let's trap an electron in a box and

00:10
let's make the box one-dimensional so
00:12
really it's just a line the electron is
00:15
trapped traveling along a line and let's
00:18
make it of length capital L the electron
00:21
cannot escape from this box also it's a
00:24
closed system so energy cannot enter or
00:27
leave the box
00:29
now remember electrons have an
00:32
Associated wavelength that's the de
00:34
Broglie hypothesis actually that about
00:36
the Birla hypothesis has that all matter
00:38
has an Associated wavelength but the
00:41
electron does as well even if it's
00:42
trapped in a box so in a way we can
00:46
think of the electron as acting
00:49
sometimes like a wave inside of a length
00:53
L and it cannot lose energy it cannot
00:59
gain energy it doesn't transmit any
01:01
energy so this is sounding pretty
01:02
familiar a wave stuck within a length L
01:07
that does not transmit energy hey that
01:09
sounds a lot like a standing wave though
01:13
let's go back to standing waves remember
01:16
if you have a standing wave and it's in
01:18
a tube that's closed at both ends which
01:21
is very similar to our electron in a box
01:23
right
01:24
it has wavelengths equal to 2l over N if
01:28
L is the length of the tube and n is
01:32
equal to 1 2 3 all the integers that are
01:35
nonzero and positive so the electron is
01:39
very very similar to this model of the
01:41
standing wave so for an electron it
01:43
should be the same the wavelengths that
01:44
are only wavelengths should equal to L
01:46
over N so we can put that into the braga
01:50
Lee's equation we can solve for the
01:53
momentum of the electron if it's inside
01:56
of this box momentum is equal to H over
02:00
lambda we'll replace lambda with 2l over
02:03
N so we get that the momentum equals n H
02:06
over 2l where n is equal to 1 2 3 and so
02:10
on and so on there you go
02:13
those are the momenta that are allowed
02:16
for the electron that's trapped in a box
02:18
if an electron is trapped in a box of
02:20
length L those are the only possible
02:23
values for the momentum now we can go
02:26
one step further and think about the
02:28
energy well the kinetic energy of an
02:31
object is equal to its momentum squared
02:33
divided by twice its mass so if we put
02:36
in our expression for the momentum of an
02:40
electron trapped in a box we can get an
02:42
expression for the energy the energy of
02:47
an electron trapped in a box is equal to
02:50
N squared H squared over 8 m l squared
02:53
those are the energies allowed for an
02:56
electron in a box now that's crazy
02:59
take a step back that means that an
03:02
electron in a box cannot just have any
03:05
old energy it can only have the energies
03:08
given by that equation e equals n
03:12
squared H squared over 8 ml squared the
03:14
allowed energies for an electron in a
03:17
box are discrete they are not continuous
03:22
that's important let me repeat myself if
03:25
we treat an electron as having wave-like
03:28
behavior if it's trapped in a box the
03:32
energies for that electron are not
03:34
continuous it cannot have any old energy
03:36
the energies are discrete now let's
03:40
shift gears for a moment let's think
03:42
about atoms under certain conditions
03:45
elements can emit and absorb only
03:48
certain wavelengths or our frequencies
03:50
will think about wavelengths at the
03:52
moment so for example if we have
03:55
hydrogen and it's emitting light under
03:57
these special conditions it can only
03:59
emit visible light at 410 nanometers 434
04:04
nanometers those correspond to purplish
04:06
bluish colors 486 nanometers which is a
04:10
cyan color and 656 nanometers which is a
04:13
red color so if hydrogen is emitting
04:16
light then it will only emit visible
04:19
light at four wavelengths it cannot emit
04:24
light and it does not emit light at
04:26
other wave
04:27
now if we have white light that passes
04:30
through hydrogen gas then if we are on
04:34
the other side of that hydrogen gas we
04:36
will see that only certain wavelengths
04:39
have been absorbed by the hydrogen gas
04:41
and those wavelengths are the same as
04:43
the ones that it emitted previously it
04:45
will only absorb 410 nanometers 434 and
04:49
nano meters 486 nanometers and 7 656
04:52
nanometers and Palmer this guy realized
04:57
that the allowed wavelengths are given
05:00
by an equation or a formula called the
05:03
Palmer formula 1 over lambda equals R a
05:05
constant times 1 over 4 minus 1 over N
05:09
squared no one understood why this
05:12
formula worked but it did so only
05:17
certain wavelengths of light are emitted
05:20
and absorbed by hydrogen now wavelengths
05:24
remember different wavelengths of light
05:25
correspond to different energy photons
05:27
so that means that only certain energy
05:30
photons are emitted or absorbed by
05:33
hydrogen and that means that atoms have
05:37
certain discrete allowed energies
05:40
associated with them that's starting to
05:42
sound familiar atoms do not have
05:44
continuous energies associated with them
05:47
they have certain discrete allowed
05:50
energies trapping that electron in the
05:53
box is starting to sound a little less
05:55
crazy now this all leads us to the
05:57
Schrodinger model so debroglie told us
06:01
that electrons are associated with a
06:03
wavelength the de Broglie wavelength
06:05
Schrodinger said that the wave that's
06:09
associated with the piece of matter like
06:12
the electron that wave is the wave
06:14
function which is represented by the
06:16
letter s' I Greek letter looks like a
06:18
trident that's melted a bit on the side
06:21
he also had an equation to tell us what
06:25
that wave function is I'll write it down
06:28
it's called the Schrodinger equation and
06:29
it has a lot of symbols that you may not
06:31
understand yet that's okay I'm just
06:34
writing it down so that you see it the
06:36
meaning of the wave function if you
06:38
solve for it
06:40
the wave function the absolute value
06:43
squared tells you the probability of
06:46
finding the electron at a given location
06:49
so if you solve for the wave function
06:52
take the absolute value and square it
06:55
that'll tell you the probability of
06:57
finding the electron or whatever piece
06:59
of matter you have at a given location
07:01
so it's important to note that the
07:04
Schrodinger model only tells us the
07:06
probability of finding an electron at a
07:08
given location it does not tell us
07:11
exactly where the electron is located
07:13
that's a little odd that's a shift from
07:16
everything we've seen since Newton well
07:19
before Newton really before we used to
07:22
solve for the location of an electron
07:24
put a kinematic equation or whatever
07:26
there and you'd solve for where an
07:28
electron is in the Schrodinger model you
07:32
cannot do that all you can do is solve
07:35
for the wave function and the wave
07:36
function tells you the probability of
07:39
finding an electron at a given location
07:41
quite a shift now let's take this wave
07:45
function and let's apply it to an atom
07:49
an electron in an atom I'm gonna do this
07:52
in only a very basic way but let's think
07:54
about that electron as a wave function
07:58
and let's think about it as a standing
08:01
wave now if it's in an atom it's not
08:05
going to be along a line it's gonna be
08:09
in more of an orbit when we think about
08:11
electrons in the Bohr model there in
08:13
these rings so what I'm gonna do is I'm
08:15
gonna take this standing wave that's on
08:18
a straight line and I'm going to imagine
08:21
bending it going to imagine bending it
08:24
around until the horizontal line is now
08:30
a circle and that standing wave then
08:34
fits into that circle this is roughly
08:38
the idea of the electrons wavefunction
08:42
fitting into these allowed orbitals of
08:45
electrons in the atom this is a
08:49
simplified model in reality the actual
08:53
way
08:53
function the wave that represents the
08:56
electron when it's in these allowed
08:58
orbitals is three-dimensional and it's a
09:01
little tough to picture a
09:02
three-dimensional wave we're not going
09:06
to try to draw it I'm not going to try
09:07
to draw it you may but we can come up
09:11
with simulations and we can definitely
09:13
come up with equations that describe the
09:17
wave function now these equations are
09:20
complicated and they're a little beyond
09:21
the scope of what I'm going to talk
09:23
about today but if you get that wave
09:25
function you can find the corresponding
09:29
wave lengths and energies for that wave
09:33
function and it turns out that for an
09:36
electron in a hydrogen atom the
09:38
corresponding energies that are allowed
09:40
are e that's the energy is equal to
09:43
negative thirteen point six electron
09:46
volts divided by N squared where n is
09:49
equal to 1 2 3 4 5 6 and so on so for
09:55
the electrons in a hydrogen atom there
09:58
are only certain allowed energies that
10:02
should sound familiar that sounds a lot
10:03
like our electron in a box electrons and
10:07
orbitals can only have certain energies
10:10
this also explains the emission and
10:13
absorption spectra that we saw for an
10:16
emission spectrum imagine that an
10:18
electron leaps from an energy
10:21
corresponding to N equals 6 down to an
10:24
energy corresponding to N equals 2 then
10:28
it will emit a photon of the energy
10:32
that's equal to that difference the
10:34
difference in the energy levels so only
10:36
a very specific energy photon will be
10:38
emitted which means that only a very
10:40
specific frequency photon will be
10:43
emitted and that's just like what we saw
10:46
every line in the emission spectrum
10:49
corresponds to a specific leap between
10:52
two energy to allowed energy levels in
10:55
the hydrogen atom and the absorption
10:58
spectrum is just the reverse of that it
11:00
corresponds to a leap between two
11:03
allowed energy levels but in the
11:05
opposite direction
11:06
because in that case the photon is being
11:09
absorbed so we started out by accepting
11:12
the de Broglie hypothesis we then said
11:15
that the wave associated with the
11:18
electron is described by the wave
11:20
function which you can get using the
11:22
Schrodinger equation and of the wave
11:24
function if we take the absolute value
11:26
of it and square it it tells us the
11:28
probability of finding the electron at
11:30
any given location and if we apply the
11:33
idea of this wave function to an
11:35
electron in a hydrogen atom we can
11:37
derive the energies that are allowed for
11:41
the electron in these orbitals of the
11:43
hydrogen atom and these energies allow
11:46
us to explain why the hydrogen spectrum
11:51
looks like it does and that is a huge
11:54
huge success of the Schrodinger model
11:59
now we're going to shift gears and talk
12:01
about the Heisenberg uncertainty
12:02
principle eisenberg uncertainty
12:05
principle states that one cannot exactly
12:08
measure simultaneously the position and
12:10
momentum of an object with total
12:13
precision mathematically we would write
12:17
this as the uncertainty in X position
12:20
multiplied by the uncertainty in P the
12:22
momentum must be greater than or equal
12:24
to H over 4pi so if we take the
12:28
uncertainty in the position and multiply
12:29
it by the uncertainty in the momentum it
12:31
must always be greater than H over 4pi
12:34
now that's not because we're terrible at
12:36
measuring things and we have bad
12:38
methodology when it comes to measuring
12:40
position and momentum that's not a
12:42
statement of this what this is a
12:44
statement of is that it's built into the
12:47
physics we cannot measure the position
12:53
and the momentum with total precision
12:55
there is a limit to the product of the
12:58
uncertainty in the momentum and the
12:59
position so if we do our very best
13:02
measurement of an object then the
13:06
uncertainty in the momentum times the
13:08
uncertainty in the position will equal
13:10
4-h over 4pi so what that means is that
13:15
there's a trade-off here you may get a
13:18
very precise measurement
13:20
of the position which means that Delta X
13:22
is very very small but if Delta X is
13:26
very very small then that implies that
13:29
Delta P must be very very large that
13:32
means you have a very imprecise
13:34
measurement of the momentum or
13:36
vice-versa if Delta P the uncertainty in
13:40
the momentum measurement is very very
13:41
small then the uncertainty in the
13:43
position measurement will be quite large
13:46
that is built into the physics that is a
13:49
result that Heisenberg found based on
13:52
previous results we're not going to
13:54
derive this but this is a result of
13:56
quantum mechanics also the Heisenberg
14:01
uncertainty principle can be stated as a
14:03
relationship between uncertainty and
14:05
energy and uncertainty in time the
14:07
uncertainty in the energy multiplied by
14:09
the uncertainty in the time must also be
14:11
greater than H over 4pi and again it's
14:15
not because you happen to be bad at
14:18
measuring energy and time this
14:20
uncertainty principle is built into the
14:23
physics and if it seems odd you're right
14:27
it's a very strange fact and people have
14:30
debated this and discussed the meaning
14:32
of this since it was found but since it
14:36
was found it has been shown to be true
14:38
in experiment after experiment
英语 (自动生成)