FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

PART 1
• Introduction to Surveying
• Types of Surveys
• Pacing
• Theory of Errors in Observations
• Corrections to Tape Measurement

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

Surveying (or Geomatics) is defined as the science of gathering information

about the physical Earth. It includes measurement of distances, determining relative
positions of points on or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.

TYPES OF SURVEYS

There are many types of surveys depending on its purpose.

1. Cadastral Surveys
2. Construction Surveys
3. Hydrographic Surveys
4. Industrial Surveys
5. Mine Surveys
6. Photogrammetric Surveys
7. Route Surveys
8. Topographic Surveys

PACING
Pacing is one of the simplest methods of measuring distances. It is used in
instances where approximate results can be enough for the data needed, such as
getting the rodman in position during a cross-section survey, or simply measuring a
relatively short distance where accuracy is not that of an issue.

Pace – length of a step. Measure from heel to heel, or toe to toe.

Stride – A double step. One stride is equivalent to two paces.
Pace Factor – the distance covered by one pace.
CONVERSION TABLE FOR SOME UNITS USED IN SURVEYING

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Significant figures are all numbers that add to the meaning of the overall value of the
number.

Some general rules regarding significant figures.

1. All non-zero numbers ARE significant.

2. Zeros between two non-zero digits ARE significant.
3. Leading zeros are NOT significant.
4. Trailing zeros to the right of the decimal ARE significant.
5. Trailing zeros in a whole number with the decimal shown ARE significant.
6. Trailing zeros in a whole number with no decimal shown are NOT significant.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Problem 1-1
Find the number of significant figures in the value 0.00860.
Problem 1-2
A line was measured to have 8 tallies, 6 pins, and 30 links. How long is the line in
meters?
Problem 1-3
A line was measured with a 50-meter tape. There were 10 tallies, 16 pins, and the
distance from the last pin to the end line was found to be 2.5 meters. Find the length of
the line in meters.
Problem 1-4
A distance was measured and was recorded to have a value equivalent to 10 perches,
5 rods, and 50 varas. Compute the total distance in feet.
Problem 1-5
A line 100 meters long was paced by a surveyor for five (5) times with the following
number of strides: 71, 72, 68, 70, and 71. Another line was paced five times again with
the following results: 634, 631, 632, 635, and 637.
1. Determine the pace factor.
2. Determine the distance of the new line.
THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATION

Error is the difference between the observed value and the true value of a
measurement. In reality, true values can never be identified thus, all observations are
assumed to have errors. Surveyors are tasked to correct their observations depending on
many factors such as the mechanical equipment used, environmental conditions during
the survey, and how careful the person is during the survey.

• Systematic/Cumulative Errors
• Accidental Errors/ Random Errors
• Precision And Accuracy
• Most Probable Value
• Error/Residual/Deviation
• Standard Deviation of Any Single Observation
• Standard Error of The Mean
• Probable Error
• Probable Error of Any Single Observation
• Probable Error of The Mean
• Probable Error/Precision
• Interrelationship of Errors
• Summation of Errors
• Product of Errors

Rules For Weighted Measurements

1. The weight is directly proportional to the number of observations or measurements.
2. The weight is inversely proportional to the square of the probable errors.
3. The weight is inversely proportional to the distance.
4. The weight is inversely proportional to the number of set-ups.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Problem 1-6
Given the following data in measuring a distance of a certain line.
DISTANCE NO. OF MEASUREMENTS
47.23 3
47.21 2
47.19 4
47.27 2

1. Determine the most probable value of measurements.

2. Calculate the standard deviation of any single observation.
3. Calculate the standard error of the mean.
4. Calculate the probable error of any single observation.
5. Calculate probable error of the mean.
6. Determine the relative error of precision of the mean.
Problem 1-7
From the following tabulated data, several lines of levels are run over different routes
from Benchmark-1 to Benchmark-2.
ROUTE DISTANCE DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION
A 6 km 25. 012 m
B 8 km 24. 958 m
C 10 km 25.135 m
1. Determine the most probable value of the difference in elevation between BM1 and
BM2.
Problem 1-8
The following interior angles of a triangular traverse were measured with the same
precision.

ANGLE VALUE NO. OF MEASUREMENTS

A 41°30'45" 5
B 77°15'15" 6
C 60°14'30" 2
1. Determine the most probable value of angle A, in sexagesimal form.
2. Determine the most probable value of angle B, in sexagesimal form.
3. Determine the most probable value of angle C, in sexagesimal form.
Problem 1-9
The following data are the observed elevation of a point by running a line of levels over
four different routes, in meters.

ROUTE ELEVATION PROBABLE ERROR

A 312.14 ±0.08
B 311.72 ±0.04
C 312.28 ±0.02
D 312.24 ±0.01
1. Using the method of least squares, determine the weight of elevation taken from
route D.
2. Determine the corresponding relative weight of the elevation taken from route B if the
relative weight of route A is set as 1.0
3. Determine the most probable value of the elevation of the observed point.
Problem 1-10
Assume that a line is measured in three sections, with errors in the individual parts
equal to ±0.012, ±0.028, ±0.020 feet respectively. Determine the anticipated error of the
total length.
Problem 1-11
The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated probable errors
as follows: W = 324.36 ± 0.075 m and L = 568.15 ± 0.096 m
1. Determine the probable error in the area of the rectangular lot.
2. Determine the range where there is a 50% chance that the true area may lie.
CORRECTIONS TO TAPE MEASUREMENT

Measuring tapes are calibrated at controlled conditions. Surveyors need to consider

environmental factors when measuring distances using these instruments. The errors
are relatively small for short distances, but they acclimate and become significant when
measuring long distances.

• Temperature Correction.
• Pull Correction.
• Sag Correction
• Normal Tension
• Slope Correction
• Mean Sea Level Correction
• Elongation of a Tape Hanging Vertically

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Problem 1-12
To measure a base line, a steel tape 30 m long, standardized at 15°C with a pull of 80 N
was used. Find the correction per tape length, if the temperature at the time of
measurements is 25°C and the pull exerted is 150 N. Take Young's modulus E = 2 x
10^5 N/mm^2 and coefficient of thermal expansion a= 11.6 x 10^-6/C. Cross-sectional
area of tape is 8mm^2
Problem 1-13
A 50-m tape weighs 2-kg. Every time a measurement is performed, the tape is
supported at its end points and at the 8-m and 25-m marks. Idlf a pull of 6 kg is applied,
determine the following:
1. Correction due to sag for one tape length.
2. Correct distance between the ends of the tape.
3. The same tape was used to measure a line using the same support locations. If the
line was found to be 150 meters long, determine the correct measurement.
4. Repeat the previous question for a 70-m line.
Problem 1-14
Compute the normal tension which will be applied to a tape supported over two
supports in order to make the tape equal to its nominal length when supported only at
the end points. The steel tape is 30-m long and weighs 1.5kg when supported
throughout its length under a standard pull of 6 kg with the modulus of elasticity is
2x10^6 kg/cm^2 and area of 0.05 cm^2.
Problem 1-15
A distance was measured on an 4% slope amd found to be 1456.5 meters. What is the
horizontal distance measured in meters?
Problem 1-16
A student was asked to make a 345.43 m long line using a 25-m tape that is 0.0021 m
too long. What is the required measurement?
Problem 1-17.
The baseline of a triangulation survey was measured to be 1,800 m at a place having
an altitude of 8 km above sea level. Compute the sea level distance of the baseline.
Problem 1-18
A base line was measured with the tape being suspended in catenary under a pull of
150 N and a mean temperature of 15°C. The lengths of various segments of the tape
and the difference in level of the two ends of each segment are given in the following
table:
SPAN LENGTH(m) DIFFERENCE IN LEVEL(m)
1 49.895 +0.542
2 49.950 -0.458
3 49.835 +0.641
4 49.985 -0.695

Cross-sectional area of the tape = 5.0mm^2

Mass of the tape = 0.03 kg/m
Coefficient of linear expansion = 0.9 x 10^-6 per °C
Modulus of elasticity = 15 x 10^4 MPa
Mean height of the line above M.S.L =100 m
Radius of earth = 6370 km
If the tape was standardized while being flat under a pull of 100 N at 20°C, determine
the correct length of the line.
Problem 1-19
A 1000-m tape is suspended vertically to measure a mine shaft. It is attached with a 5-
kg mass at the bottom for stability. The modulus of elasticity is 200 GPa, the mass of
the tape is 0.08 kg/m and the cross-sectional area of the tape is 10mm^2. If the same
tape was calibrated as 1000.00 m at 150 N tension, what is the true length of the mine
shaft if its recorded measurement is 999.325 m?

END OF PART 1