Physical Effects Modelling

PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS
Physical Effects Modelling
PTS 16.71.05
June 2017
© 2017 PETROLIAM NASIONAL BERHAD (PETRONAS)

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form
or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the permission of the copyright
owner. PETRONAS Technical Standards are Company’s internal standards and meant for authorized users only.
PTS 16.71.05
PHYSICAL EFFECTS MODELLING June 2017
Page 2 of 31
FOREWORD
PETRONAS Technical Standards (PTS) has been developed based on the accumulated knowledge,
experience and best practices of the PETRONAS group supplementing National and International
standards where appropriate. The key objective of PTS is to ensure standard technical practice
across the PETRONAS group.
Compliance to PTS is compulsory for PETRONAS-operated facilities and Joint Ventures (JVs) where
PETRONAS has more than fifty percent (50%) shareholding and/or operational control, and includes
all phases of work activities.
Contractors/manufacturers/suppliers who use PTS are solely responsible in ensuring the quality of
work, goods and services meet the required design and engineering standards. In the case where
specific requirements are not covered in the PTS, it is the responsibility of the
Contractors/manufacturers/suppliers to propose other proven or internationally established
standards or practices of the same level of quality and integrity as reflected in the PTS.
In issuing and making the PTS available, PETRONAS is not making any warranty on the accuracy or
completeness of the information contained in PTS. The Contractors/manufacturers/suppliers shall
ensure accuracy and completeness of the PTS used for the intended design and engineering
requirement and shall inform the Owner for any conflicting requirement with other international
codes and technical standards before start of any work.
PETRONAS is the sole copyright holder of PTS. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, recording
or otherwise) or be disclosed by users to any company or person whomsoever, without the prior
written consent of PETRONAS.
The PTS shall be used exclusively for the authorised purpose. The users shall arrange for PTS to be
kept in safe custody and shall ensure its secrecy is maintained and provide satisfactory information
to PETRONAS that this requirement is met.
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Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 4
1.1 SCOPE ............................................................................................................................ 4
1.2 GLOSSARY OF TERM ...................................................................................................... 4
1.3 SUMMARY OF CHANGES ............................................................................................... 7
2.0 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS .................................................................................... 8
2.1 PURPOSE ....................................................................................................................... 8
3.0 APPLICATION OF PHYSICAL EFFECTS ...................................................................... 9
3.1 TYPE OF PHYSICAL EFFECTS MODELLING ...................................................................... 9
4.0 INPUT DATA REQUIRED FOR PHYSICAL EFFECT MODELLING ............................... 12
4.1 METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS ................................................................................ 12
4.2 SURFACE ROUGHNESS ................................................................................................ 13
4.3 RELEASE HEIGHT/ ELEVATION AND DIRECTION .......................................................... 14
4.4 HOLE SIZE/ LEAK SIZE .................................................................................................. 14
4.5 INVENTORY OF RELEASE ............................................................................................. 14
4.6 CHOKED FLOW ............................................................................................................ 14
4.7 AVERAGING TIME FOR DISPERSION ............................................................................ 14
5.0 IMPACT CRITERIA ............................................................................................... 15
5.1 IMPACT OF THERMAL RADIATION .............................................................................. 15
5.2 IMPACT OF EXPLOSION ............................................................................................... 15
5.3 IMPACT OF TOXIC RELEASE ......................................................................................... 15
5.4 IMPACT OF SMOKE AND GAS INGRESS ....................................................................... 16
6.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................... 17
APPENDIX 1 EVENT TREE FOR RELEASE OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE ............................ 18
APPENDIX 2 MODELLING RELEASE ............................................................................... 19
APPENDIX 3 PASQUILL-GIFFORD GAUSSIAN MODEL..................................................... 20
APPENDIX 4 TNO OVERPRESSURE AND DISTANCE CALCULATION ................................. 23
APPENDIX 5 BST- LAGRANGIAN FLAME SPEED ............................................................. 24
APPENDIX 6 CHOKED FLOW CALCULATION .................................................................. 25
APPENDIX 7 THERMAL RADIATION CRITERIA ............................................................... 26
APPENDIX 8 EXPLOSION IMPACT CRITERIA .................................................................. 29
APPENDIX 9 SMOKE IMPACT CRITERIA......................................................................... 31
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This PTS provides the minimum technical requirements for performing Physical Effects
Modelling (PEM), also known as Consequence Modelling. PEM provides credible quantitative
estimates of effects of loss of containment (LOC) scenarios.
This PTS also incorporates PETRONAS lesson learnt and best practices.
1.1 SCOPE
1.1.1 This PTS applies to all technical safety studies for new and existing upstream and downstream
facilities, including modifications.
1.1.2 This PTS specifies the conditions and limitations regarding the application of physical effects
or consequence models for a credible representation of a release of hazardous materials.
1.2 GLOSSARY OF TERM
1.2.1 General Definition of Terms & Abbreviations
Refer to PTS 00.01.03 PTS Requirements, General Definition Of Terms, Abbreviations &
Reading Guide.
1.2.2 Specific Definition of Terms
No Term Definition
1 Acute Exposure Guideline It is defined by the US Environmental

Levels (AEGLs) Protection Agency (EPA) as the
representation of the threshold exposure
limits for the general population including
infants, children and vulnerable people and
are applicable to emergency exposure
periods ranging from 10 minutes to 8 hours.
2 Blast overpressure A high energy impulse noise from a damaging

outcome of explosive detonations.
3 Boil Over Event occurs when the residues from surface

burning become denser than the unburned
oil and sink below the surface to form a hot
layer, which progresses downward faster
than the regression of the liquid surface due
to burning. When this hot layer reaches
water or water-in-oil emulsion in the base of
the tank, the water is first superheated and
then boils, almost explosively, overflowing
the tank.
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No Term Definition
4 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Fire event which can occur when a vessel
Explosion (BLEVE) containing a pressurized liquid is ruptured
due to impingement of fire on the skin of the
vessel.
5 Choked Flow A flow limiting condition which occurs when

the mass flow rate will not increase with a
further decrease in the downstream pressure
environment while upstream pressure is
fixed.
6 Deflagration A flame front that moves forward through a

gas mixture below the speed of sound.
7 Detonation A flame front that moves forward through a

gas mixture above the speed of sound. The
result is a more devastating effect compared
to a deflagration.
8 Emergency Response Planning ERPGs levels provided by the American

Guidelines (ERPGs) Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA). ERPG
values are only available for a 60 minutes
exposure duration and it is not designed as
guidelines for sensitive individuals.
9 Flash fire Fire event which caused by the delayed ignition

of a well-mixed flammable gas/ vapour cloud
in the absence of significant confinement or
congestion.
10 Froth Over Event occurs when water applied to the fire

as foam solution boils and turns into steam.
The minor frothing occurs when water is
sprayed on the hot surface of the burning oil.
11 Heat radiation The energy radiated by solids, liquids, and

gases as a result of their temperature.
12 Immediately Dangerous to Life IDLH is defined by Occupational Safety and

or Health (IDLH) Health Administration (OSHA) as an
atmospheric concentration of any toxic,
corrosive or asphyxiate substance that poses
an immediate threat to life or can cause
irreversible or delayed health effects.
13 Jet Fire Fire event which caused by the intense

burning jet of hydrocarbon gas or spray of
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No Term Definition
atomized hydrocarbon liquid released from
high pressure equipment.
14 Pool Fire Fire event which caused by the burning pool

of accumulated hydrocarbon liquid.
15 Slop Over Event occurs when overflowing of a tank

that is not on fire when the water (or
volatile hydrocarbon) boils under the surface
of the hot oil.
16 Temporary Emergency TEELs estimate the concentrations at which

Exposure Limits (TEELs) most people will begin to experience health
effects if they are exposed to a hazardous
airborne chemical for a 60 minutes exposure
duration.
17 Vapour Cloud Explosion (VCE) Explosion event c aused by the delayed

ignition of a well-mixed flammable gas /
vapour cloud when there is confinement and
/ or congestion present
Table 1.1: Specific Definition of Terms
1.2.3 Specific Abbreviations
No Abbreviation Description
1 AEGLs Acute Exposure Guideline Levels
2 AICHE American Institute of Chemical Engineers
3 BLEVE Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion
4 BST Baker-Strehlow-Tang
5 CCPS Center of Chemical Process Safety
6 CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
7 CMPT The Centre of Marine and Petroleum

Technology
8 DAL Dimensioning Accidental Load
9 DDT Deflagration to Detonation Transition

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No Abbreviation Description
10 EPA United States Environmental Protection

Agency
11 ERPGs Emergency Response Planning Guidelines
12 IDLH Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health
13 IP Institute of Petroleum
14 LFL Lower Flammability Limit
15 LOC Loss of Containment
16 OGP The International Association of Oil and Gas
17 PEM Physical Effects Modelling
18 PHAST Process Hazard Analysis Software Tool
19 TDU Thermal Radiation Dose Unit
20 TEELs Temporary Emergency Exposure Limits
21 TNO The Netherland Organization for Applied

Scientific Research
22 UFL Upper Flammability Limit
23 UKOOA United Kingdom Offshore Operators

Association
24 VCE Vapor Cloud Explosion

Table 1.2: Specific Abbreviations
1.3 SUMMARY OF CHANGES
This PTS 16.71.05 (June 2017) replaces PTS 16.71.05 (July 2014).
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2.0 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
2.1 PURPOSE
The main purpose of using physical modelling is to determine numerical values or graphical
representations of credible physical outcomes of loss of containment scenarios involving
flammable, explosive and toxic materials with respect to their potential impact on people,
environment, assets, or safety functions. This will form the basis of selecting risk reducing
measures for establishment or improvement of a safe facility. The outcomes of interest are
derived by the Event Tree in Appendix 1.
2.1.1 Results from the modelling will be used as input to QRA, Fire Risk Analysis, Blast Studies, Flare
Radiation Studies and other safety studies which are required to meet these objectives of
HEMP:
i. The hazards and the associated risks inherent in the design, operations and
decommissioning are systematically identified and assessed.
ii. Arrangements are in place to manage these risks to ALARP.

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3.0 APPLICATION OF PHYSICAL EFFECTS
3.1 TYPE OF PHYSICAL EFFECTS MODELLING
For the applications of Physical Effects Models, guidelines provided in Appendix IV of the
document A Guideline for Quantitative Risk Assessment for Offshore Installations by
CMPT will be the reference for simulating the effects of a hazardous materials release,
and shall cover:
i. Release model
ii. Dispersion model
iii. Fire and Explosion model
3.1.1 RELEASE MODEL
Due consideration shall be made for modelling the release based on the decrease in flow rate
proportional to the initial release rate and inversely proportional to the mass of gas in the
equipment. This is to ensure that the release rate is not overestimated while
underestimating the release duration. Additional information is provided in Appendix 2.
3.1.2 DISPERSION MODEL
The spread of gas resulting from a leak should be based on the Pasquill-Gifford Gaussian
model as shown in Appendix 3.
3.1.3 FIRE AND EXPLOSION MODEL
Fire modelling is to be used to determine heat flux levels resulting from a fire on an
installation.
Fire modelling shall consider four type of fires;
i. Flash fire
ii. Jet fire
iii. Pool fire
iv. Fireball
3.1.3.1 Flash fire
Consequence of a flash fire is minimal overpressure effects with no further escalation to

nearby facilities. The dimensions of a flash fire shall be calculated as the distance between
LFL to UFL.
3.1.3.2 Jet fire
For a jet fire, the three Cone models shall be used for the below conditions:
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i. For a 2 phase or liquid release where the angle from horizontal ranges from -90
to 90 degree, the Cook et. al. model shall be used.
ii. For an inclined or vertical flame where the angle from horizontal ranges from -90
to 90 degree, the Chamberlain model shall be used.
iii. For a horizontal flame where the angle from horizontal is 0 degree, the Johnson
model shall be used.
The API 521 jet fire model is applicable for vertical or horizontal release and is used only for
modelling unpressurized release with no choked flow such as flares. The CMPT document
provides the explanation for the more representative approximation of jet fires by the Cone
model.
3.1.3.3 Pool Fire
The model shall be a tilted cylinder with the tilt angle measured from the vertical. In the
presence of a bund, the pool size shall be limited by size of the bund. In the absence of a
bund, the pool size shall be constrained by the minimum thickness set by the type of surface
on which the pool is spreading.
For pool on water, the maximum burn rate should be increased by a factor of 2.5 to account
for heat transfer between water and burning materials.
3.1.3.4 BLEVE and/or Fireball
The flammable mass should be determined as the total released mass if the mass vapour
fraction is more than 1/3. If the mass vapour fraction is less than 1/3, the flammable mass
should be 3 times of the released vapour mass.
The consequences should be determined using the TNO model of the fireball being lifted off
the ground. Guidance in the TNO ‘Yellow Book’ can be used to calculate the radius, lift off
height and fireball duration. The surface emissive power should be calculated using the
Roberts (HSE) method.
3.1.3.5 Vapour Cloud Explosion (VCE)
Four features should be present in order for a VCE to occur:
i. The release material must be flammable.
ii. A minimum of 900 kg flammable cloud must form prior to ignition, with ignition
delays of from 1 to 5 min considered the most probable for generating vapour
cloud explosions.
iii. A sufficient amount of the cloud must be within the flammable range (between
UFL and LFL).
iv. Sufficient confinement or turbulent mixing of a portion of the vapour cloud must
be present.
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Two methods shall be used for VCE are:
i. TNO Multi-Energy Method
TNO method assumes that VCE is composed of a number of sub-explosions taking

place inside specific areas of the cloud, corresponding to the various sources of
blast that exist in the cloud. Confined and unconfined areas within the cloud are
modelled separately and the variations of overpressure with distance from them
are obtained and summed to give the total overpressures within and outside the
cloud. The distance and overpressure calculation can be referred to Appendix 4.
ii. Baker-Strehlow-Tang (BST) Method
BST method allows for the characterization of overpressure and impulse as a

function of distance but uses the flame speed as the point of departure. The flame
speed can be specified by user or calculated by software as shown in Appendix 5.
For complex models and advanced simulations, software (e.g. Computational Fluid
Dynamics, etc.) is available and can be used with approval by the Technical Authority.
3.1.3.6 Smoke And Gas Ingress
Smoke is generated by any burning of hydrocarbon and is most significant when produced
by burning of liquids.
These methods should be used during the smoke and gas ingress analysis:
i. Smoke and gas generation.
Jet fire smoke generation is calculated based on the airflow and fuel flow. Pool
fire smoke generation is based on the pool fire diameter and the air flow rate.
For most hydrocarbon fuels, the stoichiometric ratio is 15 kg of air per kg of fuel.
Thus, in well ventilated fires with sufficient air for complete combustion, the
smoke production rate is 16 times the fuel burning rate.
ii. Smoke and gas dispersion.
The spread of smoke and gas should be based on the Pasquill-Gifford Gaussian
model as shown in Appendix 3.
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4.0 INPUT DATA REQUIRED FOR PHYSICAL EFFECT MODELLING
The following factors should be taken into account:
i. Process parameters and release environment:

a) Containment pressure, temperature, composition, LFL, UFL, flash point.
b) Ignition sources
c) Meteorological conditions
d) Surface Roughness
e) Release Height/ Elevation and Direction
f) Hole Size/ Leak Size
g) Inventory of release
h) Choked flow
i) Averaging time for dispersion
ii. Escalation mitigation measures in place which affect the release inventory and
limit its consequences:
a) Inventory isolation based on Emergency Shut Down system
b) Inventory resultant from system blowdown and depressurisation
c) Inventory reduction from drainage and bunding
4.1 METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Modelling should be conducted for representative meteorological conditions specific to the

facility location. It should be defined in terms of ambient temperature, humidity, wind
speed, wind direction and Pasquill stability category as it will affect the dispersion
characteristic and subsequently, the consequences. Solar radiation shall be specified and
considered as additional heat flux when performing fire modelling.
Pasquill stability describes the amount of turbulence in the atmosphere and depends on
the wind speed, day or night time and other conditions as shown in Table 4.1 below.
Surface Day: Solar Radiation Night : Cloud Cover

wind
speed
m/s Strong Moderate Slight Thin Moderate Overcast
<40% >80%
<2 A A-B B E F D
2-3 A-B B C E F D
3-5 B B-C C D E D
5-6 C C-D D D D D
>6 C D D C D D
Table 4.1: Meteorological conditions defining Pasquill stability classes
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Where;
Stability Condition Description

Class
A very unstable Very unstable – sunny, light winds
B Unstable Unstable – as with A/B only less sunny or more windy
C slightly Moderately unstable – very windy/ sunny or overcast/
unstable light wind
D Neutral Neutral – little sun and high wind or overcast/ windy
night
E Stable Moderately stable – less overcast and less windy night
than D
F Very stable Stable - Night with moderate clouds and light/
moderate wind
Table 4.2: Stability classes description
4.2 SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Surface roughness should be specified to describe the roughness at the upwind condition,
which is subject to surrounding conditions within 2km radius. Surface roughness effects the
degree of friction exerted between the ground surface and the atmospheric flow. The greater
the surface roughness then the larger the degree of mixing and the shorter the distance
required for achieving a given ground level concentration. The following surface roughness
values from CCPS should be used.
Terrain Terrain Description Surface

Classification Roughness, m
Highly Urban Centres of cities with tall buildings, very hilly, or 3-10
mountainous area
Urban Area Centres of towns, villages, fairly level wooded 1-3
country
Residential Area with dense but low buildings, wooded area, 1
Area industrial site without large obstacles
Large Distillation columns and other tall equipment 1
Refineries items
Small Refineries Smaller equipment, over a smaller area 0.5
Cultivated Open area with great overgrowth, scattered 0.3
Land houses
Flat Land Few trees, long grass, fairly level grass plains 0.1
Open Water Large expanses of water, desert flats 0.001
Sea Calm open sea, snow covered flat, rolling land 0.0001
Table 4.3: Surface Roughness
For offshore facilities, a surface roughness of 0.001 is typically selected.

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4.3 RELEASE HEIGHT/ ELEVATION AND DIRECTION
The release height shall be set at 1 meter as a minimum. The height to be adjusted in
accordance with the release location i.e. flange at column overhead, flare tip etc.
4.4 HOLE SIZE/ LEAK SIZE
The hole size/ leak size shall be based on actual size of the source of release e.g. flare tip
diameter, vent size and standard leak size for flanges, valves etc. PTS 16.71.04 Quantitative
Risk Assessment (QRA) provides details on selection of leak sizes.
4.5 INVENTORY OF RELEASE
The equipment inventory will determine the release duration. It should be specified based
on the isolatable volume after isolation. For gases or two phase release, this should include
vessels and piping inventory. For liquid releases, this should include liquid lines and vessels
hold up inventory.
4.6 CHOKED FLOW
In modelling a release, the resultant release flowrate from the source shall not exceed
choked flow condition to avoid over estimating of the consequences. The flow calculation is
shown in Appendix 6.
4.7 AVERAGING TIME FOR DISPERSION
The averaging time shall be specified to take into account that there are small fluctuations in
the atmospheric conditions causing the centreline of the cloud to offset from the downwind
axis over time. The following averaging time tav shall be used:
i. For flammables gas dispersion: tav = 18.75 sec
ii. For toxics gas dispersion: tav = 600 sec

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5.0 IMPACT CRITERIA
Impact criteria shall be specified based on the required safety levels e.g. thermal radiation,
toxic concentration and blast overpressure. This will determine the design requirement for a
facility based on the consequences to people or assets. The impact criteria comprise of:
i. Impact of thermal radiation
ii. Impact of explosion
iii. Impact of toxic release
5.1 IMPACT OF THERMAL RADIATION
The impact depends on the exposure time, type of fire event which occurs, and whether
they are engulfed in the fire event itself (i.e. flames) or exposed to hazardous levels of
thermal radiation or located with a building that is exposed to the fire and thermal radiation.
The thermal radiation criteria for damage and impairment should be specified as in Appendix
7.
5.2 IMPACT OF EXPLOSION
Explosions generate overpressure and drag forces that in turn result in damage to buildings
and structures, and generate missiles, fragments of damaged structures, window glass
shards or loose objects. The effects of overpressure on humans are categorised as follows:
i. Tertiary effects: Fatality / injury as a result of the body (especially the head) being
thrown by the explosion drag and impacting on stationary objects or structures
(whole body displacement or translation).
ii. Secondary effects: Fatality / injury as a result of fragments (e.g. glass) or debris
produced by the overpressure impacting on the body or from collapsing buildings.
iii. Direct or primary effects: Fatality / injury to the body as a result of the pressure
change causing lung and ear damage which may lead to fatality.
The impact criteria to people and asset due to explosion effect should be specified as in
Appendix 8 and PTS 11.14.03 Blast Resistant Building Design.
5.3 IMPACT OF TOXIC RELEASE
When determining the impact of exposure to toxic release, the hierarchy provided by the
Protective Action Criteria should be used when several values for the same chemicals are
available which are in this order:
For public exposure guidelines:
i. Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs)
ii. Emergency Response Planning Guidelines (ERPGs)

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iii. Temporary Emergency Exposure Limits (TEELs)
For worker exposure:
i. Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH)
ii. Threshold Limit Values (TLV) i.e. TWA, STEL (Short Term Exposure Limit) and
Ceiling Limit
5.4 IMPACT OF SMOKE AND GAS INGRESS
The main impacts of smoke are the presence of narcotic gases, principally Carbon Monoxide,
Hydrogen Cyanide, Carbon Dioxide, and the asphyxiating effects of an Oxygen-depleting
atmosphere due to the combustion process.
The impact criteria to people due to smoke effect should be specified as in Appendix 9.
The impact criteria due to gas ingress at concentrations below the level at which they become
an asphyxiant or toxic is specified in Section 5.3.
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6.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
In this PTS, reference is made to the following Standards/Publications. Unless specifically

designated by date, the latest edition of each Standards/Publications shall be used, together
with any supplements/revisions thereto:
PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

Index to PTS PTS 00.01.01
PTS Requirements, General Definition of Terms, PTS 00.01.03
Abbreviations & Reading Guide
Blast Resistant Building Design PTS 11.14.03
Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) PTS 16.71.04
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
A Guide to Quantitative Risk Assessment for Offshore CMPT

Installations
PUBLICATIONS
Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis CCPS, AICHE
Guidelines for Vapor Cloud Explosion, Pressure Vessel Burst, CCPS, AICHE
BLEVE and Flash Fire Hazards
‘Yellow Book’ Methods for the Calculation of Physical Effects TNO, CPR 14E
– due to releases of hazardous materials (liquid and gases)
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APPENDIX 1 EVENT TREE FOR RELEASE OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE
Figure 1: Physical effects following a release of hazardous substance.

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APPENDIX 2 MODELLING RELEASE
The initial liquid leak release rate for incompressible flow is:
𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴√2𝜌𝐿 [(𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝑎 ) + 𝜌𝐿 𝑔ℎ]
Where the components are described below:
Symbol Description Value or Unit

Qo Initial release rate kg/s
𝐶𝐷 Discharge coefficient, typically 0.61 for -
liquid
A Hole area m2
𝜌𝐿 Liquid density kg/m3
𝑃𝑜 Initial pressure of gas N/m2
𝑃𝑎 Atmospheric pressure, 101325 N/m2 N/m2
𝑔 Acceleration due to gravity m/s2
ℎ height of liquid surface above hole m
In pressurized equipment the liquid head h is generally negligible. For subsea releases, the
liquid head is balanced by the head of sea water, and remains negligible in most cases.
Once a leaking section has been isolated, its pressure and corresponding release rate will
start to reduce.
An approximation of the release rate reduction for gas release can be given by this
equation:
−𝑄0
𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ 𝑡]
𝑚𝐺

𝑄 Release rate reduction kg/s
𝑚𝐺 Mass of gas kg
t Release rate reduction time second
For liquid release with significant gas content, the release rate is driven by the flashing gas
and can be approximated by:
−𝑥𝑔 𝑄0
𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ 𝑡]
𝑚𝑔

𝑄 Instantaneous release rate kg/s
𝑥𝑔 Flash fraction -
𝑚𝑔 Mass of gaseous component kg
t Time second
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APPENDIX 3 PASQUILL-GIFFORD GAUSSIAN MODEL
Q -𝑦 2 −(𝑧 − 𝐻)2 −(𝑧 + 𝐻)2

C𝑥𝑦𝑧 = exp ( 2 ) [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )]
2𝜋𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 u 2𝜎𝑦 2𝜎𝑧2 2𝜎𝑧2

C Time average concentration kg/m 3
Q Mass discharge kg/s
u Wind velocity m/s
𝜎𝑦 Diffusion coefficient sideways m
𝜎𝑧 Diffusion coefficient vertical m
H Height of source m
𝑥 Downwind distance m
𝑦 Crosswind distance m
𝑧 Vertical distance m
Where:
𝜎𝑦 = 1000 𝑋 tan(𝑇) ∕ 2.15
𝜎𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑋 𝑏
𝑇 = 𝑐 − 𝑑 ln(𝑥)

𝑋 Downwind distance km
𝑥 Downwind distance m
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 Coefficient -
𝜎𝑦 and 𝜎𝑧 are shown graphically in Figure 2 and Figure 3 below.

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𝜎𝑦 plotted against downwind distance for different stabilities

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𝜎𝑧 plotted against downwind distance for different stabilities

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APPENDIX 4 TNO OVERPRESSURE AND DISTANCE CALCULATION
𝐸 = 𝑉[𝛥𝐻𝐶 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑋]
E Energy of explosion MJ
ΔΗc Heat of combustion of gas MJ/kg
V Volume of the cloud m3
𝜌 Density of combustible gas kg/m3
X Stoichiometry of the reaction -
combustible gas to air
−1
′
𝐸 3
𝑟 = 𝑥( )
𝑃𝑎

r’ Sach’s scaled distance -
x Distance from the center of explosion m
Pa Ambient pressure MPa
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APPENDIX 5 BST- LAGRANGIAN FLAME SPEED
Flame Fuel Reactivity Obstacle Density

Expansion High Medium Low
1D High 5.2 5.2 5.2
Medium 2.265 1.765 1.029
Low 2.265 1.029 0.294
2D High DDT* DDT* 0.588
Medium 1.6 0.662 0.47
Low 0.662 0.471 0.079
2.5D High DDT* DDT* 0.47
Medium 1.0 0.55 0.29
Low 0.5 0.35 0.053
3D High DDT DDT 0.36
Medium 0.5 0.44 0.11
Low 0.34 0.23 0.026
Flame Speed
*DDT: Deflagration to Detonation Transition. The flame speed tables do not suggest a
numeric value for flame speed for simulating a DDT. The detonation curve (for flame speed
= 5.2) is assumed to be applicable for all DDTs.
PTS 16.71.05
Page 25 of 31
APPENDIX 6 CHOKED FLOW CALCULATION
In identifying flow critical pressure, calculation below can be used:

𝛾−1
2 𝛾
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑎 [ ]
𝛾+1

𝑃𝑐 Critical pressure N/m2
𝑃𝑎 Atmospheric pressure, 101325 N/m2 N/m2
𝛾 Ratio of specific heat (1.306 for methane) -
The initial gas release rate for a leak of gas from high-pressure equipment is given by:
𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑃𝑜 𝑍

𝑄𝑜 Initial release rate kg/s
𝐶𝐷 Discharge coefficient, typically 0.85 for gas -
𝐴 Hole area m2
𝑃𝑜 initial pressure of gas N/m2
𝑍 Square root term as below -
𝛾+1
𝑀𝛾 2 𝛾−1
𝑍=√ [ ]
𝑅𝑇𝑜 𝛾 + 1

𝑀 Molecular weight of gas (typically 20g/mol) g/mol
𝛾 Ratio of specific heat (1.306 for methane) -
𝑅 Universal gas constant = 8314 J/kg mol K J/kg mol K
𝑇𝑜 Initial temperature of gas K
PTS 16.71.05
Page 26 of 31
APPENDIX 7 THERMAL RADIATION CRITERIA
For jet fire pool fire, and fireballs, it shall use the following thermal radiation criteria:
Thermal Radiation Type of Damage

2
Intensity (kW/m )
35 Immediate fatality to all personnel local to the fire (escape
is not possible) i.e. 100% fatality
12.5 Extreme pain within 20 seconds, movement to shelter is
instinctive; fatality if escape is not possible. 70% fatality
for outdoors / offshore
6 Impairment of escape routes
4 Impairment of TEMPSC embarkation areas
Thermal Radiation Exposure to Human
The effect of thermal radiation on material are:
Damage Level 1 (Radiation Damage Level 2 (Radiation

Type of Damage 2
Intensity, kW/m ) Intensity, kW/m2)
Steel 100 25
Wood 15 2
Synthetic Materials 15 2
Glass 4 -
Thermal Radiation on Material
Where:
Damage Level 2: Surfaces of exposed experience serious decoloration as well as

peeling and structural elements undergo substantial deformation.
Damage Level 1: Surfaces of exposed materials catch fire and structural elements collapse or
rupture.
The effect of thermal radiation on structure are:
Radiation Intensity Limit Description

2
(kW/m )
37.5 Intensity at which damage is caused to process equipment
25.0 Intensity at which nonpiloted ignition of wood occurs
12.5 Intensity at which piloted ignition of wood occurs
Thermal Radiation on Structure
PTS 16.71.05
Page 27 of 31
The time to failure (exposure time) of structure from thermal radiation are:
Times to Failure (minutes)

Component
Jet Fire Flame Pool Fire Flame 37.5 kW/m2
Steel Plate 1 3 20
Steel Beam 1 2 No failure
Steel Pipe 5 10 No failure
Jacket Leg 15 30 No failure
The time to failure (exposure time) of firewalls from thermal radiation on firewalls:
Times to Failure
Wall Rating
Jet Fire Flame Pool Fire Flame
Stability and Insulation Stability and Insulation
H = Hydrocarbon
Integrity Duration Integrity Duration
A/B = Cellulosic
Duration Duration
H120 60 60 120 120
H60 60 30 120 60
H0 60 Not suitable 120 Not suitable
A60 Not suitable Not suitable 60 60
B15 Not suitable Not suitable 30 15
B0 Not suitable Not suitable 30 Not suitable
Where:
Insulation Duration is time for the temperature to rise to 140oC on cold face for
maintaining insulation performance.
In the event of fire, the maximum allowable heat radiation flux levels are:
Maximum
Target Radiation Flux
Levels kW/m2
Equipment inside boundary
The outer surface of adjacent pressure storage vessels:(1)
Protected (2) 44
Unprotected (3) 8
The outer surface of adjacent storage tanks containing flammable
products (including refrigerated storage) and
process facilities: (1) (4)
Protected (2) 32
Unprotected (3) 8
PTS 16.71.05
Page 28 of 31
Maximum
Target Radiation Flux
Levels kW/m2
Equipment inside boundary
The above-ground connections, including PRVs, of mounded LPG
8
storage vessels
Filling/discharge points 8
Control room, maintenance workshops, laboratories, warehouses,
etc. 8
Administrative buildings 5
Equipment outside boundary
Remote area(5) 13
Urban area(6) 5
Critical area(7) 1.5
Radiation Flux Limits For Above-ground LPG Pressure Storage Vessels
NOTE(S): 1 When siting pressure storage vessels relative to refrigerated product tanks, the radiation flux level on the
pressure vessel shell shall be limited to 8 kW/m2.
2 Such facilities/areas are protected by means of water sprays, insulation, radiation screens or similar systems.
3 Protection is provided by spacing alone.
4 Special consideration shall be given to the location of floating roof tanks containing volatile products, since
effective water cooling of their roof structure is impracticable.
5 An area only infrequently occupied by small numbers of persons, e.g. moorland, farmland, desert, but where
immediate escape should be possible. Plant designs based on radiation flux levels of 13 kW/m2 shall allow for
possible future changes in land use outside the plant.
6 An area which is neither a remote area nor a critical area.
7 This is either an unshielded area of critical importance where personnel not equipped with protective clothing
may be required at all times, including during emergencies, or a place difficult or dangerous to evacuate at short
notice (e.g. plant entrance, hospital, sports stadium).
PTS 16.71.05
Page 29 of 31
APPENDIX 8 EXPLOSION IMPACT CRITERIA
The explosion impact criteria on structure are as following:

Pressure (barg) Damage Produced by Blast
20.68 Limit of crater lip
0.69 Probable total destruction of buildings; heavy machine tool (7000
lb)moved and badly damaged, very heavy machine tools (12,000 lb)
survived
0.55 Loaded train boxcars completely demolished
0.48-0.55 Brick panels, 8-12 in thick, not reinforced, fail by shearing or flexure
0.48 Loaded train wagons overturned
0.34-0.48 Nearly complete destruction of houses
0.34 Wooden utility poles snapped; tall hydraulic press (40,000 lb) in
building slightly damaged
0.28 Cladding of light industrial buildings ruptured
Significance Overpressure Level 3

0.21-0.28 Framless; self-framing steel panel building demolished; rupture of oil
storage tanks
0.21 Heavy machines (3000 lb) in industrial building suffered little damage;
steel frame building distorted and pulled away from foundations
0.17 50% destruction of brickwork of houses
0.16 Lower limit of serious structural damage
0.14-0.21 Concrete or cinder block walls, not reinforced, shattered
0.14 Partial collapse of walls and roofs of houses
0.09 Steel frame of clad building slightly distorted
0.07-0.14 Corrugated asbestos shattered; corrugated steel or aluminium panels,
fastenings fail, followed by buckling; wood panels (standard housing)
fastening fail, panels blown
0.07 Partial demolition of houses, made uninhabitable

0.048 Minor damage to house structures
0.034-0.069 Large and small windows usually shaltered; occasional damage to
window frames
0.028 Limited minor structural damage
0.021 ‘Safe distance’ (probability 0.95 no serious damage beyond this value);
projectile limits; some damage to house ceilings; 10% window glass
broken
0.010 Typical pressure for glass breakage
0.007 Breakage of small windows under strain
0.0028 Loud noise (143dB), sonic bloom glass failure
0.0021 Occasional breaking or large glass windows already under strain
0.0014 Annoying noise (137 dB if of low frequency 10-15 Hz)
PTS 16.71.05
Page 30 of 31
The explosion impact criteria on human are as following:

Pressure (bar) Effects to Human Lethality
0.2 – 0.3 100% lethality for personnel in the module where the explosion occurs
If the 100% lethality in adjacent modules
intervening
partition (wall
or deck) is
destroyed by
the explosion
Explosion Impact on Human (Offshore)
Pressure (bar) Effects to Human Lethality

Outdoors and Outdoors but Adjacent to Indoor
Open area Buildings or In Unprotected
Structures (i.e. process units)
0.35 15% lethality 30% lethality -
0.5 50% lethality 100% lethality -
Depending on - Lethality level
the relationship depends on the
of building building type as well
construction as the overpressure
types and
overpressure.
Explosion Impact on Human (Onshore)
PTS 16.71.05
Page 31 of 31
APPENDIX 9 SMOKE IMPACT CRITERIA
The effects of smoke on breathability shall use the following criteria:
Effect Combustion Gas Concentration (%)

Well-Ventilated Fire Under-Ventilated Fire (inside)
(Outside)
Gas Fire Liquid Fire Gas Fire Liquid Fire
Impairment after 30 3.6 1.9 0.05 0.05

minutes
Incapacitation after 1 81 80 43 40
minute
Effects of Smoke on Breathability
Where:
Well-Ventilated Fire = Toxic effects from confined fire where there is sufficient air for
complete combustion with the smoke production rate is 16 times the fuel burning rate.
Under-Ventilated Fire = Toxic effects from confined fire where there is insufficient air for
complete combustion.
The effects of smoke on visibility shall use the following criteria:
Material Combustion Gas Concentration (%) for

1m Visibility 10m Visibility
Gas 14 0.7
Condensate 2 0.1
Oil 1 0.05
Effects of Smoke on Visibility
Where:
1m visibility corresponds roughly to an optical density of about 1m-1 for unilluminated objects
Insulation Duration is time for the temperature to rise to 140oC on cold face for maintaining
insulation performance.

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PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

Physical Effects Modelling

© 2017 PETROLIAM NASIONAL BERHAD (PETRONAS)

1.2 GLOSSARY OF TERM

1.2.1 General Definition of Terms & Abbreviations

1.2.2 Specific Definition of Terms

1 Acute Exposure Guideline It is defined by the US Environmental

2 Blast overpressure A high energy impulse noise from a damaging

3 Boil Over Event occurs when the residues from surface

5 Choked Flow A flow limiting condition which occurs when

6 Deflagration A flame front that moves forward through a

7 Detonation A flame front that moves forward through a

8 Emergency Response Planning ERPGs levels provided by the American

9 Flash fire Fire event which caused by the delayed ignition

10 Froth Over Event occurs when water applied to the fire

11 Heat radiation The energy radiated by solids, liquids, and

12 Immediately Dangerous to Life IDLH is defined by Occupational Safety and

13 Jet Fire Fire event which caused by the intense

14 Pool Fire Fire event which caused by the burning pool

15 Slop Over Event occurs when overflowing of a tank

16 Temporary Emergency TEELs estimate the concentrations at which

17 Vapour Cloud Explosion (VCE) Explosion event c aused by the delayed

1.2.3 Specific Abbreviations

1 AEGLs Acute Exposure Guideline Levels

2 AICHE American Institute of Chemical Engineers

3 BLEVE Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion

5 CCPS Center of Chemical Process Safety

6 CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics

7 CMPT The Centre of Marine and Petroleum

8 DAL Dimensioning Accidental Load

9 DDT Deflagration to Detonation Transition

10 EPA United States Environmental Protection

11 ERPGs Emergency Response Planning Guidelines

12 IDLH Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health

14 LFL Lower Flammability Limit

15 LOC Loss of Containment

16 OGP The International Association of Oil and Gas

17 PEM Physical Effects Modelling

18 PHAST Process Hazard Analysis Software Tool

19 TDU Thermal Radiation Dose Unit

20 TEELs Temporary Emergency Exposure Limits

21 TNO The Netherland Organization for Applied

22 UFL Upper Flammability Limit

23 UKOOA United Kingdom Offshore Operators

24 VCE Vapor Cloud Explosion

1.3 SUMMARY OF CHANGES

2.0 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

ii. Arrangements are in place to manage these risks to ALARP.

3.0 APPLICATION OF PHYSICAL EFFECTS

3.1 TYPE OF PHYSICAL EFFECTS MODELLING

ii. Dispersion model

iii. Fire and Explosion model

3.1.1 RELEASE MODEL

3.1.2 DISPERSION MODEL

3.1.3 FIRE AND EXPLOSION MODEL

Fire modelling shall consider four type of fires;

ii. Jet fire

iii. Pool fire

3.1.3.1 Flash fire

Consequence of a flash fire is minimal overpressure effects with no further escalation to

3.1.3.2 Jet fire

3.1.3.3 Pool Fire

3.1.3.4 BLEVE and/or Fireball

3.1.3.5 Vapour Cloud Explosion (VCE)