1.

Retreat of Glaciers
Glaciers periodically retreat or advance, depending on the amount of snow accumulation
or evaporation or melt that occurs. This retreat and advance refers only to the position of
the terminus, or snout, of the glacier. Even as it retreats, the glacier still deforms and
moves downslope, like a conveyor belt.

2. Rising sea level

Sea level rise is an increase in the level of the world's oceans due to the effects of
global warming. Burning fossil fuels is one of the causes of global warming because it
releases carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gasses into the atmosphere.

3. More frequent and severe weather events (Heavy rains, floods)

Changes in extreme weather and climate events, such as heat waves and droughts,
are the primary way that most people experience climate change. Some extreme
weather and climate events have increased in recent decades, and new and
stronger evidence confirms that some of these increases are related to human
activities.

4. More pronounced droughts

Drought—a year with a below-average water supply—is a natural part of the climate
cycle, but as Earth's atmosphere continues to warm due to climate change, droughts
are becoming more frequent, severe, and pervasive.

5. Wildfires
A wildfire is an unplanned fire that burns in a natural area such as a forest,
grassland, or prairie. Wildfires are often caused by human activity or a natural
phenomenon such as lightning, and they can happen at any time or anywhere.

6. Coral Bleaching
When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, or
nutrients, they expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to
turn completely white. The leading cause of coral bleaching is climate change.

2. Yes elderly people have noticed changes in climate now as to compare when they were
younger. As per my lola, typhoons today are much stronger. They have never experienced
typhoon signal number 4 or 5 when they were younger. She also said that summer now is too
hot. Before they can still manage to go out and enjoy summer even under the sun. Now she
said that the sun during noon time at summer can cause heat stroke. It’s so hot that it is no
longer advisable to go out on summer time.
 Global Warming
Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth's climate system
observed since the pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900) due to
human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-
trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth's atmosphere.

Global Warming:
Increased electric bills

Increased incidences of black/brownouts

Increased use of water leads to higher water bills

Increased cost to deliver and repair water systems

Increased cost to deliver and repair water systems

Storms and Floods - cause infrastructure damage and more expensive

clean up

Remodeling homes and buildings

FORESTS
The increased loss of trees and other plant life means there are lesser
plants that use up carbon dioxide.
MELTING GLACIERS
Glaciers have been melting, resulting in a rise in sea levels by 10 to 20
cm during the 20th century.
CORAL BLEACHING
Plant and animal life in the oceans remain in danger that result in the
death of coral animals.
FLOODS
Warmer temperatures cause more evaporation of seawater, this could
result in more precipitation, and may lead to flooding.
DROUGHT, HEAT WAVES, AND WILDFIRES

LOSES IN AGRICULTURE
Less food production for humans and Animals

More resilient invasive species dominate - more pest infestation

Drought - Temperatures in tropical areas may be unsuitable for

Agriculture.

Starvation

Warmer Winters
Less deaths due to extreme cold

Longer growing season

CHANGE OF ECOSYSTEMS

HOW CAN WE LESSEN THE ADVERSE EFFECT OF CLIMATE

CHANGE OR ADAPT TO IT?

International Effort to Address Climate Change

IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

By the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations

Environment Programme

To assess scientific, technical, and socioeconomic information for

understanding climate change
Promoting greater greater awareness of environmental issues
among their citizens
Developing proper attitudes toward the environment among the
young members of the society

MITIGATION
Using less energy by turning off lights, television, or computer, when
you are not using them;

Conserving water and recycling;

Switching to renewable sources of energy

Capturing landfill gasses or making use of biogas

Using public transportation more often, walking to nearby

destinations, or using bicycle to work or school

Mitigation lessens the greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere.

ADAPTATION
Adaptation entails preparing for the impact of climate change to reduce
its negative impacts and to take advantage of potential new
opportunities.

Adapting to Climate change - adapting to: heat waves, floods, ice

storms, strong winds, erosion, change in river and lake levels, and pests
infections.
ADAPTATION
Lessening solid waste and upgrading sewer systems.

Developing emergency alert systems (EAS).

Providing public cooling centers.

Using natural energy for lighting and to heat or cooling buildings.

Building weather-resistant infrastructure.

BOTH ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION

Planting trees

Building green roofs or roof gardens

Buying local food

Using less water

Roof garden - a building that is partially or completely covered with

plants, a growing medium, planted on a waterproof membrane. This
reduces storm water runoff and lowers the cost of cooling a building
CARBON COMPOUNDS
CHAPTER 9 - Page 142
Lesson 24

How does carbon form its compounds?

Carbon is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6. It is nonmetallic and
tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. It belongs to
group 14 of the periodic table. Carbon makes up only about 0.025 percent of Earth's crust.

Lesson 24

How does carbon form its compounds?

Living things like fat, proteins and carbohydrates were different from other substances like acids,
gases, and salts that have nonliving origin.
Lesson 24

How does carbon form its compounds?

Living things like fat, proteins and carbohydrates were different from other substances like acids,
gases, and salts that have nonliving origin.
What is Organic Chemistry?
The development of organic chemistry brought about the advancement in the pharmaceutical
industry.

1853,Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) - was first synthesized and manufactured by Bayer. It helped
in the prevention and cure of diseases and even extension of life.

Aspirin is used to reduce fever and relieve mild to moderate pain from conditions such as muscle
aches, toothaches, common cold, and headaches. It may also be used to reduce pain and swelling
in conditions such as arthritis.

What is Organic Chemistry?

Organic Chemistry is the study of carbon-containing molecules known as organic compounds.

This field of chemistry has been around even during the early Romans, Egyptians, and
Phoenicians when they used dyes extracted from plants and animals.

Soap - animal fat

alcohol - fermenting sugar

What is Organic Chemistry?

Organic Chemistry is the study of carbon-containing molecules known as organic compounds.

This field of chemistry has been around even during the early Romans, Egyptians, and
Phoenicians when they used dyes extracted from plants and animals.

Soap - animal fat

alcohol - fermenting sugar

What is Organic Chemistry?

Organic chemistry has significantly contributed in the development of the petroleum industry.

Petroleum is a mixture of many organic compounds that have been formed as a result of the
decay of living organisms and millions of years of geological stresses.
Petroleum - "oil"(oleum) from rocks (petra).

- fossil fuel

- crude oil, a mixture of several hydrocarbons

What is Organic Chemistry?

The development of organic chemistry brought about the advancement in the pharmaceutical
industry.

1853,Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) - was first synthesized and manufactured by Bayer. It helped
in the prevention and cure of diseases and even extension of life.

Aspirin is used to reduce fever and relieve mild to moderate pain from conditions such as muscle
aches, toothaches, common cold, and headaches. It may also be used to reduce pain and swelling
in conditions such as arthritis.

What is Organic Chemistry?

The development of organic chemistry brought about the advancement in the pharmaceutical
industry.

1853,Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) - was first synthesized and manufactured by Bayer. It helped
in the prevention and cure of diseases and even extension of life.

Aspirin is used to reduce fever and relieve mild to moderate pain from conditions such as muscle
aches, toothaches, common cold, and headaches. It may also be used to reduce pain and swelling
in conditions such as arthritis.
What is Organic Chemistry?

Fractional distillation - the process of petroleum to be separated into various fractions.

What is Organic Chemistry?

Organic chemistry has significantly contributed in the development of the petroleum industry.

Petroleum is a mixture of many organic compounds that have been formed as a result of the
decay of living organisms and millions of years of geological stresses.

Petroleum - "oil"(oleum) from rocks (petra).

- fossil fuel

- crude oil, a mixture of several hydrocarbons

Organic and Inorganic Compounds

Jöns Jakob Berzelius - the first person to classify compounds as organic and Inorganic.
Organic compounds - substances produced by living organisms. Carbon containing compounds.

Inorganic compounds - from nonliving processes. Do not contain carbon.

What is Organic Chemistry?

Fractional distillation - the process of petroleum to be separated into various fractions.

What is Organic Chemistry?

Fractional distillation - the process of petroleum to be separated into various fractions.

 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

Jöns Jakob Berzelius - the first person to classify compounds as organic and Inorganic.
Organic compounds - substances produced by living organisms. Carbon containing compounds.

Inorganic compounds - from nonliving processes. Do not contain carbon.

MATTER
Atoms of most of the elements on Earth are in combination with other atoms. Only the atoms of
the noble gases do not typically combine with other atoms. The chemical xombination of atoms
of two or more kinds of elements form compounds.
UNIT II
Models that account for the distinctive properties of metals.

Composed of closely packed and orderly arranged cations.

Cations - metal ions with one or more electrons removed.

The valence electrons (electrons in the highest/outermost shell) of the metal atoms.

Metallic bonding - the array is held together by the strong attraction between the positive cations
and negative electrons.

Electron Sea Model of Metals

CHAPTER 8
CHEMICAL BONDING
Models that account for the distinctive properties of metals.
Composed of closely packed and orderly arranged cations.
Cations - metal ions with one or more electrons removed.
The valence electrons (electrons in the highest/outermost shell)
of the metal atoms.
Metallic bonding - the array is held together by the strong
attraction between the positive cations and negative electrons.
Electron Sea Model of Metals

Properties of Metal
Their high densities indicate that the atoms are closely packed.

It has high tensile strength, used in the construction of bridges and building.

High thermal and electrical conductivities.

Solid metals are malleable and ductile.

Metals are lustrous useful for decorative items.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUND

IONIC COMPOUND - metals and nonmetals chemically
combined.
IONS - atoms or groups of atoms that are ectrically charged.
CATIONS - positively charge ions.
ANIONS - negatively charge ions.
Salts and Baking Soda: two of the most commonly used salts.
Ionic Compound Properties:
They have high melting and boiling points.
They are nonconductors of electricity when solid, but
conductors when molten or in liquid state and in aqueos
solutions.

Conduction of electricity is possible through the movement of

charged particles.

OCTET RULE
Gilbert Lewis

"Generally, atoms of the representative elements tend to acquire an outer orbital with eight
electrons through chemical reaction."

Valence Electrons
The number of electrons in the orbital of the outermost shell(valence shell) usually determines
the chemical properties of an atom.

The electrons that are in the inner orbitals do not participate in chemical bonds.

Groups 1,2 and 13 to 18 - the outermost orbitals of representative elements.

 Noble gases
Elements from group 18 are generally not reactive. They do not form ions and form new
compounds.

They have very high ionization energy values and, if it were possible to measure their electron
affinities, these would be very high and positive.

These properties are attributed to their stable electronic structure, consisting of completely filled
s and p orbitals in their valence shell.
 Lewis structure
Electron dot structure

The representation in which the symbol of the element is surrounded by it's valence electrons
(represented by dots)

Lewis Structure of Period 3 Elements

Ionic Bond

- the electrostatic attraction that holds together that oppositely

charges ions in a compound.

Ionic Bond
Reaction of sodium - soft reactive metal

chlorine - a green poisonous gas

Formulas and Names of Ionic Compounds

The formula of a compound tells what elements are in the

compound and in what proportions.
Ionic compound can be composed of monatomic and polyatomic ions.

Monatomic ions - contain only one atom which has either a positive or a negative charge.

Polyatomic ions - have two or more atoms that are either positively or negatively charged. The
charged carried is the sum of the charges of all the atoms in the ion.
CATIONS
The name of a cation is the same as the name of the element. The representative elements usually
form only one cation. However, many transition elements and a few metals from groups 13 to 15
form two or moredifferent cations.

CATIONS
Lower charge - "ous" suffix
Higher charge - "ic" suffix
copper (I) - has the common name cuprous
copper (II) – cupric

Writing formulas when name is given:

Write the formula of the cation first, followed by the formula of
the anion.
The compound, although consisting of charged particles, is
neutral.
Formulas and Names of Ionic Compounds
Covalent compounds - chemical combination of nonmetallic
elements.

Covalent molecular compounds - combination of two

nonmetallic elements produces a compound with covalent
molecular structure.

How are Covalent Compound Formed?

ANIONS
Writing Formula:
iron (II) - oxide
cation Fe followed by O = FeO

2+
2-
calcium nitrate - Ca(No )
2
3
Writing formulas when name is given:

Write the formula of the cation first, followed by the formula of the anion.

The compound, although consisting of charged particles, is neutral.

Formulas and Names of Ionic Compounds
Covalent compounds - chemical combination of nonmetallic elements.

Covalent molecular compounds - combination of two nonmetallic elements produces a

compound with covalent molecular structure.

Properties of Compounds with Covalent Molecular Structure

Properties:

They have low melting and boiling points.

They are nonconductors of electricity.

Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between the atoms of nonmetallic
elements. On pair of shared electron forms a single covalent bonds states that:

The number of atoms that combine to form a covalent molecule is such that each atom would
attain eight electrons in its valence shells.

The octet rule can be applied in the formation of simple covalent molecular compounds, and is
very useful in predicting the formula of simple binary(composed of two elements) covalent
molecular compounds.

Octet Rule: Gilbert Lewis

"Generally, atoms of the representative elements tend to acquire an outer orbital with eight
electrons through chemical reaction."
EXCEPTION TO THE OCTET RULE
LESSON 28
How are Volcanoes Classified?
Volcano - an opening or vent in a planet's crust from which molten rock, ash, and gases escape
from below.

Active - if it has erupted in recorded history.

Inactive - Dormant volcano

Extinct - haven't erupted again because their supply of magma has depleted.

How are Volcanoes Classified?

Composite Volcano or Stratovolcano
A tall mountain with crater on top from which pyroclastic materials , gases, lava escape.
Its height is explained by the volcanic materials, piling on top of one another with subsequent
eruptions.

Shield Volcano
A shield volcano is almost flat and broad like a warrior's shield .

Its magma has a lower percentage of silica, its lava flows easily and reaches a great distance
from the crater.

Cinder cones or Pyroclastic Cones

Cinder cones are usually small. They are made up of pyroclasts or fragments of volcanic rocks
that form steep slopes around their wide crater.

Often form in groups near a large volcano and erupt only once.
Based on Location
How are Volcanoes Classified?
Continental Volcanoes

A volcanic arc is a chain of volcanoes, hundreds to thousands of miles long, that forms above
a subduction zone. An island volcanic arc forms in an ocean basin via ocean-ocean subduction.

Based on Location
Submarine Volcanoes

Underwater vents or fissures in the Earth's surface from which magma can erupt. Many
submarine volcanoes are located near areas of tectonic plate formation, known as mid-ocean
ridges.
Hazards of Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic Ash interferes with air travel; pilots are advised to avoid it might be sucked into the jet
engines.

Gases: water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide

- has negative impact:

health of the people

global temperatures

formation of acid rain

Magma - molten rock when it's under the earth's surface.

Lava - molten (melted) rock when it flows out of a volcano or volcanic vent.

Lahar - destructive mudflow on the slopes of a volcano.

Volcanic Ash flow:

Abrasive

Acidic

Odorous
This can cause:

Lung damage

Damage in electrical and mechanical equipment

Mix in rain and collapse roof

Acid rain

Fire
Earthquake

Flashflood

Landslide
What Substances Are Formed by Carbon?

The numerous compounds of carbon made it more convenient to group them according to
their similarities in structure and properties.

Functional groups - common feature involving a specific arrangement of atoms. It is

responsible for the chemical and physical properties of a compound.

HYDROCARBONS

Hydrocarbons are the simplest and most commonly encountered class of organic
compounds.

These are organic compounds that contain carbon and Hydrogen only.

Alkane (paraffins) - hydrocarbon whose carbon atoms are linked by a single bond.
ALKANE - content sample products:

HYDROCARBONS
ALKENE - content products:
HYDROCARBONS

Alkene and Alkyne - hydrocarbon whose carbon atoms are linked by at least one double
bond or triple bond.
Alkenes (olefins) - contain less than the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms per
carbon atom, they are said to be unsaturated.
HYDROCARBONS
ALKENE - content products:
HYDROCARBONS

ALKYNE-content products:
HYDROCARBONS

Alkynes are nonpolar, unsaturated hydrocarbons with physical properties similar to

alkanes and alkenes. Alkynes dissolve in organic solvents, have slight solubility in polar
solvents, and are insoluble in water

Important use of Alkanes - as "fuel"

Methane and ethane - "cleaner fuels" they produce less carbon dioxide during combustion.

Malampaya Deep Water Gas-to-Power project in Palawan

- one of the major sources of natural gas; it generates 40% of Luzon's electricity
requirement.
Saturated hydrocarbons - have all carbon atoms linked by single bonds.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons - a carbon-carbon double triple bond is present.

Malampaya Deep Water Gas-to-Power Project in Palawan

Simplest alkene is ethene - a plant hormone that plays important roles in seed germination and
ripening of fruits.

Propane and Butane - are gaseous hydrocarbons that are major components of liquified
petroleum gas (LPG)

AROMATIC - the aromas of these compounds.

Examples:

Benzene - ( a good solvent for fats and paint but is toxic)

Simplest alkyne is acetylene or ethyne - a highly reactive molecule used in oxyacetylene torches.

Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon. It is a compound of six carbons joined together to
form a ring.

AROMATIC - the aromas of these compounds.

Examples:

Napthalene - ( a component of mothballs)

Anthracene - (used in making color designs in fabrics)

Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon. It is a compound of six carbons joined together to
form a ring.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Propane and butane which are components of LPG have low boiling points. They are stored in
strong metal containers with narrow mouths which are tightly sealed to avoid leaks that can
cause unwanted ignition.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - boiling and melting point are important in determining the usage
and proper handling of organic compounds.

Essential Oil Extraction

HYDROCARBONS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Propane and butane which are components of LPG have low boiling points. They are stored in
strong metal containers with narrow mouths which are tightly sealed to avoid leaks that can
cause unwanted ignition.

VISCOSITY

Another physical property of organic compounds that is very much related to molecular
structure.

Aggregates occur in large molecules and also in smaller molecules that have high intermolecular
attraction.

Viscosity increases with molecular size.

INTERMOLECULAR ATTRACTION

The molecules of organic compounds can interact with with each other through weak and strong
attractive forces depending on their molecular functions.

"The larger the molecule, the more attraction can occur and the stronger the intermolecular
attraction."

ISOMERISM

The ability of carbon to form to form a vast number of organic compounds makes it highly
probable that several organic compounds may have the same molecular but different structural
formula.