Note Set EC00M Module 2

This note set is an output product for this module and includes
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module.
EC00M Module 2
© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

Notes:
• Explain that real time is acquiring the information in time to use it for
control and varies by the type of operation.

Notes:
• Accuracy - closeness to true value

• Repeatability - given the same measurement and environmental conditions
returns the same result
• Linearity - closeness to the ideal output for the length of the span
• Hysteresis - difference in reading when using ascending and descending
series of measurements
• Dead Band - range where instrument output does not change upon a
reversal of the input signal
• Speed of response - normally measured as dead band plus first time
constant

Notes:
• The span error of an instrument is the difference between the actual and ideal
span of the instrument.
• With span error, the deviation from the ideal value varies at different points along
the range of the instrument.

Notes:
• If there is a zero error (or zero shift) in the transmitter the error will be constant
(high or low) throughout the range of the measurement.
• May relate this to accuracy/repeatability.

Notes:
• If there is a linearization error the transmitter signal may be correct at each

end of its range, but incorrect in the middle.

Notes:
• SG for gases the reference is air, for liquids it is water

• Ideal Gas Law that pV/T is a constant, where p=pressure, V is volume, and T is
temperature - the pressure is highly dependent upon the volume and the
temperature.

Notes:
• Pressure can be measured using many types of primary sensing elements that
depends on the range and type of material encountered.
• These are some of the devices and we will look at only a few to establish how
pressure is sensed.

Notes:
• This is a cutaway of a typical transmitter indicating the method of converting the

physical movement of the diaphragm to a sensor or converter to generate the
electronic signal.
• There are various types of sensor technologies that are used to generate the 4-20
mA signal for the control loop.
• The capacitive method shown is the most common.

Notes:
• Use these considerations to determine which pressure device is suited for

the application

Notes:
• Float (tank gauging) - direct measurement of interface

• Displacer - inferred from displacement weight
• Ultrasonic - inferred from time of flight
• Capacitance - inferred from dielectric (capacitance) change
• Radiation - inferred from absorption of radiation
• Radar - inferred from transit time
• Tuning fork or paddle (switch only) - inferred from material opposition

Notes:
• Quickly illustrate gage and dP

• Note: bubbler is normally gage but uses a dP transmitter, so output is in
inches.

Notes:
• Measurement in a closed tank is more complex than in an open tank.

• Pressure above liquid not at atmosphere
• Requires differential pressure transmitter
• Measures pressure difference above and below liquid surface
• The differential pressure (dp) transmitter measures the hydrostatic pressure of
the liquid only, eliminating effect of the pressure above the level. Without
suppression the transmitter would include the level of the liquid in the line
connecting the transmitter to the vessel.
• If the low side leg is dry and the d/p cell is below the tap, zero suppression is
necessary.
• The calibration data assumes a fluid with a specific gravity of 1.0.
• If you set the Instrument Zero at a positive value, you are performing zero

suppression
Notes:
• If you set the instrument zero at a negative value you are performing zero
elevation.
• Anytime the pressure on the low side is higher than the pressure on the high side
it is considered a negative differential pressure

Notes:
• Used where liquid density is variable.

• Level must be between the Maximum and Minimum liquid levels.
• The differential pressure D is a measure of the weight of liquid of a known height
is a measure of liquid density.
• B must be greater than D so that the liquid density tap is always submerged.

Notes:
• Here we are looking specifically at quantity of material in a vessel for inventory

measurement. This is really a mass measurement that is often lumped together
with level-measurement principles.
• Sometimes used when other inventory/level measurements can’t be used:
• In the above example shows a tank supported on two load cells and a hinge. The
empty weight of the tank is nulled to give a zero reading on the indicator; additions
of material into the tank result in a response at the indicator.
• Load Cells:
• Advantages
• Direct indication of quantity (mass)
• No intrusion into vessel
• Simple test and calibration
• Disadvantages
• Requires conversion to indicate percent full
• Subject to error due to external physical pressure on structure
• Installation may be complex because vessel must be isolated from

external piping
Notes:
• Use these considerations to determine which devices might be best suited

for the application.

Notes:
• Explain that there are only two scales, Fahrenheit and Celsius (formerly
Centigrade)

Notes:
• Thermocouples - requires to couples; a reference and a measuring junction. A

couple is any two dissimilar metals joined together. The ISA sets the North
American standards for thermocouples. The red wire is negative, the other wire
color determines thermocouple type. Thermocouple extension wire is a less
expensive material with the same thermoelectric properties as the thermocouple
materials. Thermocouples drift, 2 to 5 degrees annually depending on material and
heat cycle. They will open so most transmitters have provision for “burnout
upscale” or “burnout downscale”.
• RTDs as commonly used in process control will be Platinum, 100 ohms at 0
degrees centigrade. They drift less than 2 degrees in 5 years.
• Thermistors are designer resistors in that temperature coefficient and
ohms/degree are designed in. Cheap, reliable, repeatable.
• Radiation Pyrometers are used where contact methods cannot be, and give the
surface temperature.

Notes:
• When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one
end is heated, a continuous current flow in the "thermoelectric" circuit. Thomas
Seebeck discovered this in 1821.
• In its simplest form, a thermocouple consists of two wires, each made of different
homogeneous metal or alloy. The wires are joined at one end to form a measuring
junction. This measuring junction is exposed to the medium where temperature is
being measured. The other end of the wires are usually terminated at a measuring
instrument, where they form a reference junction. When the two junctions are at
different temperatures, an EMF (electromotive force) will be produced. There will
be a predictive direct relationship between the temperature at the measuring
junction and the millivolt reading.
• It is important to remember that thermocouples and RTDs are both contact

devices and that they measure “their own” not the product temperature. This
requires that we have the device touching the process. It also requires that we
allow time for the thermocouple or RTD to reach the same temperature as the
process. With a bare thermocouple this time is very short, but with thermocouples

and RTDs almost always being installed in thermowells, this time can be significant.
These two factors are important considerations when selecting the temperature
device to use in an application and installing the device.
Notes:
• A thermocouple assembly consists of a thermocouple and one or more associated

parts, such as a terminal block, connection head, and protecting tube or
thermowell.
• Protecting tubes are thin walled metal or ceramic tubes and are used in low
pressure applications. A protecting tube may be attached by external threads,
compression fitting, or flange. These connections are not designed for very high-
pressure applications.
• In most industrial applications, a thermowell is used in place of a protecting tube.

This provides higher pressure, erosion and corrosion protection for thermocouple
and personnel.

• Advantages -- A physical barrier between the process and the sensor allowing
removal of the sensor while the process is still in operation.
• Disadvantages -- Increases, significantly (nominally 10 times), the time response

of the measurement.
Notes:
• RTD's are becoming widely used in temperature sensing applications, because of

their inherent simplicity, ruggedness, accuracy, and stability.
• They are normally resistors whose resistance versus temperature relationship is

known, highly accurate and repeatable.
• A newer technology for RTDs is the “thin film strain gauge”. This is still a resistor,
but not the wire wound that has been common. It is normally slightly less

expensive and more rugged.
Notes:
• To eliminate the effects of wire resistance, a third wire is added. This eliminates
the wire resistance, so the three wires have equal resistance.
• Three wire RTD's are generally used as a standard.
• Four wire RTDs are typically used in multiplex circuits (many RTDs, one
connection) or in laboratory or other high precision measurement and utilize the
law of metrology that states “do not measure voltage over the conductors that
supply current to the load.”

Notes:
• They find wide use as internal devices in electronics and in the medical uses as
research tools and fever thermometers sensors, since they are so small and
inexpensive.
• Under typical uses, their lifetimes would be very long, and the most common
faults would be accidental physical breakage.
• Special thermistor sensors of exceptionally high sensitivity, accuracy, and stability
are produced for some calibration uses and several vendors offer them.
• Usually have a negative coefficient.
• Ceramic material is available in a variety of shapes.

Notes:
• Many applications need an evaluation of the resistance temperature detector and

the thermocouple.
• Each has some positives and some drawbacks that must be evaluated to obtain
correct process input.

Notes:
• Accuracy at near ambient temperatures is not a problem. Extreme

accuracy at temperatures where either a thermocouple or a pyrometer are
required requires some detailed thought and engineering.

Notes:
• Mass has weight and occupies space, is a basic unit of measurement.

Volume will require temperature, density, rate, and pressure compensation
to read out as mass.
• Flow rate (Q) = A (area in square inches) X V (average velocity)

Notes:
• Flow is often measured in terms of velocity.

• The flow profile depends on a combination of factors, including
the forces that act to keep flow moving at a constant rate.
• The relationship between these forces is expressed by the
Reynolds number ( Re ).
• It is a ratio of internal to viscous forces specific to flow conditions
where Re = Inertial forces / Viscous forces.

Notes:
• Flowmeters can be grouped into general types that are useful in describing some
of the factors involved in flowmeter selection (what do you want to measure -
mass or volume):
• Volumetric flowmeters measure flow by measuring volume directly. These devices

usually have high tolerance machined parts to physically trap a precise amount of
product as they rotate.
• Mass flowmeters measure the mass or the product directly.
• Velocity flowmeters are those where the velocity of the flow is measured and
multiplied by the area through which it passes to determine the total flow.
• Inferential devices measure flow by inferring the flow through a pipe from some
physical phenomenon. The orifice plate is an example. The flow is inferred by the

differential pressure across the restriction in the pipe.
Notes:
• As the flow converges through a restriction in the pipe, there is an interchange

between pressure head and velocity head.
• The pressure will decrease, and the velocity will increase.
• Remember that Q = AV.
• Maximum velocity is at Vena Contracta, not at the flange tap.

Notes:
• The use of differential pressure as an inferred measurement of a liquid's rate of

flow is well known. Differential pressure flowmeters are, by far, the most common
units in use today. Estimates are that over 50 percent of all liquid flow
measurement applications use this type of unit.
• The basic operating principle of differential pressure flowmeters is based on the
premise that the pressure drop across the meter is proportional to the square of
the flow rate. The flow rate is obtained by measuring the pressure differential.
• Differential pressure flowmeters, like most flowmeters, have a primary and
secondary element. The primary element causes a change in kinetic energy, which
creates the differential pressure in the pipe.
• The unit must be properly matched to the pipe size, flow conditions, and the
liquid's properties.
• And, the measurement accuracy of the element must be good over a reasonable
range. The secondary element measures the differential pressure and provides the

signal or read-out that is converted to the actual flow value.
Notes:
• Orifices are the most popular liquid flowmeters in use today. An orifice is simply a
flat piece of metal with a specific-sized hole bored in it. Most orifices are of the
concentric type, but eccentric, conical (quadrant), and segmental designs are also
available.
• In practice, the orifice plate is installed in the pipe between two flanges. Acting as
the primary device, the orifice constricts the flow of liquid to produce a differential
pressure across the plate. Pressure taps on either side of the plate are used to
detect the difference. Major advantages of orifices are that they have no moving
parts and their cost does not increase significantly with pipe size.
• Conical and quadrant orifices are relatively new. The units were developed
primarily to measure liquids with low Reynolds numbers. Essentially constant flow
coefficients can be maintained at Re values below 5000. Conical orifice plates have
an upstream bevel, the depth and angle of which must be calculated and
machined for each application.

• The segmental wedge is a variation of the segmental orifice. It is a restriction
orifice primarily designed to measure the flow of liquids containing solids. The unit
has the ability to measure flows at low Reynolds numbers and still maintain the
desired square-root relationship. Its design is simple, and there is only one critical
dimension the wedge gap. Pressure drop through the unit is only about half that of
conventional orifices.
• Integral wedge assemblies combine the wedge element and pressure taps into a
one-piece pipe coupling bolted to a conventional pressure transmitter. No special
piping or fittings are needed to install the device in a pipeline.
• Metering accuracy of all orifice flowmeters depends on the installation conditions,
the orifice area ratio, and the physical properties of the liquid being measured.

Notes:
• Variable area meters such as this rotameter are also classified as inferential type.
• The rotameter consists of a tapered metering tube and a float that is free to move
up and down within the tube. The metering tube is mounted vertically, with the
small end at the bottom. The fluid enters at the bottom of the tube, passes upward
around the float and out the top.
• The rotameter may contain a hand valve that is used to set small flows, but is
available in larger sizes and can be used as an indicator, transmitter, or field
controller. Changing the shape or density of the float allows the same tube to
measure over different ranges.
• It is an inexpensive flowmeter for gas flow measurement. The pressure drop

across the meter is essentially constant above the full operating range.
• Usually used for local indication. Quite often, the rotameter is used only to

indicate flow and not to measure. We call these devices “purge meters”.
Notes:
• The four most common velocity type flowmeters are:

• Magnetic (mag meter)
• Vortex shedders
• Turbine
• Ultrasonic
• With velocity devices, the velocity of the flow is measured and multiplied by the
area through which it passes to determine the flow rate.

Notes:
• Magnetic flowmeters use Faraday's law of induction to obtain a

measurement of flow. The law states that relative motion at right angles
between a conductor and a magnetic field will develop a voltage in the
conductor. The induced voltage is proportional to the relative velocity of the
conductor and the magnetic field. This is the principle used in DC and AC
generators. The most common mag meters use a bipolar square wave with
a rest between transitions.
• In a mag meter, the fluid it self must have some minimum conductivity as it
acts as a conductor. As a "rule of thumb," if a liquid contains 10% service
water, it is conductive.
• No Reynolds number dependency
• Velocity restraints
• Instrument turn down will determine minimum velocity that will

produce an accurate reading.
Notes:
• These are among the factors to consider in applying a magnetic flowmeter.

• Key points are the need for a full meter and the ability to handle some
slurries and fluids with suspended solids.
• Also, minimum straight run requirements are needed (5 to 8 pipe
diameters upstream and 3 to 5 pipe diameters downstream.

Notes:
• A vortex shredder is an example of an oscillatory flowmeter.
• As fluid flows past a bluff body, or shedder, at low velocity, the flow
pattern remains streamlined. However, as velocity increases, the fluid
separates from each side of the shedder and swirls to form vortices
downstream of the shedder. The number of vortices generated is directly
proportional to the velocity of the fluid.
• The vortex creates a pulse signal which can then be measured.
• A very common occurrence of the vortex principle is the flag which waves
in the wind. The flag pole is the bluff body and the alternating high/low
pressures cause the flag to wave back and forth.

Notes:
• Explain the generation of the vortices and the application principles of the
vortex shedding flowmeter.

Notes:
• Turbine flowmeters provide excellent measurement accuracy for most

clean liquids and gases.
• Like PD flowmeters, turbine meters create a nonrecoverable pressure loss

and have moving parts subject to wear.

1.44 Ultrasonic Flowmeter Principles
Notes:
• These principles are illustrated on the next few figures.

• Clamp-on transducers have the advantage of not requiring wetted parts, however,
sonic transfer through the pipe and across the fluid can be insufficient or
unreliable.
• Some pipe is very prone to poor measurements. Concrete pipe is one that is not
acceptable. Lined pipe is normally not acceptable. The problem is not the liner
itself, as the sound will travel through the liner, but the liner tends to let go of the
pipe. Then you have an air pocket. An ultrasonic meter mounted over this pocket
will not perform properly.

Notes:
• Flowmeters that measure mass directly, as opposed to indirectly as a function of

other physical properties, have recently been developed into practical flowmeter
designs.
• Coriolis type flowmeters will be covered.

1.46 Coriolis Flowmeter
Notes:
• Coriolis mass flowmeters use the existence of the force exerted by the Coriolis
acceleration of a fluid. The flowmeter has a vibrating tube in which the Coriolis
acceleration is created and measured.
• The flow tube, which is constructed to have predictable vibration characteristics, is
vibrated by a drive assembly, causing the tube to twist. This twisting is sensed by
position sensing coils on each side of the measuring tube.
• The Coriolis meter has proven to be one of the most accurate meters available.
This is with respect to absolute accuracy. When we also consider it is a "mass"
meter and no conversion is necessary as is the case with volume meters, its
performance is in a class by itself.

Notes:
• Positive-displacement flowmeters continuously entrap a known quantity of

material as it passes through the meter. Since the number of times the material is
entrapped and the volume of the entrapped space is known, the amount of
material that has passed through the meter is easily determined.
• Three common types of positive displacement flowmeters will be discussed:

• Rotary vane
• Oval gear
• Nutating disk
• Limit to very brief descriptions.

Notes:
• Operation of these units consists of separating liquids into accurately measured

increments and moving them on.
• Each segment is counted by a connecting register.
• Because every increment represents a discrete volume, positive-displacement
units are popular for automatic batching and accounting applications.
• Positive-displacement meters are good candidates for measuring the flows of
viscous liquids or for use where a simple mechanical meter system is needed.

Notes:
• Explain each item in terms of selection, costing (for example, currently a

mag flowmeter (in line) goes for about $2K per inch diameter, a Coriolis
flow meter at about $3.5 K per inch diameter) and performance..

Notes:
Multivariable Transmitters - more than one function in a transmitter: eg Pressure,

dp,
temperature
Smart Transmitters: on a network. Function blocks, signal processing, control
1.
Notes:

Correct Choice
RTD Best measurement technology for use in applications requiring low drift, high
accuracy, and moderately high temperatures
Ultrasonic Measurement method which is most cost-effective for measuring the level of
highly corrosive media
Radioactive A level measurement method which can be external to the tank
Smart An instrument that can be programmed and can perform self-diagnostics
Bubbler Method of inferring level from head measurement which is widely used in
water/wastewater vessels and sumps
Coriolis An instrument that measure the mass flow rate directly

Flowmeter

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This note set is an output product for this module and includes

screen images, as well as brief instructor notes. You may find it

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Accuracy - closeness to true value

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• If there is a linearization error the transmitter signal may be correct at each

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• SG for gases the reference is air, for liquids it is water

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• This is a cutaway of a typical transmitter indicating the method of converting the

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Use these considerations to determine which pressure device is suited for

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Float (tank gauging) - direct measurement of interface

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Quickly illustrate gage and dP

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Measurement in a closed tank is more complex than in an open tank.

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Used where liquid density is variable.

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Here we are looking specifically at quantity of material in a vessel for inventory

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Use these considerations to determine which devices might be best suited

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Thermocouples - requires to couples; a reference and a measuring junction. A

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• It is important to remember that thermocouples and RTDs are both contact

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• A thermocouple assembly consists of a thermocouple and one or more associated

• In most industrial applications, a thermowell is used in place of a protecting tube.

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Disadvantages -- Increases, significantly (nominally 10 times), the time response

• RTD's are becoming widely used in temperature sensing applications, because of

• They are normally resistors whose resistance versus temperature relationship is

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Many applications need an evaluation of the resistance temperature detector and

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Accuracy at near ambient temperatures is not a problem. Extreme

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Mass has weight and occupies space, is a basic unit of measurement.

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Flow is often measured in terms of velocity.

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• Volumetric flowmeters measure flow by measuring volume directly. These devices

• Mass flowmeters measure the mass or the product directly.

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• As the flow converges through a restriction in the pipe, there is an interchange

• Maximum velocity is at Vena Contracta, not at the flange tap.

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• The use of differential pressure as an inferred measurement of a liquid's rate of

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com

• It is an inexpensive flowmeter for gas flow measurement. The pressure drop

© 2019, ISA Published by Articulate® Storyline www.articulate.com