / left soon. I reminded him to call me later.
5 “I can’t come.” 5 “It’s a good movie.”
He said he couldn’t come / can’t came. He said that it was a good
2 Put the words in order to make reported questions. movie.
There is one extra word that you don’t need. 6 “I don’t want to stay.”
I told her that I didn’t want to
1 Jo asked (had / seen / if / the movie / been / I) stay.
She asked if I had seen the movie .
2 Barbara asked (did / lived / I / where) 5 Choose the correct option to complete the
She asked where I lived . sentences. Both options are possible in one
3 Tina asked me (Luke / if / was / had / to / I / sentence.
spoken) 1 He asked me to help / I help to fix his car.
She asked me if I had spoken to Luke . 2 They reminded us to / that we bring our
4 Enzo asked (leaving / why / were / being / we) dictionaries.
He asked why we were leaving . 3 I wondered what to cause / was causing the
5 Jaime asked (was / where / hungry / I / if) delay.
He asked if I was hungry . 4 He realized to leave / that he’d left his bag at
3 Complete the story with the reported speech form home.
of the direct speech. 5 We invited to go / them to go on vacation with us.
6 She promised to call / that she’d call right away.
I was on the train last week when I saw my old boss.
I said “Hi.” He asked 1 if he knew 6 The direct speech in these sentences is spoken to
me . I told him that 2 we had worked you. Complete the reported speech. Use the simple
together , but that we 3 hadn't seen each past form of the reporting verbs in parentheses.
other for years. He said that 4 he 1 “Don’t leave your bag there.” (tell)
remembered and asked me 5 how I She told me not to leave my bag there.
was . I said 6 I was fine , 2 “Did I forget my passport?” (wonder)
but that 7 I was looking for a job . He I wondered if I had forgotten my passport.
asked me 8 if I would like an interview 3 “I’ll never lie to you again.” (promise)
that day . I said that 9 I She promised to never lie to me again.
couldn't , but that 10 I'd be free 4 “Oh, dear. We’ve left the map at home.”
the next day . In the end, he gave me a job! (realize)
1 “Do I know you?” They realized they had left the map at home.
2 “We worked together.” 5 “Can you give me your email address?” (ask)
3 “We haven’t seen each other for years.” He asked me to give him my email address.
4 “I remember.” 6 “Would you like me to carry your bag?” (offer)
5 “How are you?” He offered to carry my bag.
6 “I 'm fine.” 7 “Don’t forget to close all the windows.”
7 “I’m looking for a job.” (remind)
8 “Would you like an interview today?” She reminded me to close all the
9 “I can’t.” windows.
10 “I’ll be free tomorrow.” 8 “Maria will love the present.” (know)
I knew Maria would love the present.

  
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 GRAMMAR SUMMARY UNIT 12
Third conditional Pronouns

Grammar notes Grammar notes

The third conditional refers to improbable or impossible
situations in the past and their hypothetical results.
Concept check questions are a clear way of showing and
checking the meaning and use of third conditional forms.
To check further, write the following example on the
board, label the form, and ask questions, e.g.,
If the explorers had worn sealskin, they wouldn’t have
suffered frostbite.
If + had + past participle, wouldn’t + have + past participle
Did they wear sealskin? (no)
Did they suffer frostbite? (yes)
English uses pronouns to avoid repeating nouns in a text.
This includes subject pronouns (they, it), object pronouns
(them), and possessive pronouns (their).
One is used as a pronoun to replace a singular countable
noun.
This and that are used as demonstrative pronouns when
referring to something that has just been mentioned.
The same is a pronoun that means the identical thing.

Should have and could have

Grammar notes
We use could (or might or may) + have + past participle to
speculate about the past. We use it to say that a past event
was possible but didn’t happen.
We use should + have + past participle to express past
regrets (I should have worked harder) or to criticize the
past actions of others (You should have worked harder).
We use would + have + past participle to talk about
hypothetical actions that did not happen. So, We would
have brought more water (but we didn’t); I would have
asked what was in the drink (but I didn’t).

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 Exercises 4 Complete the sentences with should have or
shouldn’t have and these phrases. Use the correct
1 Read the sentences (1–4). Choose the correct form of the verb.
option (a–b) to explain each sentence.
park more carefully invite so many people
1 If you’d called me, I would have helped you. check it more carefully stay up so late last night
a You didn’t call me. have a bigger breakfast tell us earlier
b I helped you.
2 If I hadn’t been so rude, we wouldn’t have had 1 Your report was full of mistakes.
an argument. You should have checked it more carefully .
a We didn’t have an argument. 2 Our house is a mess after the party.
b I was rude. We shouldn't have invited so many people .
3 I wouldn’t have gone to Scotland if you hadn’t 3 John just called to say he can’t come.
recommended it. He should have told us earlier .
a I went to Scotland 4 I was already hungry at 11 a.m.
b You didn’t recommend Scotland. I should have had a bigger breakfast .
4 You wouldn’t have been so cold if you’d 5 We all feel exhausted this morning.
brought a warm coat. We shouldn't have stayed up so late last night .
a You brought a warm coat. 6 I got a parking ticket last week.
b You were cold. I should have parked more carefully .
2 Match the beginnings of the sentences (1–6) with 5 Complete the sentences with could have or
the endings (a–f). Then complete the main clauses couldn’t have and the correct form of the verb in
with would have or wouldn’t have. parentheses.
1 If I’d had my umbrella with me, d 1 Why didn’t you wear a helmet when you went
2 If you hadn’t bought that expensive new car, a skiing? You could have hurt (hurt) yourself.
3 If I’d known how boring this job was, e 2 It’s normally very hot at this time of year. We
4 If you’d been more careful, b couldn't have known (know) it would be so cold.
5 If they hadn’t booked such a cheap hotel, c 3 I think he could have won (win) the race,
6 If we hadn’t forgotten to bring the map, f but he hadn’t trained hard enough.
a we would have been able to afford a 4 Thanks for all your help organizing the trip.
vacation. I couldn't have done (done) it without you.
b you wouldn't have broken the window.
c they would have had a better vacation.
6 Complete the conversation with could have, couldn’t
have, should have, or shouldn’t have and the correct
d I wouldn't have got wet.
form of the verbs in parentheses.
e I wouldn't have come to work here.
f we wouldn't have got lost. A: Did you read about the woman who survived in
the wild for a week after her car broke down?
3 Complete the sentences to make third conditionals. B: Yes, I saw that. She was twenty kilometers from
Use contractions where possible. the nearest town. And she walked into the forest
1 We didn’t pay attention and we got lost. to find help and then got lost. I think it was a
If we had paid attention, mistake to leave the car. She 1 should have stayed
we wouldn't have got lost. (stay) there. They 2 could have found (find) her
2 We didn’t take more water because we didn’t more quickly that way.
know how hot it was. A: I agree. And I think she 3 shouldn't have left
If we 'd known how hot it was, (leave) home without telling her friends and
we would have taken more water. relatives where she was going. The article says
3 My phone didn’t work, so I couldn’t call for nobody knew where she was!
help. B: OK, but she 4 couldn't have known (know) her
If my phone had worked, car would break down.
I could have called for help. A: I always tell someone if I’m going on a long
4 I went to Kenya. I met my husband there. trip. She 5 should have told (tell) at least one
If I hadn't gone to Kenya, person—that’s obvious.
I wouldn't have met my husband. B: OK. But even then, it 6 could have taken
(take) a long time to find her. She was really in
the middle of nowhere.
A: That’s true.

  
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