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Comparison of body composition among settled and Nomadic Turkana of Kenya

Article in Ecology of Food and Nutrition · May 2003

DOI: 10.1080/03670240390228978

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Comparison of body composition among settled and

nomadic Turkana of Kenya
a b c d
S. Corbett , S. Gray , B. Campbell & P. W. Leslie
a
Center on Aging , University of Kansas Medical Center , Kansas City, Kansas
b
Department of Anthropology , University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas
c
Department of Anthropology , Boston University , Boston, Massachusetts
d
Department of Anthropology , University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Published online: 17 Sep 2010.

To cite this article: S. Corbett , S. Gray , B. Campbell & P. W. Leslie (2003) Comparison of body composition among settled
and nomadic Turkana of Kenya, Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 42:3, 193-212, DOI: 10.1080/03670240390228978

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 Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 42:193–212, 2003
Copyright © 2003 Taylor & Francis
ISSN: 0367-0244 print / 1534-5237 online
DOI: 10.1080/03670240390228978

COMPARISON OF BODY COMPOSITION

AMONG SETTLED AND NOMADIC
TURKANA OF KENYA
Downloaded by [University of Kansas Libraries] at 11:27 12 May 2014

S. CORBETT
Center on Aging, University of Kansas Medical Center,
Kansas City, Kansas

S. GRAY
Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas

B. CAMPBELL
Department of Anthropology, Boston University,
Boston, Massachusetts

P. W. LESLIE
Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Adoption of farming along the rivers of Turkana District in Kenya has lead to the
settling of traditionally nomadic Ngisonyoka Turkana pastoralists. The impact of
resulting changes in activity and energy expenditure, disease, and diet have not
been investigated previously. This study examines the effects of subsistence transition
on body composition of nomadic and settled Turkana.
Anthropometric measurements (height, weight, skinfolds, circumferences) were
taken in 1989–1990 and 1994, from a sample of 93 nomadic and 81 settled males,
and 184 nomadic and 107 settled females. The two groups were compared by sex
using univariate tests. Factor analysis was used to identify important components
of body composition differences, and these were tested for differences between
groups. The effects of age and parity on body build were removed for the analysis.
Sposored by NSF grant DBS - 9207837.
Address correspondence to Steve Corbett, 404 E. 10th Street, Lawrence, KS
66044. E-mail: scorbett@kumc.edu

193
 194 S. CORBETT ET AL.

Results indicate that settled males and females both have greater fat stores
than nomads. No differences were found between male groups in fat-free mass.
However, nomadic females develop more lean tissue and are larger than settled
females.

Differences in body composition between groups probably reflect differences

in diet, disease, and activity. The settled diet based primarily on grains may be
calorically sufficient to encourage fat tissue stores, but deficient in protein necessary
for fat-free tissue development and growth. The high protein, low calorie nomadic
diet may contribute to maintaining fat-free mass but not adipose tissue. Increased
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exposure to pathogens may contribute to differences in overall body composition

by increasing the nitrogen and amino acid requirements of the settled population.
Differences in physical activities may be responsible for some bodily differences by
encouraging muscle hypertrophy.

KEY WORDS: Turkana, Anthropometrics, Body Composition, Subsistence

Transition, Nomadic, Pastoralism, Agriculture, Fat-free Mass, Adipose Tissue,
Activity Patterns

INTRODUCTION

Over the last decade, a series of studies involving nomadic Ngisonyoka

Turkana pastoralists of South Turkana have been undertaken as part
of the South Turkana Ecosystem Project (STEP). These studies have
concentrated on growth, nutrition, and reproductive and cultural
ecology of the Ngisonyoka (Leslie and Fry, 1989; Leslie et al., 1993,
1994; Little et al., 1983; Little and Johnson, 1986, 1987; Little et al.,
1992, 1993). The Ngisonyoka are a tribal subsection of the Turkana
who inhabit 8,600 km² of the 67,000 km² Turkana District in north-
western Kenya (Ellis et al., 1987; Leslie and Fry, 1989; McCabe,
1987; Figure 1).
The Turkana are an Eastern Nilotic group (Lamphear, 1988)
who practice nomadic pastoralism as their mode of subsistence, herd-
ing camels, cattle, goats, sheep, and donkeys. Unlike many pastoral
societies which incorporate agriculture into their economy, the
Turkana rely almost entirely on their animals for food, making them
one of the most exclusively pastoral of extant human populations
(Galvin, 1992).
 BODY COMPOSITION AMONG SETTLED AND NOMADIC TURKANA 195
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FIGURE 1. Ngisonyoka territory in Turkana District

 196 S. CORBETT ET AL.

The pastoralist Turkana sometimes trade with agriculturalists

to obtain grain. Many of these agriculturalists are Turkana who were
once themselves pastoralists (McCabe, 1990a). During the severe
droughts of the 1960s and 1970s, agricultural settlements were es-
tablished by donor agencies and Catholic missions to provide desti-
tute pastoralists with food relief. These settlements were designed as
development schemes and food-for-work programs, funded by such
programs as the United States Agency for International Develop-
ment (USAID), the Turkana Rehabilitation Project, and the Norwe-
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gian Aid Agency (NORAD). Missionary work was organized

primarily by the Irish Kiltigan Fathers, Medical Missionaries of Mary,
and the Protestant African Inland Church (Shelley, 1985).
Drought combined with livestock raiding by enemy tribes left
many Turkana pastoralists destitute and unable to return to the pas-
toral sector (McCabe, 1990a; Shelley, 1985). It was these Turkana
who stayed near settlements and became farmers. The settlements
are located along the Turkwell and Kerio Rivers, which provide wa-
ter for irrigation (Little et al., 1992). Among the most important settle-
ments are Turkwell and Kerio (along their respective rivers), Morulem
and Lokori along the Kerio, Lokichar along the smaller Lokichar
River, and Katilu on the banks of the Turkwell (Galvin, 1985;
McCabe, 1990a; Shelley, 1985).
Different subsistence strategies between the nomadic and settled
Turkana result in diets of different nutritional composition and qual-
ity. Nomadic Turkana consume large amounts of animal protein,
chiefly in the form of milk (Galvin, 1985, 1992; Little, 1989). Much
of the diet of settled Turkana consists of grains, specifically sorghum,
millet, and maize (Brainard, 1990). However, settled Turkana keep
some animals and conduct trade with nomads who are either rela-
tives or friends (Little et al., 1993).
Subsistence also impacts activity patterns. The physical activity
of the nomadic Turkana males involves a great deal of walking and
herding animals from one place to another. Nomadic women usu-
ally are responsible for watering the animals, which involves a great
deal of lifting and hauling. Settled females do a great deal of the
agricultural work associated with planting and harvesting crops.
Settled Turkana men may work as laborers in the main settlements,
tend to the few small livestock they keep, or even manufacture and
sell charcoal. Galvin (1985) found nomadic Turkana activity and
 BODY COMPOSITION AMONG SETTLED AND NOMADIC TURKANA 197

energy expenditure to be less than that of the Mossi of Upper Volta,

who are an agricultural population. However, Little and Gray (1990)
found that nomadic Turkana children expended much more energy
than settled Turkana school children. They felt that the nomadic
children’s diet and greater activity contributed to their smaller body
size (Little and Gray, 1990).
The purpose of this analysis is to examine differences in body
composition among nomadic and settled Ngisonyoka Turkana men
and women from South Turkana. The primary hypothesis is that
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body composition varies significantly between the nomadic and settled

groups due to nutritional differences resulting from differences in
subsistence strategies and seasonal effects on dietary intake and ac-
tivity. The study also examines relationships between body composi-
tion and activity patterns, sex, parity (in women), and age. Differences
in activity patterns due to different subsistence strategies are expected
to result in different ratios of fat to lean tissue. This effect also is
expected to vary within groups due to the different activities of males
and females. Parity is expected to affect nomadic and settled females
to different degrees due to nutritional differences during pregnancy
and lactation. Finally, if the age composition of the groups differs
there may be body composition differences because age affects body
build (Bogin, 1988).

STUDY AREA AND PEOPLE

Turkana District, or Turkanaland (Eturkan), as it is referred to by

the Turkana (Gulliver and Gulliver, 1953; Lamphear, 1992), is lo-
cated in the Gregory Rift Valley of Kenya, lying between the Ugan-
dan Escarpment on the west and Lake Turkana (formerly known as
Lake Rudolf) on the east (Gulliver and Gulliver, 1953). The Gregory
Rift Valley, between one and five degrees north latitude, is approxi-
mately 609 m lower than the surrounding country, and occupies
37,739.7 km² (Coughenour and Ellis, 1993; Gulliver and Gulliver,
1953). The area is best described as a great plain (Gulliver, 1955),
made up of gravel, rock, lava, pebbles, and brown, gray, and red
soils (Henriksen, 1974). Dispersed throughout the plain are hills, vol-
canic mountains, and mountain ranges ascending between 1,500 and
2,100 m (Gulliver, 1955; Henriksen, 1974). Ngisonyoka territory is
 198 S. CORBETT ET AL.

approximately 8600 km2 and is located toward the southwest border

of Turkana District (Figure 1). The two largest rivers in Turkana
District, the Turkwell and Kerio, roughly mark the border of
Ngisonyoka territory.
From an ecological perspective, rain is the most important fac-
tor affecting plants, humans, and animals in Turkana (Galvin, 1992).
Rainfall is extremely variable, ranging from 150 to 600 mm annu-
ally in the south (Galvin, 1992) and from 25 to 355 mm annually at
Lodwar in the north (Gulliver, 1955). The rainfall pattern is such
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that rains are most likely to occur only during two or three months,
the rest of the year is typically dry (Galvin, 1992).
Rainfall indirectly affects body composition through dietary
intake, since the rains stimulate the growth of vegetation on which
Turkana livestock feed. With more vegetation comes increased milk
production from livestock, and the pastoralists respond to this with
increases in food intake and rapid increases in fat and lean tissue as a
result (Leslie and Fry, 1989). However, Galvin (1996) found little sea-
sonal change in the nutritional status and dietary intake among the
nomadic Turkana. Nevertheless, the rainy season in Turkana (gener-
ally March through June or July, although variable) is the period of
plenty for the pastoralists. For the agricultural Turkana however, the
harvesting of crops is done after the rainy season is over. Thus, the
rainy season is the period of nutritional stress for the settled groups
(Brainard, 1986).
The Turkana number about 200,000 people in nineteen sub-
sections, or territorial groups; Ngisonyoka is one such subsection
(Ecosystems Ltd., 1985; Little et al., 1990; McCabe, 1990b). The
Turkana are a Teso-Turkana speaking group of the Eastern Nilotic
language family (Greenberg, 1966), and are the largest tribe of the
Karimojong cluster (Gulliver and Gulliver, 1953). The Ngisonyoka
tribal area supports a community of approximately 14,500 individu-
als (Ellis et al., 1987). Oral tradition holds that the Turkana broke off
from the Jie tribe, probably before the early nineteenth century
(Gulliver and Gulliver, 1953; Lamphear, 1988). They have since de-
veloped a complex system of nomadic pastoralism, which differs from
the pastoral systems of other Karimojong groups in its almost exclu-
sive reliance on livestock for subsistence, as well as in their use of
camels (Ellis et al., 1987; Galvin, 1992).
Virtually all of the food that the nomadic Turkana consume is
 BODY COMPOSITION AMONG SETTLED AND NOMADIC TURKANA 199

derived from their animals. The pastoralists prefer milk to all other
food, and it is the most important item of the Turkana diet. On aver-
age, 62 percent of the Turkana diet comes from milk (Galvin, 1992).
At the height of the wet season, as much as 90 percent of total calo-
ries may come from milk (McCabe, 1987). Meat, blood, and fat make
up only 2 percent of the wet season calories, with the remaining
calories coming from wild foods, sugar, and tea. During the dry sea-
son, milk production may be only one-fourth of that of the wet sea-
son, supplying only 30 percent of the total calories. The rest of the
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dry season diet consists of meat, blood, and fat (29 percent), grains
(24 percent) which the nomadic Turkana obtain through trade with
farmers, and wild foods, tea, and sugar (17 percent; Galvin, 1985,
1992).
Average energy intake of nomadic Turkana during the wet sea-
son is estimated at 1434 kcal/person/day, and at 1308 kcal/person/
day in the dry season. When adult males are excluded, wet season
energy intake averages 1103 kcal/person/day, and dry season intake
averages 979 kcal/person/day (Galvin, 1992; Little et al., 1988). An
average for all ages and sexes throughout the year is about 1275 kcal/
person/day (Little et al., 1990).
Less is known about the energy intake of the settled Turkana,
but the dietary intake of settled Turkana differs from that of the no-
mads. According to Little and Gray (1990), the settled Turkana are
dependent on cultivated foods. They grow maize, sorghum, and millet
and consume most of what they grow. Some may keep livestock, but
raiding from nearby enemy Pokot tribesmen discourages the prac-
tice. The food of settled Turkana consists primarily of a maizemeal
(posho), which is prepared as a porridge (ugali) and served with other
agricultural foods (Little and Gray, 1990).

METHODS

Anthropometric measurements were taken among samples of males

and females representing both settled agricultural and nomadic pas-
toral Turkana groups. Measurements of the males were taken in the
field in July of 1994, a relatively dry year. Female anthropometric
examinations were conducted in May, June, and July of 1989 (a par-
ticularly rainy year), and in June, July, and August of 1990. Thus the
 200 S. CORBETT ET AL.

measurements were taken in or immediately following the wet sea-

son. The sample consists of 184 nomadic females, 93 nomadic males,
107 settled females, and 81 settled males.
The measurements taken were weight, height, 3 circumferences
(mid/upper-arm [MAC/UAC], waist [WC], and mid-calf [MCC]),
and 6 skinfolds (triceps [TCSF], subscapular [SSSF], suprailiac
[SISF], peri-umbilical [PUSF], mid-calf [MCSF]), and mid axillary
[MASF]. Derived from some of these measurements were the vari-
ables muscle plus bone area (MPBA) of the upper arm, arm adipose
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tissue area (AATA), and body mass index (BMI). MPBA and AATA
were derived using equations from Gurney and Jelliffe (1973).
Height was measured to the nearest millimeter with a standard
anthropometer. Weight was measured to the nearest 0.2 kg using a
small Detecto brand beam scale. Circumferences were measured to
the nearest mm with a Helvetia cloth tape. Skinfolds were taken us-
ing skinfold calipers. Measurements were taken by one researcher,
and recorded by another. Three separate measurements were taken
for the skinfolds in order to establish and control for intra-observer
error. The technical error of measurement (r) is equal to:
N

∑
i=1
[∑xK
2
j
−
K
(∑ x j ) 2
]
j=1 j=1

K
N (K − 1 )

where xj² is the squared value of the jth replicate, K is the number of
measurements of the variable for each subject, and N is the number
of subjects (Malina et al., 1973).
Univariate t-tests and U-tests were used to test for significant
differences in each measurement between nomadic and settled
males and between nomadic and settled females. The effects of
age and parity (in females) were removed from the variables us-
ing regression analysis. Multivariate principal components factor
analysis using the residuals from regression was performed to iden-
tify the major components of physique and to provide uncorrelated
variables that could be used to test for significant differences in
body composition between the nomadic and settled groups.
Varimax rotation was used to maximize the variables’ loadings
on the factor on which they were most influential. Factor score
 BODY COMPOSITION AMONG SETTLED AND NOMADIC TURKANA 201

TABLE I
Means and Significance of the Anthropometric and Derived Variables from
Nomadic and Settled Turkana Males
Variable Nomads Settled
N 93 81
WT (kg) 52.48 51.30
HT (cm) 172.08 170.92
MAC (cm) 22.24 22.95
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WC (cm) 71.09 70.86

MCC (cm) 29.76 29.64
TCSF (mm) 5.56 5.33
SSSF (mm)** 6.90 7.43
SISF (mm)*** 4.65 5.68
PUSF (mm)*** 5.57 7.71
MCSF (mm) 4.41 4.90
MASF (mm)*** 4.48 4.95
AATA (cm3) 5.49 5.68
MPBA (cm3)*** 33.85 36.56
BMI (kg/m2) 17.62 17.50
* p = 0.05
** p = 0.01
*** p = 0.001

TABLE II
Factors Identified by Factor Analysis, Median Values, and Significance for the Factor
Scores of Nomadic and Settled Turkana Males
Variable Nomad Settled
Size (HT, WT, 0.2755 –0.0778
MAC, MCC, WC)
Fat*** 0.3685 – 0.3115
(all skinfolds)
*** p = 0.001

coefficients were used to determine factor scores for each obser-

vation on each factor. Nomad versus settled comparisons con-
sisted of testing for differences between the two groups using their
factor scores for the axes which accounted for the most variation
in body composition. All statistical calculations were performed
in MINITAB (1995), release 10 Xtra.
 202 S. CORBETT ET AL.

RESULTS

Significant differences were found between groups of males with re-

gard to their relative levels of fatness. The settled males had signifi-
cantly greater values for most of the skinfold measurements (see Table
I). Accordingly, males differed significantly with regard to the multi-
variate variable indicative of fatness (see Table II), with the settled
males being generally fatter (see Figure 2). No significant differences
were found between groups of males for those variables indicative of
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size or fat-free mass.

The age distributions of the nomad and settled groups of males
differed. Mean age was 40 for the nomads, with a median of 35, and
ages ranged from 15 to 80 years. Mean age was 49 for the agricultur-
alists, with a median of 52, and the ages ranged from 17 to 86. Thus,
the settled sample of males contained a greater number of older in-
dividuals, many of whom were over 50.
Research indicates that Turkana continue to grow well into their
twenties (Little et al., 1983). Because of the possibility that the differ-
ing age composition of the two groups may be affecting their relative
sizes, a reanalysis between groups for the size factor was done ex-
cluding the age groups 10–19, 20–29, and 80+ (there was only one
nomad in the 80+ group). A t-test on the size factor scores not ad-
Mean of sum of 4 skinfolds (mm)

110
Nomad

100
Settled

90

80

70
10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80+
age group

FIGURE 2 Sum of four skinfolds of nomadic and settled Turkana males.

 BODY COMPOSITION AMONG SETTLED AND NOMADIC TURKANA 203

45
Nomad

Mean of MPBA (cm 2)

40 Settled

35

30

10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69

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age group

FIGURE 3 Muscle plus bone area (MPBA) of nomadic and settled Turkana females.

justed for the effects of age was significant (p = 0.001). Compared to

the previous results, this is a major change. However, a t-test on the
size factor scores adjusted for the effects of age was still not signifi-
cant with 95 percent confidence (p = 0.065).
Significant differences were found between nomadic and
settled Turkana females for most of the anthropometric variables
(see Table III). These differences are summarized by the multi-

TABLE III
Means and Significance of the Anthropometric and Derived Variables from
Nomadic and Settled Turkana Females
Variable Nomads Settled
N 184 107
WT (kg)*** 48.25 45.18
HT (cm)* 165.21 163.38
MCC (cm) 29.73 29.72
UAC (cm)** 24.43 23.82
TCSF (mm)*** 9.90 11.67
SSSF (mm)*** 7.54 9.28
PUSF (mm)* 6.99 7.72
MCSF (mm)*** 7.58 10.09
BMI (kg/m2)** 17.65 16.92
AATA (cm3)** 11.41 13.07
MPBA (cm3)*** 37.04 31.64
* p = 0.05
** p = 0.01
*** p = 0.001
 204 S. CORBETT ET AL.

TABLE IV. Factors Identified by Factor Analysis, Median Values, and Significance
for the Factor Scores of Nomadic and Settled Turkana Females
Variable Nomad Settled
Fat*** –0.3537 0.2885
(TCSF, SSSF,
PUSF, MCSF)
Size** (WT, HT, –0.0847 0.4657
UAC, MCC)
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** p = 0.01
*** p = 0.001

variate variables, which show differences between groups of fe-

males in size and fatness (see Table IV). Nomadic females had
greater values for most of those variables indicative of size and
fat-free mass (see Figure 3), while settled females had greater val-
ues for variables indicative of fatness (see Figures 4 and 5). Mater-
nal fat depletion with increasing parity was found to be more
pronounced among the nomadic females than among the settled
females (see Table V and Figures 6 and 7).
Unlike the two groups of males, the nomadic and settled female
groups did not differ greatly with regard to their age composition.
Mean age was 33.1 with a median age of 31 for the nomadic females.
Mean age of the settled females was 33.9, with a median value of 33.

15
Nomad
Mean of AATA (cm 2)

Settled

10

10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69

age group

FIGURE 4 Arm adipose tissue area (AATA) of nomadic and settled Turkana
females.
 BODY COMPOSITION AMONG SETTLED AND NOMADIC TURKANA 205

TABLE V. Correlations of the Anthropometric Variables with Parity for Nomad

and Settled Turkana Females
Variable Nomads Settled
WT 0.014 0.008
HT –0.084 –0.003
UAC –0.062 0.098
MCC –0.151* –0.087
TCSF –0.103 –0.008
SSSF –0.161* –0.054
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SISF –0.194* —
MASF –0.192* —
PUSF –0.354* –0.225*
MCSF –0.177* –0.059
AATA –0.103 –0.005
MPBA 0.028 0.118
BMI 0.050 –0.030
Fat factor –0.351* –0.081
Size factor –0.088 –0.042
*Significant at the 0.05 level

DISCUSSION

The results indicate a relationship between body composition and

subsistence patterns. The greater fat stores of the settled Turkana
males and females may reflect a greater overall caloric intake than
the nomads. It is possible that the crops the settled Turkana rely on

80
Mean of sum of 4 skinfolds

Nomad
70

60
Settled
50

40

30

20

10
10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69
age group

FIGURE 5 Sum of four skinfolds of nomadic and settled Turkana females.

 206 S. CORBETT ET AL.

4
Nomad
3

2 Settled

fat factor 1

-1

-2
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
parity

FIGURE 6 Mean values of the fatness factor by parity for nomadic and settled
Turkana females.

may provide more total calories than the animal products the no-
mads are dependent upon.
The greater fat stores of settled Turkana also may reflect the
metabolically expensive high protein diet of the nomads, since pro-
tein requires more energy to process as fuel than do carbohydrates
(Wardlaw and Insel, 1996). This fact may result in an inability of the
nomads to build fat stores because of their reliance on protein as the
primary macronutrient. The extra energy required to process pro-
tein for use as fuel, combined with the low overall caloric intake of
the nomads, may not provide enough calories to build substantial fat
stores.
Greater fat stores among the settled females possibly buffers them
somewhat from the maternal depletion seen in the nomadic females.
Little et al. (1992) speculated that the different effects of parity on
the two groups were due to reproductive history, activity patterns,
and/or dietary intake. Differential nutritional intake is a likely expla-
nation for the different effects of parity on the body composition of
nomadic and settled females in this study.
The greater size and lean tissue of the nomadic females may be
a result of their high protein intake, which facilitates growth and
muscle development. Animal protein with its essential amino acids,
along with calcium, zinc, vitamin A, and the B-vitamins are among
the most important nutrients for bone and muscle growth and main-
tenance. The greater size of the nomadic females suggests that they
 BODY COMPOSITION AMONG SETTLED AND NOMADIC TURKANA 207

may experience greater intake of these nutrients. It also suggests the

possibility that settled females experience a chronic deficiency in those
nutrients which promote linear growth and muscle tissue develop-
ment.
Overall, these differences in nutritional intake are possibly due
to differences in subsistence patterns which affect dietary intake. The
pastoral diet of milk, blood and meat provides the nomads with those
nutrients which facilitate growth. The settled Turkana diet consist-
ing mostly of grains may be deficient in essential amino acids and
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those micronutrients necessary for normal growth.

An additional factor that might possibly be contributing to the
smaller size of settled Turkana females may be the incidence of dis-
ease and infection. Without adequate amounts of protein, amino acids
used for tissue growth and maintenance may have to be diverted to
fight infections, resulting in less growth and the loss of some lean
tissue. A higher infection rate and lower protein intake among the
settled Turkana may be contributing to their smaller size.
Murray et al. (1980) studied the disease rates of two groups of
Turkana who consumed different diets: one group in which milk was
the primary dietary staple, and another in which milk and fish were
the predominant foods. They found that incidence of malaria, bru-
cellosis, diarrhea, and viral infections (molluscum contagiosum and
common warts) were higher in Turkana who supplemented their
diets with fish. It was suggested that, over hundreds of years of

25
Nomad

20
PUSF (mm)

Settled
15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
parity

FIGURE 7 Mean values of periumbilical skinfold (PUSF) by parity for nomadic

and settled Turkana females.
 208 S. CORBETT ET AL.

pastoral subsistence, a relationship developed between the Turkana

diet, human hosts, and infective microorganisms which optimized
survival for both the host and its parasite. This ecological bal-
ance was upset by a change in diet, thus rendering the microor-
ganisms more toxic to the host (Murray et al., 1980). The dietary
switch from primarily animal products to the agricultural prod-
ucts of settled Turkana may be causing them to suffer more se-
verely from infective agents in the same manner as those Turkana
who ate fish in the 1980 study.
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Settled Turkana also may experience higher rates of infec-

tion than the nomadic Turkana because of conditions associated
with their change of physical environment. Malaria is among the
most prevalent of diseases in Turkana District (Shelley, 1985). It
is likely to be even more prevalent among settled agricultural
populations of Turkana because of their closer proximity to wa-
ter. Agricultural schemes are located along rivers in Turkana Dis-
trict, and agricultural activities often result in an increase in the
number of calm, standing pools of water (Little et al., 1993). These
are primary breeding grounds for the Anopheles mosquito re-
sponsible for spreading malaria. Also associated with the settled
agricultural schemes are diseases related to sanitation and hy-
giene, such as hepatitis and amebic dysentery. The use of water
sources for drinking and household purposes that may be con-
taminated by bathing and human waste likely increases the spread
of infections (Brainard, 1990). Intestinal parasites, unlike malaria,
are not a significant problem in Turkana District (Shelley, 1985).
Why there are significant differences in fat free mass between
female groups and no significant differences between groups of males
may be due to the greater availability of milk to nomadic females
who are responsible for milking the animals (Wienpahl, 1984). Fe-
males have been known to consume large quantities of milk in a
matter of seconds (Little et al., 1992), a sort of “skimming off the
top” while milking. Also, nomadic females approaching the age of
marriage and child bearing are fed preferentially and thus receive
the largest portions of food (Galvin, 1985; Gray, 1994; Wienpahl,
1984).
Activity patterns may be responsible for some of the observed
differences, such as those seen in the arm anthropometry of the no-
madic and settled females. The nomadic females have much greater
 BODY COMPOSITION AMONG SETTLED AND NOMADIC TURKANA 209

muscle and bone areas of the upper arm, which may be due to their
being responsible for providing water for and milking the animals,
activities which encourage muscle buildup (Little et al., 1983; Little
and Johnson, 1986).

CONCLUSIONS

Nomadic and settled Turkana males and females differ with regard
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to their body composition. Dietary differences are a probable cause

of these physical differences. Though nomad and possibly settled
Turkana groups experience a low caloric intake, the nomads likely
consume even less total calories than the settled group. This is sug-
gested by the nomads’ smaller stores of adipose tissue.
The settled Turkana may not be sufficiently adapted to a pri-
marily agricultural diet. The agricultural diet of settled females is
likely resulting in reductions in lean body mass due to long-term
nutritional stress, stress which may be contributing to a high rate of
fetal loss. The nomadic lifestyle in many ways avoids disease risks
that are being encouraged by settled agricultural activities, diseases
such as malaria due to a close proximity to water and diseases asso-
ciated with sanitation and hygiene which are problems at perma-
nent settlements.
Any attempt to develop the economy and settle some or all of
the nomads in Turkana must recognize that a subsistence based on
agriculture, while providing more food and thus possibly contribut-
ing to a reduction in childhood mortality, does not provide all of the
necessary nutrients to insure a healthy existence. Steps must be taken
to minimize the negative effects of subsistence transition. These must
include providing a diet that supplies all of the essential nutrients of
growth, as well as providing medical care to combat diseases encour-
aged by sedenterization along rivers. Above all, development in
Turkana must take into account the desires and best interests of the
traditional nomadic Turkana.
It cannot be determined with certainty which factors are most
responsible for the observed differences between subsistence groups.
More precise data need to be collected on dietary intake and activity
patterns of the two groups, particularly the settled Turkana, who
have not been extensively studied. It also would be useful to quantify
 210 S. CORBETT ET AL.

the disease rates of each group. Due to a cultural or familial compo-

nent related to which Turkana settle and which remain nomadic, a
quantitative genetic analysis needs to be conducted to ensure that
observed differences between groups do not simply reflect genetic/
familial differences.

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