1.

CLASSIFICATION OF MICROBES:
Microorganisms are prokaryotic, such as bacteria, archaea, etc., as well as
eukaryotic, such as protozoa, algae, fungi, etc. R.H. Whittaker elucidated
the Five Kingdom Classification, which was based on the following
characteristics:
Cell type (prokaryotic and eukaryotic) and presence of nuclear membrane
Presence of cell wall and its constituents
Body organisation
Mode of nutrition
Mode of reproduction
Phylogenetic relationships
Based on the following characteristics, R. H. Whittaker divided living
organisms into five kingdoms. They are as follows:
1. MONERA: UNICELLULAR PROKARYOTES
2. PROTISTA: UNICELLULAR EUKARYOTES
3. FUNGI: EUKARYOTIC, HETEROTROPHIC (SAPROPHYTIC/
PARASITIC) AND WITH A CELL WALL (CHITIN)
4. PLANTAE: EUKARYOTIC, AUTOTROPHIC
(PHOTOSYNTHETIC) AND WITH A CELL WALL
(CELLULOSE).
5. ANIMALIA: EUKARYOTIC, HETEROTROPHIC (HOLOZOIC/
SAPROPHYTIC ETC.) AND WITHOUT A CELL WALL.
1. BACTERIA(MONERA):
As per the Five Kingdom Classification, bacteria are classified in the
kingdom Monera. It includes Eubacteria and Archaebacteria.
They are all unicellular, have a prokaryotic cell which is devoid of a
membrane-bound nucleus, and other organelles such as endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi bodies, etc
Bacteria are the most abundant microorganisms and are present almost
everywhere. They are classified as Gram- positive and Gram-negative,
based on the Gram's staining pattern.
Based on the shape of the cell, bacteria are classified into four main
groups that are as follows:
Coccus or cocci (spherical)
Bacillus or bacilli (rod-shaped)
Spirillum or spirilla (spiral)
Vibrium or vibrio (comma-shaped)
2. PROTOZOA: Protozoans are classified under the kingdom Protista,
which includes unicellular eukaryotes. Protozoans are heterotrophs. They
live as parasites or predators.On the basis of their mode of locomotion,
they are classified into four major groups. They are:
Amoeboid: They have pseudopodia, which are used for movement and
capturing prey. E.g. Amoeba, Entamoeba, etc.
Flagellated: These protozoans are flagel- lated. They are either free-living
or para- sites. E.g. Trypanosoma, the causative or- ganism of sleeping
sickness, Leishmania, which causes kala-azar, etc.
Ciliated: They are aquatic and have
thousands of cilia present on the body surface, e.g. Paramoecium. Cilia
also help in bringing water laden with food inside the cavity of the gullet.
Sporozoans: They are non-motile. They produce spores. E.g.
Plasmodium, the causative organism of malaria, Toxoplasma, etc.
3. FUNGI: They are heterotrophic and have a rigid cell wall. They are
parasites or saprotrophs. Fungi are microscopic, as well as quite big in
size.
Fungi are classified into four main classes based on their morphology and
method of spore formation. They are:
*
Phycomycetes: They are characterised by the presence of coenocytic
mycelium. Spores are produced endogenously in the sporangium, e.g.
Rhizopus, Mucor, etc.
Ascomycetes: They are commonly known as sac-fungi. The mycelium is
branched and septate. The asexual spores are produced exogenously on
conidiophores and sexual spores are produced endogenously within asci.
E.g. Penicillium, Saccharomyces (yeast), Aspergillus, Claviceps and
Neurospora, etc.
Basidiomycetes: Asexual spores are not formed. The basidiospores are
exogenously produced. E.g. Puccinia (rust), mushrooms, Ustilago (smut),
etc.
Deuteromycetes: Commonly called imperfect fungi due to absence of
sexual stage in the life cycle. Most fungi are decomposers and help in
nutrient recycling. E.g. Colletotrichum, Alternaria and Trichoderma.
4. ALGAE: Unicellular photosynthetic organisms like diatoms, golden
algae and dinoflagellates. They are photosynthetic and chief producers in
the sea.
Diatoms: They have a silicious cell wall 2 which fits like a soap box.
They are photosynthetic and 'diatomaceous earth' is used for polishing,
filtration of oil, etc.
Dinoflagellates: They are marine, and photosynthetic and appear in
different colours. They have two unequal flagella, one longitudinal and
one transverse. The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates. They are known to
cause red tides due to rapid multiplication, e.g. Gonyaulax (a red
dinoflagellate).
Arrangement of cocci:
Arrangements of Cocci
Diplococci
Streptococci
Bacteria sometimes show characteristics cellular arrangement or grouping
Thus, cocci may be arranged in pairs, chains, group of four, group of
eight, or grape like clusters.

2. MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES:
Microbes, or microorganisms, exhibit diverse arts morphological types,
reflecting their adaptability got to various environments and ecological
niches.
1. BACTERIA:
Cocci (singular: coccus): Spherical-shaped bacteria. Examples include
Streptococcus and Staphylococcus.
Bacilli (singular: bacillus): Rod-shaped bacteria. Examples include
Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Bacillus subtilis.
arran
Spirilla (singular: spirillum): Spiral-shaped bacteria. Examples include
Spirillum and Spirochaetes.
2. ARCHAEA: Archaea exhibit various morphological types similar to
bacteria, including cocci, bacilli, and spirilla. However, archaeal cell
walls lack peptidoglycan and may
have unique structures.
3. FUNGI:
Yeasts: Unicellular fungi with a rounded or oval shape. Examples include
Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Molds: Multicellular fungi with a filamentous structure called hyphae
Examples include Penicillium and Aspergillus.
Mushrooms: Complex, macroscopic fungi with a cap and stem structure.
Examples include Agaricus bisporus (button mushroom).
4. PROTOZOA:
Amoeboid: Unicellular organisms with a constantly changing shape,
using pseudopodia for movement. Examples in- clude Amoeba.
Flagellates: Unicellular organisms with one or more flagella for
movement. Examples
include Giardia lamblia.
Ciliates: Unicellular organisms with hair- like structures called cilia for
movement. Examples include Paramecium.
5. ALGAE:
Unicellular Algae: Single-celled algae, such 3. as Chlorella and Euglena.
Filamentous Algae: Multicellular algae forming filaments, like Spirogyra.
Colonial Algae: Algae that form colonies of cells, for example, Volvox.
6. VIRUSES:
Viruses lack cellular structures and are much smaller than bacteria and
fungi.
Helical Viruses: Rod-shaped viruses with helical symmetry. Example:
Tobacco mosaic virus.
Icosahedral Viruses: Spherical viruses with icosahedral symmetry.
Example: Adenovirus.
Enveloped Viruses: Viruses surrounded by a lipid envelope derived from
the host cell membrane. Example: Influenza virus.

3. SIZE AND FORMS OF BACTERIA:

Bacteria exhibit a wide range of sizes and forms, contributing to their
diversity and adaptability to different environments.
1. Size:
Bacteria are generally measured in micro- meters (4 m) and are much
smaller than eukaryotic cells.
The typical size of bacteria ranges from 0.5 to 5 micrometers in length.
Some bacteria, known as ultra microbacteria, can be as small as 0.2
micrometers.
The size of bacteria is often determined using microscopy, with light
microscopy and electron microscopy providing different levels of
resolution.
2. Shapes or Forms:
Bacteria can have various shapes or forms, and these shapes are often
used as criteria for
classification.
Cocci (Spherical):
Diplococci: Pairs of cocci, such as Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Streptococci: Chains of cocci, like Streptococcus pyogenes.
Staphylococci: Clusters of cocci, as seen in Staphylococcus aureus.
Bacilli (Rod-shaped):
Diplobacilli: Pairs of rod-shaped bacteria.
Streptobacilli: Chains of rod-shaped bacteria.
Coccobacilli: Oval or short rod-shaped bacteria.
Spirilla (Spiral-shaped):
Spirillum: Rigid, helical-shaped bacteria.
Spirochetes: Flexible, spiral-shaped bacteria, such as Treponema
pallidum.
Filamentous:
Some bacteria form long filaments or threads, such as Actinobacteria.
3. Arrangements:
The arrangement of bacterial cells provides additional information about
their biology.
Cocci Arrangements:
Diplococci: Pairs of cocci.
Tetrads: Groups of four cocci.
Sarcinae: Cubic arrangements of eight cocci.
Staphylococci and Streptococci: Irregular clusters or chains.
Bacilli Arrangements:
Diplobacilli: Pairs of rod-shaped bacteria.
Streptobacilli: Chains of rod-shaped bacteria.
4. Variations:
Bacteria can also exhibit variations in size and form based on growth
conditions and environmental factors.
Under certain conditions, some bacteria may develop irregular shapes or
variations in size.
4.MOTILITY OF MICROBES:
Motility in microbes refers to their ability to move and change position
within their environment. microbial motility is a crucial characteristic that
influences various aspects of their behavior, survival, and interactions
with their surroundings. different microorganisms employ diverse
mechanisms for movement, reflecting their
adaptation to specific environmental conditions.
1. flagellar movement:
many bacteria and some archaea are motile due to the presence of
flagella.
flagella: whip-like appendages that protrude from the surface of the cell.
flagellar rotation propels the microorganism through liquid environments.
bacterial flagella can be classified into different arrangements, including
monotrichous (single flagellum). amphitrichous (flagella at both ends),
lophotrichous (multiple flagella at one end). and peritrichous (flagella all
over the surface).
2. ciliary or ciliate movement:
protozoa, such as paramecium, exhibit motility using hair-like structures
called cilia.
cilia: short, numerous projections that beat in coordinated waves,
allowing the microorganism to move through liquids.
3. Pseudopod Formation:
Amoeboid movemuch as amoebasistic of certain protozoa, such as
Pseudopodia: Temporary extensions of the cell membrane and cytoplasm
that enable the microorganism to crawl and engulf prey.
4. Gliding Movement:
Some bacteria and algae exhibit gliding
motility, where they move smoothly along surfaces without the use of
flagella or cilia. The mechanisms behind gliding movement are not fully
understood and can vary among different microorganisms.
5. Twitching and Swarming:
Some bacteria, especially those with pili or fimbriae, exhibit twitching
motility, characterized by rapid, jerky movements across surfaces.
Swarming motility involves the coordinated movement of a population of
bacteria across surfaces, often facilitated by flagella or other appendages.
6. Chemotaxis:
Microorganisms can move in response to chemical gradients, a
phenomenon known as chemotaxis.
Positive chemotaxis involves movement toward a favorable chemical
stimulus, while negative chemotaxis involves movement away from an
unfavorable stimulus.
7. Phototaxis:
Some microorganisms, particularly certain bacteria and algae, exhibit
movement in response to light (phototaxis). This is often observed in the
context of photosynthesis.
8. Hydrostatic Pressure:
Certain microbes, such as spirochetes, move through the generation of
internal hydrostatic pressure, resulting in corkscrew-like motion.