TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 1 of 26

Strategies for success in education: Time management is more important for part-time

than full-time community college students

Carolyn MacCann

The University of Sydney, Australia

Gerard J. Fogarty

University of Southern Queensland, Australia

Richard D. Roberts

Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ

Author Notes: The project represents an ongoing collaboration between staff at the Center for
Academic and Workplace Readiness and Success at the Educational Testing Service (ETS),
Princeton, New Jersey, USA, the School of Psychology at the University of Sydney, Sydney,
Australia, and the School of Psychology, University of Southern Queensland, Queensland,
Australia. We would like to acknowledge the helpful suggestions of the editors and a number of
reviewers at ETS. All statements expressed in this article are the author’s and do not reflect the
official opinions or policies of any of the authors host affiliations. Correspondence concerning
this article should be addressed to Carolyn MacCann (Email: carolyn.maccann@sydney.edu.au;
Phone: +61-2-9351-4236; Fax: +61-2- 9036-5223).

Reference:

MacCann, C., Fogarty, G. & Roberts, R. D. (2012). Strategies for success in vocational
education: Time management is more important for part-time than full-time students. Learning
and Individual Differences, 22, 618-623. DOI: doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.09.015

This article may not exactly replicate the final version published in the Elsevier journal. It is not
the copy of record.
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Abstract

This paper examines relationships between the Big Five personality factors, time management,

and grade-point-average in 556 community colleges students. A path model controlling for

vocabulary, gender, and demographic covariates demonstrated that time management mediates

the relationship between Conscientiousness and students’ academic achievement at community

college. Separate modeling for part-time (n = 147) and full-time students (n = 409) showed that

this mediation was moderated by enrollment status. Thus, time management was a significant

mediator for part-time students but not for full-time students. The greater importance of time

management for part- versus full-time students suggests that noncognitive constructs such as

time management may be more critical for non-traditional students. These findings gather fresh

currency as ever increasing numbers of students are enrolling part-time in post-secondary

education across the globe.

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1. Introduction

Comprehensive meta-analyses have established that academic success is best predicted

by cognitive ability and the personality trait of Conscientiousness (O’Connor & Paunonen, 2007;

Poropat, 2009; Trapmann, Hell, Hirn, & Schuler, 2007).i However, this research has rarely

focused on community college students (Townsend, Donaldson, & Wilson, 2004). In addition,

little research has focused on part-time students, or the ways in which the trajectory for success

may differ for part- versus full-time students (Williams & Kane, 2010). We aimed to address

these poorly understood areas of research by considering how noncognitive constructs predict

academic success within a community college sample, and whether such pathways differed for

part- versus full-time students. In addition to the Big Five personality factors, we also considered

the role of time management. Our broad goals were to determine whether: (a) The prediction of

academic achievement from Conscientiousness and from time management generalizes to the

community college sector; (b) time management mediates the Conscientiousness-achievement

relationship; and (c) the positive benefits of time management are stronger for part- versus full-

time students.

1.1 Personality and Academic Achievement

The previously cited meta-analyses demonstrate that Conscientiousness predicts students’

university grades at a similar level to cognitive ability. Poropat (2009) found a meta-analytic

correlation of .23 and O’Connor and Paunonen (2007) suggest a value of .22. When the focus is

mainly on European samples, the value is estimated to be slightly higher (ρ = .27; Trapmann et

al., 2007). Poropat (2009) also reported that the relationship between cognitive ability and

college grades was .23, suggesting that Conscientiousness is at least as important as cognitive

ability in predicting students’ achievement. Of note, Conscientiousness is also a ubiquitous

TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 4 of 26

predictor of workplace performance, training proficiency, and health outcomes (e.g., Barrick &

Mount, 1991; Barrick, Mount, & Judge, 2001; Bogg & B. W. Roberts, 2004). Given the wide

range of outcomes for which Conscientiousness is important, it is hypothesized that

Conscientiousness will also predict success in community college; a sector of the educational

community that is ignored in the meta-analyses described above.

1.2 Time Management and Academic Achievement

The advantages associated with effective time management in education are reportedly

numerous and form the crux of many advisory pieces and counseling services given both to

incumbent and at-risk students (e.g., Rowh, 2004). Moreover, poor time management practices --

such as not allocating time properly for work assignments, cramming for exams, and failing to

meet deadlines set by academic staff -- are frequently cited as a major source of stress and poor

academic performance (e.g., Gall, 1988; Longman & Atkinson, 2004; Macan, Shahani, Dipboye,

& Phillips, 1990). In addition, empirical evidence suggests that effective time management is

associated with greater academic achievement (e.g., Britton & Tesser, 1991; Macan et al., 1990;

McKenzie & Gow, 2004; Trueman, & Hartley, 1996). In the present study, we use R. D. Roberts,

Schulze, and Minsky’s (2006) measure of time management, which assesses several broad time

management competencies. These competencies include setting goals, meeting deadlines, using

time management aids such as list-making, coping with change, making plans, and effectively

organizing one’s time. R. D. Roberts et al. provide evidence for the instruments’ structural

validity and reliability.

1.3 Time Management and Conscientiousness

It is clear from past research that both time management and Conscientiousness predict

students’ achievement at school (e.g., O’Connor & Paunonen, 2007; Poropat, 2009; Trapmann et
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 5 of 26

al., 2007; Britton & Tesser, 1991; Macan et al., 1990; Trueman, & Hartley, 1996). What is less

clear is the particular ways in which Conscientiousness and time management combine to predict

academic success.

Previous research with middle and high school students demonstrates that time

management shares a strong empirical relationship with Conscientiousness, with reported

correlations of .57 (Liu, Rijmen, MacCann, & R. D. Roberts, 2009) and.65 (MacCann & R. D.

Roberts, 2010), respectively. Students who are highly Conscientiousness tend to use more time

management strategies, particularly those related to meeting deadlines, organization, and

planning. However, we would argue that time management is distinct from Conscientiousness

for both conceptual and empirical reasons. Conceptually, time management is a set of habits or

learnable behaviors that may be acquired through increased knowledge, training, or deliberate

practice. By contrast, Conscientiousness is a broad personality domain thought to be at least

partly genetic, and is arguably less susceptible to environmental influences (e.g., Costa &

McCrae, 2006; Luciano, Wainwright, Wright, & Martin, 2006). That is, Conscientiousness is a

broad and over-arching trait, while time management is a set of acquired habits. Second,

although time management and Conscientiousness are strongly empirically linked, factor

analytic evidence suggests that these are psychometrically distinct constructs (Kelly & Johnson,

2005).

Crede and Kuncel (2008) suggest that the relationship between personality and academic

performance is mediated by study attitudes and habits such as time management practices. Under

this conceptualization, the link between Conscientiousness and achievement is due to the

behavioral expression of Conscientiousness in the form of habits and behaviors that benefit

learning. That is, one reason Conscientiousness relates to achievement is that Conscientious
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 6 of 26

students use more and better time management strategies, which helps them to succeed

academically. Time management appears as a behavioral expression of high Conscientiousness.

The second aim of the current study is to statistically model this proposed mediation.

Previous research has not yet explored whether time management mediates the effects of

Conscientiousness on students’ grades. Although McKenzie and Gow (2004) found that learning

strategies, including a time management component, mediated the Conscientiousness /

achievement relationship, they did not isolate time management as a specific mediator and used

only a very brief measure of time management. In the current study, we use a comprehensive,

multi-faceted measure of time management. In addition, we control for cognitive ability in the

mediation model, as cognitive ability is clearly a major predictor of academic achievement.

1.4 Differences between Part-time and Full-time Students

Over the last 30 years there has been a global increase in the proportion of students

studying part-time (Kember, 1999; O’Toole, Stratton, & Wetzel, 2003; Williams & Kane, 2010).

In fact, 38% of students enrolled at degree-granting institutions in the US were enrolled part-time

in 2007 (Chen & Carroll, 2007). Community colleges have an even greater intake of part-time

students than standard four-year colleges (McCormick, Geis, & Vergun, 1995). Despite these

changing patterns of enrolment, most basic research still focuses on full-time students, and very

few studies address whether the predictors of achievement may be different for part-time

students (Williams & Kane, 2010). One exception is Fish and Wilson (2009) who found that

different cognitive ability variables were predictive of MBA grades for part- versus full-time

students. Although no studies have directly compared the importance of noncognitive factors for

part- versus full-time students, McKenzie and Gow (2004) found that learning strategies were

nearly twice as predictive of grades for mature-age college students compared to traditional-age
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 7 of 26

college students. This result suggests that noncognitive constructs such as time management may

be more important for some sub-groups than others. Moreover, it suggests that noncognitive

constructs may be more important for part-time students, who are frequently older than full-time

students.

As well as age, part-time students differ from full-time students in several other key

ways. Demographically, part-time students are more likely to be female and to be employed full-

time (Chen & Carroll, 2007; O’Toole, Stratton, & Wetzel, 2003). Thus, part time students are

more likely than full-time students to have competing demands from work and children that may

displace study time. Moreover, part-time students who attrite frequently cite lack of time as their

primary barrier to success (Kember, 1999). Given the greater time demands on part-time

students, it is feasible that time management may be particularly important for this identifiable

sub-group, both as a predictor of achievement and as a mediator of the Conscientiousness-

achievement relationship.

1.5 Summary of Hypotheses

There are four hypotheses. First, both time management and Conscientiousness will be

significantly correlated with students’ GPA. Second, the relationship between time management

and GPA will be significantly greater for part-time than full-time students. Third, time

management will mediate the relationship between Conscientiousness and achievement. Fourth,

this mediation will be more pronounced for part-time students than full-time students (i.e., a

moderated mediation).

2. Method
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2.1 Participants

A total of 556 community college students (323 female) participated in the study. The

mean age of the respondents was 25.02 years (SD = 9.40; median = 20). In terms of

ethnicity/race, 47% reported being White, 17% African-American, 20% Hispanic, 6% Asian,

while 9% indicated “other.” In order to obtain something of a representative sample of

community colleges, these students were drawn from 20 institutions from all four regions of the

USA. The sample size per institution ranged from 10 to 58. Of those permissible cases, 42%

came from large/midsize cities, 24% from the outskirts of a large/midsize city/town, and 34%

from small towns/rural areas.

About 74% of the sample reported going to community college full-time (12+ credit

hours). There were no significant differences in the ethnic composition of full-time versus part-

time students (χ2 = 3.377, df = 4, ns). Whites comprised 46% of full-time students and 50% of

part time students. There was also no significant difference in the gender composition of full-

time versus part-time students: Males comprised 43% of full-time students and 40% of part-time

students (χ2 = 0.413, df = 1, ns). However, as expected, full-time students were significantly

younger (Mean age = 23.8 years, SD = 8.3) than part-time students (Mean age = 28.5 years, SD =

11.3; F = 28.896, p < .001).

2.2. Measures

1. Vocabulary. Because of its importance in the academic domain, a measure of

crystallized intelligence was included to control for the effects of cognitive ability. A test of

vocabulary was chosen for this purpose. In this test, which serves as a marker for verbal ability,

participants were required to choose, from among five alternatives, the word (or words) closest
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 9 of 26

in meaning to a given stimulus item (Ekstrom, French, & Harman, 1979). Example: “jovial”

means: “1-refreshing; 2-scare; 3-thickset; 4-wise; or 5-jolly”.

2. Big-Five IPIP Short-Form. This 50-item scale (10 items per subscale) is based on items

and theory from the International Personality Item Pool (Goldberg, Johnson, Eber, Hogan,

Ashton, Cloninger, & Gough, 2006) and provides assessment of the five global personality

domains: (a) Openness (O; e.g., “I have a rich vocabulary”); (b) Conscientiousness (C; e.g., “I

am always prepared”); (c) Extraversion (E; e.g., “I am the life of the party”); (d) Agreeableness

(A; e.g., “I am interested in people”); and (e) Emotional Stability (ES; e.g., “I get stressed out

easily”, reverse-keyed). The response format was a five point Likert-type rating scale, ranging

from “Very Inaccurate of Me” to “Very Accurate of Me.”

3. Time Management. This 36-item scale assesses time management behaviors and

attitudes (R. D. Roberts et al., 2006). Test-takers endorse statements on a 4-point frequency

scale: (1) “Rarely or Never,” (2) “Sometimes,” (3) “Often,” and (4) “Usually or Always.” An

example item is: “I leave things to the last minute” (reverse-keyed).

2. 3. Procedure

Test protocols were approved both by the Educational Testing Service (ETS) human

ethics review committee and (where requisite) each institution’s committee for human ethics.

The participants were tested in groups of approximately 10-20 people. The number of

participants tested at the same time was only restricted by the local facilities. The whole testing

procedure lasted approximately 2 hours (including the administration of other measures not

reported here), with suitable rest pauses after 1 hour of work. Participants completed the test in

various random orders. All measures were given via computer through a web-based interface.
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 10 of 26

Participants were free to leave at any time (participants who did not complete all measures in the

study were excluded from analyses list-wise).

3. Results

3.1 Reliability, Descriptive Statistics, and Group Differences

Table 1 reports the reliability and descriptive statistics for all measures in the study.

Table 1 also reports group differences for all variables by enrollment status (part- versus full-

time), sex, and age. Age was significantly correlated with time management, Agreeableness, and

Conscientiousness, such that older students tended to score higher on all three variables. All

measures had acceptable internal consistency. Part-time students had significantly higher

vocabulary scores but there were no differences in GPA. Mean scores for part- and full-time

students did not differ significantly for any personality trait, or for time management. There were

no significant sex differences for grade-point-average (GPA), but females showed higher

vocabulary scores. Sex differences in personality agreed with previous findings: Women were

more Agreeable, more Conscientious, but less Open to Experience and less Emotionally Stable

(Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001; Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008). Women also

scored significantly higher than men on time management.

3.2 Correlations between variables

Table 2 reports the correlations among GPA, vocabulary, personality, and time

management for all students, and separately for part- versus full-time students. For all groups,

vocabulary, Conscientiousness, and time management predicted GPA. Both time management

and Conscientiousness were not significantly related to vocabulary. Of the Big Five personality

traits, Conscientiousness showed the strongest relationship with GPA, in agreement with

previous literature for school and university students. The magnitude of this relationship was
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 11 of 26

similar for full- versus part-time students (r = .18 versus r = .17). Openness and Agreeableness

also showed significant and non-trivial relationships with GPA. The magnitude of the time

management-GPA relationship was higher for part-time students (r = .29) than full-time students

(r = .17), but this difference was not significant using Fisher’s z-transformation (z = 1.31, p =

.095, 1-tailed).

3.3 Mediation of Conscientiousness-GPA relationship by Time Management

To test whether time management mediates the relationship between Conscientiousness

and GPA, a just-identified path model was conducted in AMOS (v17), as shown in Figure 1.

Vocabulary, sex, and age were included as covariates in the model, as vocabulary related to age,

sex related to both time management and Conscientiousness, and age also related to both

Conscientiousness and time management. Boot-strapping with 2000 samples was used to

calculate the significance of the indirect effects of Conscientiousness on GPA. Standardized path

coefficients for the mediation-related paths are shown in Figure 2.

Results demonstrated that time management mediated the relationship between

Conscientiousness and GPA. Before accounting for time management, the standardized effect of

Conscientiousness on GPA (after controlling for covariates) was .18 (p < .01). When time

management was included in the model, the standardized direct effect was .08 (ns). The

standardized indirect effect was .10 (90% bias-corrected C.I.: .019 to .174).

3.4 Moderated Mediation: Does the Mediation Model Differ for Part- vs. Full-Time Students?

We tested the mediation model separately for part- and full-time students. Standardized

path coefficients are shown in Figure 3. For full-time students, the standardized indirect effect

was .03 and was not significant (90% bias-corrected C.I.: -.06 to .12). For part-time students, the

standardized indirect effect was .25 and was significant (90% bias-corrected C.I.: .12 to .40).
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 12 of 26

That is, time management mediates the Conscientiousness-GPA relationship for part-time

students but not for full-time students. The mediation effect is conditional for enrollment as a

part-time student. The path from time management to GPA was considerably larger for part-

students than full -students (.35 compared to .04). Specifying this pathway to be invariant across

groups resulted in significantly reduced model fit (Δχ2 = 5.304, Δdf = 1, p = .021). Thus,

although the zero-order correlation between time management and GPA was not significantly

different for part-time versus full-time students, the relationship between time management and

GPA was significantly different after accounting for other relevant variables.

4. Discussion

4.1. Summary

Results demonstrate that noncognitive constructs such as personality and time

management are important for educational achievement. Although time management is clearly

not independent from the broad domains of personality, there is a theoretically plausible model

for the personality/time management interactions: Students high on trait Conscientiousness use

more and better strategies for time management and therefore achieve better grades. However,

this mediation effect holds for part-, but not full-, time students. The role of time management in

educational success seems particularly important for part-time students, who have greater

temporal demands.

4.2. Conscientiousness, Time Management, and Academic Achievement

The ubiquitous relationship between Conscientiousness and students’ academic

achievement was replicated in this large sample of community college students, suggesting that

the importance of Conscientiousness is not limited to schools and universities but extends to the

community college sector. Moreover, the mediation analysis suggests that a possible pathway by
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 13 of 26

which greater Conscientiousness results in greater academic achievement is through the use of

time management strategies. That is, more Conscientious students implement more effective

time management practices, which allow them to succeed academically. This finding replicates

the work of McKenzie and Gow (2004). One of the applications of the now fairly universal

finding that Conscientiousness predicts academic achievement is to examine the specific

behaviors or mechanisms by which Conscientiousness relates to achievement, and use this

knowledge to develop effective training programs to increase achievement across the board.

Although there is a strong empirical relationship between time management and

Conscientiousness, we argue that time management is not a redundant concept due to the

potential for interventions (see also Kyllonen, Lipnevich, Burrus, & R. D. Roberts, 2010). Time

management is measured or conceptualized as a set of behaviors or habits rather than as a stable

trait, and is therefore open to training and improvement. It seems that high Conscientiousness

individuals manage their time well and low Conscientiousness individuals manage their time

poorly. However, time management is a set of behaviors and habits that may feasibly be trained

among low Conscientiousness individuals who do not perform these behaviors automatically.

That is, it is arguably easier to change someone’s time management habits than to change their

personality. Programs specifically aimed at improving time management have been developed

for secondary school teachers, principals, and university academics, with research demonstrating

that such programs lead to an improved use of time (Hall & Hursch, 1981; Maher, 1982, 1986).

There is also some evidence that these programs work for students. For example, Fogarty (1994)

found that a 10-week university preparatory skills training program directed at non-school-

leavers led to improvements in scores on Shostrom’s (1980) broad time competence and inner

directedness dimensions. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that time management skills
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 14 of 26

can be trained. Given the relationship between time management and academic achievement the

use of such training programs could feasibly result in improvements in academic achievement,

particularly among students who are poor time managers.

In addition, the interaction effects show that time management may be a more important

predictor of success for part-time than full-time students. After modeling the influences of

Conscientiousness, vocabulary, and demographic factors on GPA, time management had a

significantly stronger relationship to GPA for part-time students than full-time students.

McKenzie and Gow (2004) argued that superior time management skills combined with higher

levels of intrinsic motivation gave the mature-age university students in their sample an edge in

the competition for higher grades. We suggest that time management may become increasingly

important for part-time and mature-age students, who must balance their study time with work

and other commitments. Furthermore, time management may be increasingly important in a

changing educational environment. With most OECD countries based on knowledge economies,

continued education will be a reality for most of the millennial generation, such that part-time

study and up-skilling will be increasingly common.

In addition, the increasing use of e-learning and virtual teaching to supplement or replace

face-to-face lecture and seminar teaching formats means that students’ time is not automatically

scheduled into regular face-to-face blocks each week. For example, in an environment where

students are free to listen to 12 hours of podcast lectures per week at any point in the semester

they choose, students then require the time management skills to schedule these 12 hours per

week. Thus, the shift to flexible study patterns and increasing use of lecture recording transfers

much of the burden of time management from the administrative system onto the individual
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 15 of 26

student. Students who are unable to manage their time will find post-secondary study

increasingly difficult as e-learning becomes more dominant.

4.3. Limitations and Future Directions

The concurrent design of the current study makes it difficult to draw causal inferences

about time management causing greater achievement at community college. It is possible that

students judge their time management practices in the light of obtained results (i.e., “I must be

setting goals and planning because I get straight As”) rather than the high levels of time

management causing the valued outcomes. Both time lagged panel designs and the use of

observer-reports of time management behaviors would allow this issue to be explored in future

research.

4.4. Conclusions

This study demonstrates that Conscientiousness is as important in community colleges as

it is in high school and college, and elaborates on a potential mechanism by which

Conscientiousness predicts academic outcomes: Time management. The behavioral

manifestation of high Conscientiousness is the effective use of time management strategies.

Conscientious students are more likely to regulate their own learning through time management,

and it is these tendencies that relate to academic outcomes. In addition, these factors are

particularly important for part-time students, demonstrating that noncognitive constructs may

have an important role to play in lifelong learning.

TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 16 of 26

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TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 21 of 26

Table 1

Reliability, Descriptive Statistics, and Score Differences by Enrolment (full-time versus part-

time), Sex, and Age

Measure α Descriptive Statistics Group Differences

All Full-time Part-time Enroll Sex Age

(N = 556) (n = 409) (n = 147) da da r

M SD M SD M SD

GPA (0 to 4) 3.16 0.53 3.17 0.52 3.15 0.57 0.03 -0.13 .08

Vocabulary .82 0.55 0.16 0.53 0.16 0.59 0.16 -0.34** -0.20* .25**

Extraversion .86 33.48 7.90 33.58 7.68 33.20 8.50 0.05 0.13 -.08

Agreeableness .76 40.08 5.81 39.80 5.85 40.87 5.64 -0.18 -0.49** .12**

Conscientiousness .80 36.37 6.54 36.34 6.40 36.45 6.94 -0.02 -0.25** .14**

Emotional Stability .85 31.55 7.93 31.42 7.98 31.91 7.79 -0.06 0.46** .07

Openness .76 36.95 5.98 36.88 5.79 37.12 6.51 -0.04 0.13 .00

Time Management .85 99.00 12.90 98.49 12.68 100.44 13.44 -0.15 -0.48** .20**

Note. Effect size for sex differences and part-time versus full-time differences were calculated

using Hedge’s g, with positive values indicating higher mean scores for males and for full-time

students. a Significance of sex differences was calculated with a t-test.

*
p < .05, ** p < .01
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 22 of 26

Table 2

Correlations between GPA, Vocabulary, Personality, and Time Management for All Students, for

Full-Time Students (Lower Left of Matrix) and for Part-Time Students (Upper Right of Matrix)

All GPA Voc E A C ES O TM

GPA
Vocabulary (Voc) .30**
Extraversion (E) -.06 .01
Agreeableness (A) .13** .24** .25**
Conscientiousness (C) .18** .01 .04 .25**
Emotional Stability (ES) .09* .08 .16** .12** .22**
Openness (O) .13** .28** .24** .41** .17** .13**
Time Management .20** .05 .03 .24** .76** .23** .11**

Full vs Part-Time Students GPA Voc E A C ES O TM

GPA .37** -.10 .08 .17* .06 .12 .29**

Vocabulary (Voc) .28** -.02 .26** -.06 -.12 .28** -.02
Extraversion (E) -.04 .02 .17* .02 .21* .22** -.07
Agreeableness (A) .15** .22** .28** .27** .04 .37** .17*
Conscientiousness (C) .18** .04 .05 .25** .29** .09 .75**
Emotional Stability (ES) .10* .15** .14** .15** .19** .10 .27**
Openness (O) .14** .28** .24** .43** .21** .14** .05
Time Management .17** .07 .07 .26** .77** .21** .13**
*
p < .05, ** p < .01
TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 23 of 26

Conscientiousness GPA

Time Management
Sex

Age

Vocabulary

Figure 1: Path model illustrating a mediation of Conscientiousness by time management,

with sex, age, and vocabulary as covariates

TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 24 of 26

Figure 2: Standardized path coefficients illustrating the mediation of the

Conscientiousness-GPA relationship by time management (vocabulary, age and gender are

included in the model as covariates but not shown in the diagram)

TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 25 of 26

Figure 3: Standardized path coefficients illustrating a moderated mediation model where

time management mediates the Conscientiousness-GPA relationship for part-time students

(PT) but not full-time students (FT) (vocabulary, age and gender are included in the model

as covariates but not shown in the diagram)

TIME MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Page 26 of 26

Footnotes

i
Note that these three meta-analyses are not independent observations, as they reference many of

the same data sets.