4

The Early Vedic Age

We get an idea abou the conditions of the ancient Aryan in
India from the Vedic literature. The Rigveda, which is the oldest
literary work, though not a historical document, is of tremèndous
help to us in reconstructing the history of the early Aryans. The
Aryan civilisation was mainly confined to Sapt-Sindhu that is
Modern Punjab. The Rigveda contains numerous references to
rivers which can easily be identified with Indus, Sohan, Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Bias, Satluj, Saraswati, Jamuna, Ganga, Saryu etc.
Similar references to certain cities like Kabul, Swat etc. also confirm
that the Aryans during this period flourished in the area between
Afganistan to the upper valley of Ganga. There are also references
in the Rigveda to Himalaya and its peaks Rigveda makes no
references to the Vindhyas and other mountain ranges of. India, nor
does it refer to the other prominent rivers which suggest that the
Aryan had not advanced beyond Jamuna by that time. During the
Rigvedic period the Aryans led primarily a tr1bal life and lived in the
villages. The development of the cities. and the city life took place
during the later years.
Political Organisation, During the Rigvedic period the
Aryans lived in small villages. The basis of their political and
social organisation was the family or kula. The family was headed
by the eldest male member who keptall the members of the family
under perfect discipline. A number of families formed a grama
headed by the graimina, while a number of gramas or villages formed
the Visya. The Visya was headed by a Visyapati A number of
Visyas collectively formed jana which was ruled By a king caHed
Rajana. However, the precise relationship between the various
uníts viz rama, visya and jana has not been clearly stated
any
where.
During the Rigveate period, there were a number of tribal princi.
palties md there are numerous.references of one king subduing
another. There is a reference in Rigveda which sava that king Kasu

33
 soCIAL, cULTURAL AND, ECONONIIC HISTORY OF IN
34

made agift of ten kings to a Rishi. Similarly, we come across the

expression Samrat and Visvasya Vhubanasyaraja (universal monarch
which proves that there were number of principalities, and kin
could become a universal monarch only by subduing various
principalities.
The kingship was usually hereditary but there are references
which suggest that the peoplc could select a king from the members
of a royal family also. The king exercised vast powers and occupied
an important position. However, the king could not exercise these
powers adccording to his whims and there were many limitations on
his authority. The king had to use hisS power in such a manner as
to retain the confidence of the people. 1hus the
an important check on the authority of the king.
public opinion was
In addition to
this there were certain other limiting factors also. The
was the Chief Adviser and
Purohit, wh
spiritual
serious check on the authority of the king.
gury of the king served as a
Council of Ministers, which though Similarly, there was a
him on various matters of the State. appointed by the king, advised
another factor which restricted the popular According to A.L. Bashamn,
was his responsiblity authority of the monarch
towards the Tribunal
the Samiti. At the time of his coronation Council, the Sabha and
undertake an oath of working in the interest ceremony the king had to
king went against the oath the people couldofelect the people. If thee
as their king. another personn
Though
no
list of the duties performed by the king is available,
it be
easily said that the king was expected to
can
duties in keeping with the ideals perform enormous
of kingship. The king
Varuna in virtue and Indraexpected
be a mitra (friend) in was to
kindness,
He was expected to look after the in valour.
material as well as
development of the people and protect them against spirituaI
sion. The king was also responsible for the administrationforeign aggres-
and to punish the criminals. The king wás also the of justice
Chief and led armics against the
enemies. Commandar-in-
In return for all
taxes. The concept ofthe servicesthe people paid him
as follows: "As the taxation has vo'untary
been described in the Rigveda
sun takes the water from the
returns it in the form of away seas and
the people and rains, so the king should have taxes from
the taxation was spend them for their benefit and
not a stable
source
welfare." But
But as
resorted to of income the
plunder and pillage. king also
The Officials, The king was
cials. The most prominent assisted by a number of
Gramina. The ofice of the amongst them being Purohit, Senaniou
prestige. Usually this
Purohit was one of an
Chief Adviser and office great respect and
temporal
was
hereditary.
guru (spiritual
The
The Purohit was
was tthe
acconpained the king in wars and teacher) of the king.
prayed to God for his safety a
 THE EARLY
VEDIC AGE 35

victory. Some of the prominent Y'urohitas referred in the Rigveda

are Vishwamitra and Vasishta. According to A.B. Keath Protita
was the forerunner of the Brahman statesmen who from time to
time have shown there is no reasons to doubt that a Vi[vamitra or a
Vasistha was ol conspicuous ability in the management of affairs
and a most important element of the government of the early
realm."
Vedic

The Senani and the Gramina were the other two otmcials.
Their position was als cqually influcntial. The Senani was the
military Commandar while the Gramina was the village oficer. The
importance of these two officials is evident from the fact that the
king had to take oath in the presence of all these officials. In
sddition to these three officials the king had certain other officials
like, Mahishi (Chief queen), Suta (Record-keeper of the king),
Bhagadudha (Chief Revenue Collector). Akshavapa (Chief Accoun-
tant), Kaata (Lord of the Imperial Household), Sangrahita (the
Exchequer), Govikruta (Chief of forests) and Palagala. Thus we
find that during the early Vedic period the seeds of regular system of
administration were sown.

Popalar Assemblies. Though the king enjoyed extensive

powers, he could not use these arbitrarily. His power was restrjcted
by the two popular assemblies called Sabha and Samiti. Though
nothing definite can be said about these two assemblies, it is gene
rally believed that they were the popular institutions. According to
Ludwig, the Samiti was the Assembly of the whole people, while the
Sabha was a house of elders. On the other hand Zimmer is of the
opinion that Samiti was an Assembly of the whole tribe and the
Sabha was an Assembly of the village. According to Prof. K. P.
Jayaswal, "The Samiti was the national Assembly of the whole
people, while the Sabha was probably a standing and statutory body
cf selected men.
in the Vedic literature the Sabha and the Samiti are described
as two daughters of Prajapatey. The Sabha had a very limited mem-
bership. According to certain schelars it consisted of elected mem
bers who represented different sections of the people. Certain
passages in Rigveda also associate the Sabha with the men of wealth,
opulence and goodly form. The Sabha met in a Assembly Hall and
transacted both political and non-political business. Though the
discussions were free and frank, the members spoke with great deal
ofrestraint. The Sabha also enjoyed certain judicial functions and
acted as the National Judiciary. It continued to be a very strong
Institution till 500 B. C. when its power declined.

The Sam1t1 was the national Assembly of the whole people

According to Prof. Ludwig, "The Samiti was a more comprehen-
ive conference including not only all the comnmon people but also
 36 SoCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OF
INDIA
Brahmans and rich patrons." The king also expected to be pre-
was
sent in the meetings of
ings he was greatly
Samiti. If absented himself from its meet
he
suspected. The Samiti also transacted boch poli.
tical and non-political business. The main duties of the
the election of the
king and the protection of the country.Samiti
This
were
continued to exist till 600 B. C. is body
Chhandogya Upanishad.
as
justified by the Atharaveda and
Mode of Warfare. The
loped a high code of warfare. The
Aryans were brave
fighter and deve-
tained but every able bodied regular armies were not main-
person had to render
army at that time mainly military service
in times of need. The
fantry, cavalary and consisted of in-
used in war. chariots.The
The army was headed
clephants were probably not
appointed by a
expeditions
by the king for
led
small expeditions. Commandar-in-Chief
However, the major
were
nail, metal helmets, byshields
the king himself. The soldiers
etc. for used coats of
weapons were bows and arrows, protestion.
swords and
Their offensive
The arrows were made of reeds with
spears, axes, slings. etc.
were also
sometimes tips of horn or metal.
poisoned. They
They
While the king and the
common people
fought on foot.
noble fought from the chariot, the
ordered or organised There was a very little
The war music was fighting. Banners were used during attempt the
at

people went on war provided by trumpets and drums. war.

they usually Whenever the
the
The people Rigveda period had
of evoked blessings of their gods.
gods.
They never attacked the enemy high ideal of heroism and chivalry.
unarmed and sleeping without giving him a challenge.
also not used persons were also not attacked. Thec
against
who ran away from women, 'children and old
Arms
Arms were
were
treated as coward. the battle-field was people. A person
A person
greatly despised and was

Law and Legal Institutions. The

period had developed people of the early Ved
good ideas of
existence of common legal ierms in law. This isis borne
borne out
exercised criminal different out by
by the
the
by elders. and
We do not
civil lnguages. The king
jurisdiction and was king
assisted
code of laws possess any
observed by the definite information in his work
ana the raditions people.
were taken as Most probably the regarding the
was
not given
in the laws of the land. Thecustoms
violae. accordance
The
to these
laws, which even the justice
DO8e was to satisfypunishments
the person were very severe and their king coula
equenuyandreferred in che wronged. Some of the crimes main pu
pur
breaking high-way Rigveda include thett, mos
frequently
to bementioned
robbery. Another crime whichburglary
seems
water were no
in the
trace of deathRigveda
veda is has beene
also penalty
practised in certain Cattle-lifting
for
at night. There
at nign There
cases.
theft. Ordeal by . azda
by fire
D
THE FARLY CDIC AGI 37

Our knowledge df civil law is also very limited. The property

could change hands by gifts or barter. Rina or loan was the only
form of contract known to ine people during the Rigveda period.
A debter who failed to repay his loans
vitude to the creditor.
had to serve a period of ser
The rigiit to adopt was also recognised, The
system of arbitration was also probably known lo tlhe people. Tie
system of taking oatlhs in matter of doubt was also in cXKLence.
SOCIAL cONDITION
The Social structure during the Rigvedic period was patriar.
chal in character. The head of the family was the oldest male mem
ber who enjoyed absolute control over his children. The relation
between child and the parent was one of close affection and the
father was regarded as the type of all.those good and kind. Sometimes
the father also acted cruelly. There is a story in the Rigveda which
testifies that father blinded his son for his extravagance. The joint
family system existed in which often the relations of the wife also
joined.
The property of the family. was owned by the head of the
family. Individualownership of movable property like cattle, horses
and gold however, existed. Usually the property passed from father
to son and the dauglhters were not given any share. But if the
daughter happened to be the only issue she could claim the property.
The members of the family lived in houses made of wood and
reed. Each house consisted ofa fire place (agnishala). drawing room
and a ladies parlour.

Position of Women. During the Vedic period women

enjoyed a position of estecm and were treated as equaB with
men in cvery walk to c . No religious-rites and rituals could
be performed without the wife. Rigveda relates us a story
of grihaputi who left lis wifc bechuse of her
and
inpertinence
to
went away for practising penance but the God explained
him that he could not perform the penance without his
wife.
wife. The women were given education liae men and often took
part in the philosophical debates. Some of the women scholars of
the Rigveda periodincluded Visvavara, Ghosha, Apalü etc. These
women not only composed hiymnsbut were also well versed in scared
text. Women also learnt music and dancing.
Girls were married at a ripe age and enjoyed considerable frer
aom regarding the choice of their husbands. The marriages were per
furmed with the approval of the parents though it was not absolutely
essential to obtain their consent. Dowry and bride-price were also
practised. There are references in Vedic literature when a bride-
price was given by a son in-law wlho was not very desirable. Simi-
larly. dowry was given when the girl had some physical defect.
 sOCIAL, cULTURAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OP INnu
38 INDIA
in the s a n
The Vedic marriage was a sacred tie and was performed
manner as it is performed today. The aim of the marriage was t
to
increase the progeny. The sons were preterred though daughters were
not deplored. Monogamy was the usual rule in the Rigvedic societ
Polygamy also existed amongst the kings and the chiefs. The system
of Polyandry did not exist, because of the prevalance of the principle
of male superiority. The widow re-marriage was not encouraged,
although there are references to show where a issueless widow was
married to her husband's brother. The evils like Sati «vstem,
purdah and early marriage did not exist.
The woman from the time of her birth to the time of her death
lived under the protection of the males. Until their marriage they
were under the care of the father, After their marriage, they were
under the care of the husband and during the old age as widow they
were under the care of their sons. This should mot give us the im
pression that the women were confined to the four walls of the house
and could not move freely. They attended public fairs and dances
ind there are sufficient references in the Rigveda pointing to the fair
ladies flocking to festive gatherings.
Food Habits. The people during the Rigvedic period took
rice, barely, bean, vegetables, fruits, animal flesh, milk and mik pro-
ducts. The people used to make bread, cake
and parridge. Butter,
ghee and curd were the most favourite staple food of the people.
Meat was also taken on certain occasions. The flesh of the ox, sheep
and goat was also taken. The slaying of cow was looked upon with
disfavour. As regards the drinks, soma, a juice of a plant was the
most popular drink. Another popular drink was the Sura, a brandy
of grains. The people also took honey.
Dress and Ornanments.
The Aryan people paid suicient
attention of their dresses and decorations. Their clothes were made
of cotton, wool and skin of the animals. Usually their dress co-
sisted of two garments viz., vasas or lower garments and
the upper garments. We alsö get references about adhivasa or
known as drapi or a sort of cloak. The garments were another dress
with gold. Both men and women used almost
embroided
identicl garments.
Both men and women usea
ornaments The ornaments were
generally made of gold. The precious stones were also in vogue.
Certain ornaments, like
ear-rings, necklaces, bracelets and anklets
were worn by both men 'and
women. The practice of
combing the hairs was also in vogue. The men oiling and
and moustaches. There are also folk kept beards
references regarding the shaving
men. Most probably the word "kshura' used by
in the Rigveda stands
for razor.
Education, It cannot be said for
certain whether
institutions existed in the Vedic
period. The education
educational
was mainly
THE BARILY VEDIC AGB 39

imparted orally. First of all, the teacher recited the Mantras from
Veda which were then repeated by the students. The instructions
were given entirely in oral. The aim of the education was to
sharpen the intellect of the person and to developP his character.
The education was mainly religious in character and was often
imparted by the father to his sons. It cannot be said for certain
whether the art of writing was known to the people. Some
scholars have expressed the view that the art of writing was unknown
to people of ancient India. However, "If we accept this view then
we shall have to presume that the vast Vedic literature was composed
and preserved by oral transmission alone. But it is a stupendous feat
of memory which appears to be miraculous. On the other hand if
we believe that these voluminous texts were committed in those old
days to writing
of which weareknow
we definitely faced nothing.
with the problem of thing
The whole writingis materials,
shrouded
mystery which cannot be solved until more definite facts come to
light.
Caste System, Whether une caste system existed in the
Vedic age also, cannot be said for certain. Certain scholars hold
that the caste system based on heredity was unknown in
Vedic period. The other scholars have tried to assertthe early
o n the
testimony of mantra in the Rigveda that hereditary caste existed in
the society. However, it can certainly be said that
a distinction with the
the Aryans made
non-Aryans and Aborigines and despised them.
The
scholars who have asserted the existence of the caste
system during the early Vedic period refer to a mantra tenth
Mandala of Rigveda which says, "Brahmanas in
of Brahama, Kshatriyas from his sprang from the head
arms, the Vaishyas from
and the Sudras from his feet". This translations hisj thighs
of the mantra has
been challenged by certain scholars and
it thus, "Brahmanas are the head of they would like to translate
mankind, the Kshatriyas are
made his arms. Vaishyas are of his thighs and the Sudras are made
of his feet." It may be noted that the mantra
divísion of the society on the principle of simply refers to the
hereditary caste. The Brah-
manas who were the men learning are described as head,
Kshatriyas who were concerned with the use of physical force are the
described as arms and the Vaishyas had to
for the purpose of trade and go from place to place
commerce are
human society. Finally the Sudras who were described as thighs of
higher duties are represented as the fect of humanilliterate and, unfit for
scholars refer to another hymn in society. These
caste system did not the Rigveda to prove that the
exist
"I am a poet, my father is a during this period. This hymn says,
stone. Being engaged in differentphysician, my mother grinds corn on
occupations, we seek wealth and
happines8, as crows seek food in different pastures. May thy boun-
ties flow for our
happiness, O God." Therefore, scholars like Dr.
R.C. Dutt have asserted that in the entire
range of Vedas we have
 soCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OF INDIA
40

not even a single passage to show that the community was divided
into hereditary c23te. Similarly, Dr. V.A. Smith says, "1 do not
find any indication of the caste in the Rig Vedic times..Mankind
simply and roughly classified under four heads according to occupa-
tions, the mere honourable symbolic origin."

On the basis of the above discussion, we can draw the conclu-

sion that during the Rigvedic period though different classes and
professions existed but they were not hereditary. A person with
requisite qualification and merit could perform the duties attached
to the higher castes, even if he belonged to the lower categor ies.

Games and Amusements, Chariot racing was the chief

source of amusement for the people in the early Vedic period. Their
other means of amusement were horse racing and dicing. The
The
people were also deeply interested in music-both vocal and instru-
mental-and they took great delight and
Among the musical instruments which dwelling
on the joys
of life.
have been discovered are
drum, flute, ute and veena, They were also interested in
and Rig Veda dancing
quite often makes a mention af dancing by maidens.
Probably men also dancedd.
ECONOMIC CONDITION
The pepole
lived in
of the Rigvedi period were essentially rural and
villages. The Rigvedic society was self-sufficient and
provided all
cOuntries.
the necessities of life without any dependance on other
Agriculture,
tivation of land, and The people of Rigvedic age knew about cul-
the agriculture was their
usually ploughed the fields with main stay. They
the help of a
bound to the yoke. knew about tilling ofpair
of the oxen
oxen
They
of furrows, sowiug the seeds, and the soil, cutting
sickle. The chief cutting of corn with the help of
crops
wheat. Most probably culitivated by the people were Barley and
and
covered at a later date. thcy
did not cultivate rice
The people used manure which. was dis- dis-
vitality of land. They also knew about to
increase the
necessary watered their land by artificial irrigation and whenever
two canals. Usually they grew
crops a year. In addition to cultivating
left certain fields
or
the fields the people
pastures for the animals to graze.
As the
attached great Aryans were mainly pastoral
importance to kecping of cowspeople they naturally
cows
the
were and bullocks. The
milked thrice a day and were allowed to roam The
pastures. The freely 1n
times the cow was cow-dung was used to make fuel cakes,freely
in
also Some-
Wre domesticated by given
the
in charity. The other
animals which
people
They also domesticated horse, camcl included buffalo, goat and sheep,
and elephant.
 THE EARLY VEDIC AGE
4T
Trade and Industry. The Vedic hymns clearly indicate that
trade and commerce was known to the people of the carly Vedic
period. This trade was not only confined to the country alone but
period.
was also carried on with other countries. Barter system of exchange
was in vogue. Con was also regarded as a unit of value during ths
period. Most probably the people also knew about currency, and
the coin used by them was known as Nishka. Some scholars, are
however, of the opinion that Nishka was not a coin but an ornament,
most probably a necklace. But Rigveda contains certain references
of gifts being made in horses and Nishkas. This suggests that
Nishka must have been a unit of value. However, nothing definite
can be said about the coins becauso no coin has been discovered so
far. The chief items of commerce were cloth and goods made of
leather. The goods were carried from one place to another through
chariots, horses and bullock-carts. Probably the inland rivers were
also used for the purpose of trading. The trade with foreign coun-
tries like Babylon and countries of West Asia was carried on by
sea.

Inaddition to agriculture and industry, carpentry, blacksmithy,

goldsmithy and weaving were other professions of the people. These
professions were not only the monoply of the men but the ladies
also contributed their labour into them. Generally women were
engaged in weaving, dyeing and embroidry. The carpenter made
chariots, wagons, boats, ploughs and domestic utensils and furniture.
The metal workers made implements and utensils of copper and
bronze. The ornaments were made by the goldsmith. Amongst the
other professions the Rigveda makes a mention of professions like
Medicine, Dancing and Barbers. The physicians were greatly
respected in their skill. They treated the patients with the help of
herbs and plants and practised some sort of surgery also., Cften
they also used magic and spells to drive away evil spirits.

RELIGIOUS CONDITION
The Rigvedic religion was very simple and the people
Worshipped various forces and phenomena of nature. Thus they
worshipped Sky, Surya, Indra, Varuna, Prithvi etc. The people con-
ceived these gods in human forms and bestowed them with humaan
qualities. The various gods worshipped by the people during the
Rigvedic period can be classified into threecategories:-
(1) Gods of the Sky or Heavens such as Dyaus (sky), Varuna
(sky-god proper).Usha (dawn). Asvins (morning and
evening stars) and Surya, Mitra, Savitri, Pushan and
Vishnu (all forms of the Sun);
(2) Gods of the Atmosphere such as Indra (thunder), Rudra
(storm), Maruts (storm-god), Vayu (wind) and Parjanya
(rain) nd
A2 soCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OF INDIA

(3) Gods of the Earthsuch as Prithvi (earth), Agni (fre) and

Soma (the of that
plant name).
Thetemples, images, altars and hereditary priestly classes were
conspicuously absent during this period. During this period every
householder acted himself as a priest. He kindered the sacred
and recited the fire
hymns.
With a view to please the various
yers in the form of hymns and gods the people offered
pra-
were offered
sacrifices. The common items which
to the
gods included milk, grain, ghee, flesh and
These offerings made with a
were soma.
or to
gain control over view to win divine favour
gods
people made sacrifices. These
or nature.
In'addition to the
sacrifices were offerings
plex. The common
fice while the householder generally both simple and com
kings and nobles made performed a
costly sacrifices. simple sacri-
The people of
and attainment of
Rigvedic period believed in the
Though the people salvation. The people believed intheory of Karma
god
one god as worshipped various gods life after death.
one and the Supreme. In fact they they did not consider
same, and only the believed that all the any
differently. sages have gods were
described them
them
 5
Later Vedic Age

The period in which Samveda, Yajurveda, Atharaveda, the

Brahmans, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads were composed is
known as the later Vedic age in the Indian history. During this
period, the Aryans had spread over the land as far as the Vindhayas
in the South, Bengal in the East and at certain points pene-
trated into Dekhan on the western side by way of Malwa and
Gujrat. Thus we find that the centre of life had shified to Madhya-
desa. Eastern regions like Kosala (modern Oudh), Kashi (Banaras)
and Videha (north Bihar) had come into prominence. The Punjab
and the western regions had lost their importance and the tribes resi-
ding there have received disapprobation in Satapatha and Aitareya
Brahmanas. In short we can say that by this period the Aryans
had conquered the whole of northern India as far as northern Bihar
of
and bad started penetrating into the South where the kingdom
Vidarabha had been established.

During this period a number of new tribes are mentioned,

A
which did not find any reference in the early Vedic literature.
number of old tribes like Bharatas, and Purus were
absorbed by thee
new tribes like Kurus or Kauravas. Similarly tribe of Panchalas was
Some of the
evolved by the fusion of the old and the new tribes.
literature are Usinaras,
other new tribes mentioned in the later Vedic
Matsyas, Srinjayas.
Political Organisation, The kingdom in the later Vedic
than in the early Vedic period. Ashva-
period became much larger and the ideal of setting
medha (horse sacrifices) were performed
popularity with the kings. It may be noted
up empires gained Kuru,
that no real conquest
was really made and tribes like into a
were never amalgamated
Panchalas, Kosalas and Videhas
single tribe.
the prevailing system
Kingship. Monarchy continued to be The post of the king
in the later Vedic period.
of government

43
 ECONOMIC HISTORY OF INDr
NDIA
CULTURAL
AND
soCIAL,
44 that the mo

case of Srinjayas
we hear
the aa numher
hereditary.
In later Vedic texts
In the later
In
number ot
became
generations.
kingship have
been ofere
lasted for 10 and
anhy the origin of State we are
told that there was
theories regarding Brahmana
in the Aitareya In this war the
war the gods suf
Torexampie. the gods and demons. nis
a W r between
they analyse the situation and
Ultimately
ere severaiconclusion that their defeat was due to a lack of common
reverses.

reacitcd tihe their king and ultj-

decided to make Soma
king. Therefore. they over the demons. This story clearly shows
mately scored a victory out of political necessity
and the king
that the kingship was evolved
Brahmana we get a reference,
was elected. Similarly in Satapatha created people
theState was
which points out that before
were living in the State of nature. During the state of nature
might was right insecure
and the life was With a view to get rid
these uncertain conditions people élected a king who promised
them security of life and property in return for a tribute. These
references in the later Vedic literature clearly indicate that the
scientific spirits of enquiry into the political and social institutions
had come into existence.
During the later Vedic period kingship came to be attached with
element of divinity. In Atharva Veda king Parikshat has been
described as god amongst men. Similarly in the
the victories of the king had been attributed to Aitareya
Brahmana
the favour of Lord
indra. The Samiritis and Puranas have also
nity for the king. For example. Manu
definitely
claimed divi-
is great divinity in human form. His
clearly declares that the king
Creator by taking body is formed by the
the eight quarter. particles from the bodies of divine
guardians of
Again
of divinities reside in
the Bhagavat Purana
says that a number
the person of
sacrifices performed by the king. It states
bled tie king like Ashvamedha and that various
king to obtain parity with the Vajapeya ena-
though king was given the element ofgods.
the It may be noted
that
become absolute. He was divinity his powers did not
and could not behave required respect the laws of the land
in an autocratic
to
other limitations also on manner. There were certain
also be elected and the authority of the
there are references in king. The king could
expulsion, re-election and Atharva Veda of his
Lo take n
oath of loyalty torestorations to the throne.
the constitution'and The king had
his coronation.
There is law at the timne
or Anumati
of the earth. also the mention of king of
heck on the The Sabha and the Samiti taking approval
win
daughters king.
of GodThese two bodies have
also acted as a
creations than the Prajapati, and therefore, been
kingship. were
described as the
officers, though merely as The presence of the Ministers no less
divne
authority of Advisors, and
check onother
the king. was also another
the well Finally,
established customs without king could not afford
the the
to by-pass
ful instrunentand Samiti.. Sabha endangering'his own poSition.
Sabha
during the early Vedicand Smiti which
period, declinedwere
in
very power
importanc
 LATER VEDIC AGE
45
and power during the later Vedic period Probably the Sabha no
more transacted any political busincss and was mercly a judicial
body. Similarly we do not find any mention of the Samiti in the
Parnarti Samhita and Brahmanas, although it is mentioned in the
Up-
anishada. 1he decline of these two popular bodies was mainly due to
the cnornmous cxpansion of the power of the king.
Oficers of the King.With the establishment of the large
kingdom the need for an elaborate and efficient administrative system
was naturally felt. Therefore, we come across a number of new
officers who advised the king. These officials were called Ratnins.
The Toittiriya texts have mcntioned the following officials with whose
help and cooperation the king ruled () Brahmana (the Purohita),
2Rajanya
wife), (5)(noble).
ite (3) Mahishi (chief queen), (4) Vavata (favour
Parivrikti (descended wife), (6) Sute
Senani (commander of the army), (8) Gramani
(charioteer), (7)
(vilage headman),
(9) Kshattri (chamberlain), (10) Samgrabitri (treasurer), (11) Bhag-
dugha (collector of taxes), and (12) Akshavepa (superintendent of
dicing).
In view of the vast size of the
eripire the system
government also çame into existence by this time.
of
We get provincial
references
about Sthapati and Satapati, the oficials concerned with the provin-
cial administration. The Sthapati was concerned with the adminis-
tration of the outlying which
aboriginal tribes.
regions, were often inhabited
by
Satapati looked after the administration of one
hundred villages. These
cials like Adhikrita. The oficials
were
assisted by other lower ofi-
police system also existed
know very little about the police administration. This is altt:ough we
the references to police officials in the proved by
Ugras of the Upanishadas.
Jivagribh Rigveda and the
of

Judicial Administration, judicial administration hac

The
also undergone certain
changes. The king had started taking more
active part in the administration of justice.
Sometimes, the king
delegated his power to the Adhyakshas. There are also references
when the cases were reierred to the tribes for
adjudication. At the
village level petty cases were decided by gramyavadin or village judge
with the help of his court. Thepunishments were rather severe.
Jf a thief was caught red-handed, he was awarded penalties like
death or mutilation of hands. In minor cases fine
Sometimes, certain ordeals also
was imposed.
were resorted
ot as a means
punishment. The murder of a Brahman was considered a heinous
crime and was severely punished.
The civil cases were decided by the king with the
sors. The property usually
help of asses
belonged to the father, but
succession law could divide the same amongst his soins.according
to
if the father died without specifying the distribution of the However,
property,
 46 sOCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OF INDIA

the eldest son received larger share. The women were not given
any share in property. The Sudras were, however, not entitled to any
property.We do not come across any evidence regarding the joint
ownership of any property and there was n0 development of the law
of contract since the Vedic times.
soCIAL CONDITION

The Basis of
the
organisation
the later Vedic period continued of the social institutions during
to be the samc as that of
Vedic period. The family was the early
primary social unit. Each family
consisted of several members. Sometimes a number of families
under the headship of the same male member lived
from Aitarey Brahmana that son was under the (Kulpati). We learn
his father. so co
was so
ather. This control was he complete control ofof
ns complete that the father could even
sell his son. yever, this should not give us the impression
there was no
affection in their relationship.We learn from Sankha-
that
yana, _Aranyaka_Upanishad that the fathers used to kiss theirsons
their foreheads. The on
practice of adoption of sons also
adoption was made only in the absence of the natural existed. But the
projeny.
The Four Ashramas. The
the later Vedic period. Ashram system developed
Literally during
in the Indian social 'Ashrama' means halting
place. But
of life with a view tosystem
it implied
stoppage or stage in the
prepare one self for further journey. Thejourney
the individual was divided into four Ashramas. life of
individual lived for Presuming that eacb
divided into four roughly of hundred years, the entire life was
one

Ashram. The four periods

Ashramastwenty-five
were as
years, each representing one
follows:
()Brahmacharya Ashram. The
foremost Ashram, whichBrahmacharya
the first and the
was
age. A major portion lasted upto 25 Ashram
of this
During this period the students years of
Ashram was devoted to education.
for the physical, mental stayed with the teacher, who cared
and
students. The student had to leadpsychological
a life of development of the
They had tomaintain strict control over all simplicily and chastity.
avoid all pleasures and their
classes had to stay luxuries, The students organs and had
belonging to all the
ted alike. Manu has together at the house of the teacher and were trea-
his education. described the age when
the child should
to According to
school in the fifth him the son
of Brahmana shouldbegin
year, the go
year and the son of Vaisya in the son of
Kshatriya in the
the sixth
sixth
Sudras were not to go for eighth year. The
gested probably education. This difference children of thhe
the
son of Brahmana because Manu considers that in age was
sug-
at five was the intelligence
the age of
eight. equal to the intelligence
of the
was essentially meantThus, we
find that the
of a Vaisya at
mind. to be a
period for the Brahmacharya Ashram
development of body and
 LATER VEDIC AGEE 47

(ii) Griastha Ashram, In the later Vedic period too much

importance has been attached to the Griastha Ashram which lasted
from 25 to 50 years of age. Marriage was obligatory for every
Hindu because the possession of son was considered to be essential for
moksha. During this period the householder was expected to feed
the people in the other three Ashramas and perform the various rites
for the
and ceremonies. The home was also considered to be a place
practice of Dharam Shashtra.

(iii) Vanaprastha Ashram. Vanaprastha Ashram lasted

individual had
from 51 to 75 years of age. During this period the
not only to leave his family but also the village. He wàs to live
to avoid
in the forest and practice control over all his senses. He was
meat or other luxurious food and had to mainly live on vegetables
and fruits. He was not to wear new clothes and had to use only
those clothes which were thrown away by others. He was expected
to lead a life of complete detachment and to utilise his
time for the study of Upanishads, Srutis and meditation. It was
believed that a person who died while pursuinganaprastna
Ashram attained moksha.
(iv) Sanyasa Ashram, The Sanyasa Ashram was the last
in the journey of a man. It lasted from 76 onwards. However,
provision also existed for entry into this Ashram after Brahmacharya
or Griastha. The person who entered the Sanyasa Ashram was
not to possess anything and was not to depend on anybody. He was
to live in the forest, wear bark and to perform five sacrifices every
day. He was not to care for the living or the dead. He restrained
his senses by casting away love and hatred, and by living a life harm-
lessness. By all these actions he could achieve Moksha.

Though the Ashram system had developed during the Rigvedic

period it was not rigidly followed. However, it cannot be denied
that it greatly affected the social life of the people and helped them
C aand nelped them
standard. T+
to raise their moral standard It produced band of selfless
workers and seekers after knowledge.

Caste System, We have already observed in an earlier chapter

that towards the end of the Rigvedic period some sort of distinctions
between various classes has started appearing. In the later Vedic
period these distinctions developed into caste system. There is
difference of opinion amongst the scholars regarding the origin of
caste system. Prof. Rapson believes that the Parna or colour was
the basis of caste system. According to him the caste system took
its birth when white races poured into India. The original inhabi-
tants of India were of black complexion. So naturally distinctions
arose between the white and the blacks and they formed separate
entities, which ultimately assumed the shape of caste. However, this
view of Dr. Rapson is difñcult to accept. If the caste system had
 48 sOCIAL, cULTURAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OF
INDA
originated the basis of colour and
on
complexion, then there should
have been only two castes. However, in the ancient literature we
conchusive reference to four castes. Further, it hayve
is difficult to
this view because the
Aryans were themselves divided into accèpt Brah-
manas, Kashatriyas and Vaishyas. Therefore we
can say that
caste system
originated as a result of four fold division of duties. the
For the convenient
working of the
different professions. With the societyofdifferent persons adopted
lapse time the
to different
professions formed separate entitics. As people belonging
these professions
became hereditary, the caste
system assumed definite shape.
cver, it may be noted that at
Radha Kumud Mukerjee
that stage it was not
that How-
rigid. Dr.
says during the later vedic
system had not become "as rigid as in the period the caste
Sutras. It was a mid-way between succeeding
the laxity of the period
of the
the rigidity of the Rigveda and
Sutras"
The Brahmans enjoyed
the people were unable the highest status in the society. As
to understand the
other complex Vedic texts, and
class of priests religious ceremonies on their own, a perform
These priests emerged,the were popularly termed asprofessiona'
who
explained
ceremonies and came to Vedic texts and performed theBrahmins.
complex
Brahmins not only Occupy a high position in
performed yajnas but society. The
the childern.
They enjoyed supremacy also imparted education to
in the
were subordinate to the king in
secular matter. spiritual sphere, but
The
Kshatriyas formed the ruling class.
all other officers The
ponsibility belonged to the
maintain
to Kshatriya class. Itkings, amirs
was their
and
from foreign invasions. peace and order
.The distribution
and to
protect
res-
the country
gative of the of justice
Kshatriyas. The Kshatriyas also
phical discusstions. There are instances
was also the
took interest in prero-
their superior
learning when the philoso-
positionKshatriyas by
We may quote the raised
cases
themseleves to the of
Kshatriya kings. Janakofbecame and
Janak
Vishwamitra. Both theseBrahman.
Brahmans sat. Vishwamitra a
royal teacher at whose feet were
of Vedic
hymns. Thus became a rishi and composed a even
the Brahmans and
the
we find that a sort of rivalry existed number
each other. Kshatriyas and both claimed between
superiority over
The
the commonVaishyas were the third caste,
their position people
of Aryan stock. whichthe mainly consisted ot
seems to have
forced to mix with
During
been on the decline later-Vedic
trade and the Sudras for the because theyperiodwere
commerce. The Vaishyas proper regulation of their
enjoyed by the Brahmans and the did not enjoy the
Aitareya Brahmana says that a Kshatriyas. One of the privileges
another and to be Vaishya is "to be passage in
the
society fell on oppressed at will". Almost the entire
their shoulders.
lived on by
Brahmans, taxes to the They had to
ta pay burden of
Kshatriyas and salary to charity to
the Sudras.
to tho
the
 LATER VEDIC AGB
49
The Sudras formed the lowest strata of society and did not
enioy even the basic amenities of life. According to the Aitareya
BrahmanaHe (Sudra) is to be theservant of another, to be expelled
at will and to be slain at will. "The Sudra had no right of pro-
perty against the rajanya, especially the king. They did not enjoy
any right to receive education, nor could they hear or learn Vedas.

The caste system at this stage was not rigid as yet. The
members of the upper classes could intermarry with the Sudras,
though it was not favoured. Sukanya, daughter of a Kshatriya king
married Chyavana, a Brahmin. Similarly,there are numerous exam
ples of scholarly kings (Kshatriyas) teaching Brahmins. inter-din-
ning was also common. I t may be noted that though a son of a Brah-
mana, Kshatriya or Vaishya could marry a Sudra girl, but it was
not possible for the son of a Sudra to think in terms of marriage with,
the daughter of any of the upper classes. If a Brahmana married a
Sudra girl, he lost his status. But despite these restrictions there
are many instances of the members of upper classes marrying in
lower families. As a result of these marriages various new castes
came into existence. These castes were outside the regular castes.
Another important point to be noted about the caste system in later-
Vedic period is that it had not become rigid as yet and none of the
three features which characterize it today (viz. prohibition of inter
dinning, inter-marriage and determination by hereditary descent) had
been established as yet.
Position of Women, During the later-Vedic age the
position
of the women had considerably declined. They did not enjoy the
same position of respect which was enjoyed by them in the early
Vedic period. Women no longer participated in the sacrifices, nor
could they own or inherit property. Whatever they earned was
appropriated either by the husband or father. The women did not
take part in politics and were not allowed to attend the
of the Sabha (tribal assembly). meetings
Polygamy was practised, specially amongst the ruling and the
noble classes. Girls were married only after the
attainment of
maturity.
Though the general position of the women had declined yet Satal
patha Brahmana says that she is half of her husband and
completes
him. The women maintained a high position n the learned
world.
Gargi was a learned women scholar who t k part with men in the
assembly of scholars of her times, for exar ple, Yagnavalka in the
court of king Janaka of Videha.
time was Maitreyi, wife of
Ano ner woman scholar of the
Yagnavalkya. n addition to these two
women scholars there are references
who possessed high to varioas other women teachers
R.K. Mookerjee says, spiritual knowledge. n this connection Dr.
"The women of those
highest knowledge and played their part in cays had accesslife to the
country as Rrahmavadinis like Gargi or
thë intellectual of the
Mai.reyi."
 50 soCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OP INns

Food and Drinks. Tho food habits of the people in the lat. LA
Vedic period had also undergone certain changes. Most of the fo
items used during the Rigvedic period also continued to be t stu
cyen during the later-Vedic period. The most common dishes taken h th
the people were Apupa, a cake made of rice, barley, ghee, rice cooked
with milk and with beans. Milk continued to be a popular
with the people and the milk products like ghee,
drine B
etc. were commonly used.
butter, cream, curd
The meat-eating became a fairly 3C
habit with the people. In thc Satpatha common
ox
Brahman
for the guest have been prescribed. Meat was killing goat and of
monial occasions but formed a daily food.
only used on cere
Meat of horse was also
taken, especially after the completion of the
Killing of the cows was disfavoured. The Ashvamedha yajina. people took the
intoxicant drink Sura, which
and plants. People also took
was probably prepared
from herbs
were
honey.
not to take it under certain
'However, women and students
circumstances.
Dresses and Ornaments. The
style of dress remained
unchanged, though now we get greater details about the dress
people as compared with the Vediç period. In addition to of the
people used silk and woollen clothes, The dress of the cottoon,
consisted of three people mainly
garment proper), and garments-nivi (an under garment), vasa.
adhivasas (an over garment). The people (a
were fond of
embroidered or dyed clothes. Skin was also
clothing. People used turban, used as
as well as shoes or sandals.
As regards the
ornaments used
by the people
period, we have not come across any ornaments on of the later-Vedic
archaeological excavations. However, on the basistheofbasis of the
the literary
references we say that various types of ornanments
can
people. The most common ornaments used by the were used by
armlets, finger rings etc. In addition people included
rubies, specially on a thread they used pearls, jewels and
nishka of silver around their around their neck. People also wore
neck.
Education. The enormous amount of
during the later-Vedic period literature
that the people had produced
a high suggests
intellectual standard. It also
planned system of education. A boysuggests that they haddeveloped
a well
was initiated into
student
of his
through the Upanayana ceremony. He lived at the life of a
teacher till he the
residence
he had to study as completed his education.
During his
well as stay there
tended cows, and begged almsserve his teacher. He gathered
for his guru. As a fuel,
lead a very chaste life and develop his moral
student he had to
Subjects of study at that time
included the four
faculties. The main
(history),
and other Puranas, Brahmavidya Vedas, Itihasa
Vedic works. Certain (knowldge
secular relating to the Brahma)
military science, astronomy subjects like
and mathematics logic, ethic
a part of the
educational astrology also
curricula. Emnbasis was
forme
also laid on tD
 LATER VEDIC AGE 51

study of language and grammar. On the completion of education

thestudents, or their parents paid Dakshina to the teacher.

It may be noted that the education was not the monopoly of

Brahmins alone. The women and Kshatriyas were also amongst the
scholars of the age.

Amusements Sportsand games were the chief source of

amusements of the people during the later Vedic period. While
horse-racing, chariot-racing etc. were the most popular outdoor games,
the dicing and chess were the most popular indoor gamnes. People
were also fond of music and dancing. Usually music and dancing
was taught by the women. A class of professional musicians also
existed. The chief musical instruments of the age were drums, futes,
lutes and various types of harp. The 'pole dance' or 'acrobat' has also
been mentioned in the Yajur Veda, which was another source of
amusement for the people.
ECONOMIC CONDITION
On the testimony of Atharva Veda, Aitareya Taitriya and
Satpatha Brahmana we get a glimpse of the economic life prevailing
during the later-Vedic period. At the outset it may be pointed out
that it marked an improvement over the conditions prevailing in
the Rigvedic period.
Agriculture. Agriculture continued to be the mainstay
of the people during the later-Vedic period. However, the art of
agriculture had made much progress since the
Ime time of Veda. Ver
of Rig Veda. Very
heavy and large ploughs began be used. Some of the ploughs
to
were so heavy that as many as 24 oxen were harnessed to drive it.
The ordinary ploughs also existed, which were driven by two or four
Oxen. Reference is also made to forrow. People knew about the
art of irrigation and use of manure. Many types of grains were
grown. These included wheat, beans, sesame etc. We learn from the
various texts about the time of sowing and harvesting of the various
types of grains. Barley was sown in winter, ripened in summer
and that rice was sown in the rainy season and was harvested in
autumn. Usually there were two crops a year. People recited
hymns at the time of sowing of the seed and gathering ofcorn
with a view to ward against natural calamities like famine, fh
od,
drought etc. The prayers for the success in the efforts of the fari..er
are mentioned in the Atharvaveda.
The cattie breeaing also received impetus during the later-Vedic
period. The people not only lett suficient meadows so that the
animals could get their food, but also
provided necessary
protection to them against extreme cold and heat.
sheds and
The cow was
regarded sacred during this period and its slaughtering was punished
with heavy penalty.
 EcONOMIC
HISTORY OF NDIAA
cULTURAL AND
soCIAL,
52 Veda trade
Commerce. According to Atherva Vedic period
later-Vedic period.
Trade and flourish during the
continued to businessmen
who went from place
and c o m m e r c e carried o n by the internal trade was
The internal
The trade was of business.

to place for the

transaction
routes. The business was carriedd
both by
water
land and transactions. Somne
carried on
or exchange and
cash According
means of barter this period. According to
on both by in vogue during as a
type of
coins were also
Satamana (a piece oftogold) was used
Bhandarker the other scholars and
Dr. D.R. view is not
acceptable round
coin. However, this that the
S a t a m a n a was a
mere fact
contend that the conclusive proof
that the coins were
they cannot be the
shaped gold piece piece of
round shaped
These scholars argue that this have not
we have
in existence. also. However,
Howover, we
as simple gold
gold could be regarded to prove conclusively that the
coins of this period were
c o m e a c r o s s any of trade and c o m m e r c e
The chief article said for
coinage did exist. and skins goat etc. It cannot be
coverlets of commercial
garments, period had
of later-Vedic
certain whether the people countries. However certain scholars
have
relations With the foreign
of in the
Brahman as
Satoapatha Brahman
indi-
as an indi-
iood
interpreted the legend relations with Babylon. During this period
cation India having
of However,
.money-lenders also came into existence.
of them.
rate of interest charged by
a new class
know for definite the
we do not and the sreshthins or
eldermen
The reference to ganas
or corporation into guilds.
merchantsmen were probably organized
the
suggests that
came
Some of the
into existence.
A variety of occupations of potters,
of the period included those
most prominent occupations
smelters, weavers, washermen,
barbers, butchers,
carpenters, smiths,
makers of baskets, ropes, jewels,
merchants, magicians and so forth.
embroidery, and
were generally engaged in dyeing,
The women
basket making
were
Means of Transport, Though the means of transport
certainly marked an improvement over
quite under-developed, theylearn from Atharvaveda that some sorts
the Rigvedic period. We
of roads existed. The bullock carts were the chief means trans- of
of transport. A spe
port. Ships and boats were also popular mode
was used for the bad track. The
cial type of vehicle Vi-patha
also used for the purpose of transporting
elephants and horses were
and horses for the purpose of
goods. People also used elephants
riding.
RELIGIOUS CONDITION

Though the religious condition had undergone a change

during this period, some of the old beliefs and practices of Rig
vedic period continued to be in vogue. The old religious practices
not only became complex but also more sterotyped. These
These cere
cer
monies could now be performed only by a professional class
 LATR VEDIC AGE 53
priests. Some of the sacrifices lasted for a period ranging from 12
days to one year, and could not be performed by single priests.
This necessitated the services of a body of priests. No wonder, the
priests became very important class both for the interpretation of the
Vedas and the performance of the sacrifices. In view of the highly
complicated nature of the sacrifices to be performed by the priests
they divided themselves into four categories, each specially in aa
special type of sacrifice. The Hotri or Invoker selected the verses
for the particular rite and recited them. The Udgtari recited the
hymns and helped in the preparation and presentation of sacrifices.
The Adhvaryu or performer, executed all the sacrificial acts and
recitation of hymns. The Brahman or High Priest was responsible
for the general supervision and saw to it that no error or deivation
was made from the prescribed procedure.
The early vedic gods continued to be worshipped in the later-
Vedic period. Though the gods were the same as in the Rigveda,
their character considerably changed. Their natural basis was
completely forgotten and they were also invoked as 'demon des-
troyers. During this period gods like Rudra, Vishnu and Prajapati
Rudra, also known as Mahadeva,
were given special importance.
came to be known as Siva (benevolent) and Pasupati (Lord of ani-
nals). The rise of Rudra as Siva and Pasupati has made certain
scholars express the view that the Aryans were infuenced by the
Indus civilization. Another god of this period was Vishnu, who
replaced Varuna of the Rigveda. Vishnu helped the men and gods
in distress. Prajapati likewise replaced Purusha and was identified
with Agni.
Tapas (penance accompained by physical torture) came to
oCcupy an important place in the religion. Men renounced the
world and retired to forests, where they practised meditation and
torture of various types. It was believed that Tapas lead to mystice,
extraordinary and superhuman power.
Philosophic Speculation, The complicated religious cere-
monies caused muçh dissatisfaction and lod to philosophic specu-
lation. The thinkets devoted themselves to the understanding of the
ultimate .reality or truth through true knowledge (Jananamarga).
They expressed deep thoughts on man, soul, god and the unilverse
in the Upanishads (confidential teachings). The Upanishads
were usually taught in secret sessions between the teacher and the
taught. These Upanishads were not written by Brahamans alone,
and many of the authors of the Upanishads were Kshátriyas. The
Upanishads attached very little importance to ceremonies and aus
terities and advocated principles like Brahma (world soul) and
Atma (Individual soul), Maya, Punarjanam (Transmigration of
soul) and Karma (action), and Moksha (salvatioon).
The Upanishads lifted the religion from the narrow fold of
Tituals and provided an intellectual conception of God. They
 54 soCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMC HISTORY OP INDIA

asserted that "The Universe is the Brahma, but the Brahmais

the Atma. The Brahma is the power which manifests itself in
all existing things, creates, sustains, preserves and receives back again
into itself all worlds. This infinite divine power is identified with
Atma, that which after stripping off everything external we discernn
in ourselves as our real and most essential being, our individual self
the soul."

The Upanishads described the material world as maya or

illusion and one should not attach to0 much of
It advocated the theory of importance to it.
and Karmma). The transmigration
transmigration and action (Punarjanama
theory holds
perishes and not the soul. The soul migrates cr that
it is body which
to another body and thus passes from one body
continues the cycle of births and deaths.
Yajnavalkya taught Janaka that"The
where where it has not been from the soul,
after death, goes no
become other than that which it has very beginning, nor does it
always
omnipotent Atma". Closely connected with the been, 'the one eternal
gration is the theory of Karma (action). theory of transmi-
action of a man determines the nature ofAccording to this theory the
his
in other words it emphasises that the soul willlifebe
in the next birth.
born again because
of the action in the
present life. This cycle of births can be
a n end only by the realization
of the nature' of Brahma brought
and thee
merger of the Atma intothe Brahma.
This known
Moksha there will is
and after the attainment of as Moksha,
man would be no rebirths and, the
get rid of the circle oftife and deathh
Development in
distinct advance was made Science. During the later-Vedic
evident from the fact that in the science of period a
astronomy.
the Vedas introduced us to This is
iras and mention
the six seasons. the Naksh
period acquired this knowledge of Most probobly the people of this
tain scholars astronomy from Babylon. Cer
have suggested that the Cer
astronomy from China people learat the science of
or Arabia. However,
to accept because
there is no evidence to these views are difficult
prove it.
In the science of medicine there was some
leter-Vedic period the physicians were decline. During the
respect which was enjoyed by not given the esteem and
them during the esteem and
people gave different types ot
Some of diseases
earlier
herbs for treatment of various days. The
mentioned in tho Atharva Veda are diseascs.
scorfula, dysentery, boils, swellings, consumption,
her dache, jaundice, eye disecases, convulsions, ulcers, rhematism
snake, lunacy, leprosy etc. These senility, fractures and wounds, bit
Veda, were caused
by tbe demons. AAdiseases, according to Atharva
these diseases if took the person could be cured
The people also he got an
medicinc with recitation
cured aga
against
of the hyml
opportunity
bones of the body because to
acquire knowledgo
wledge about the
scarifices. of the abou
dissection of animals at the time
of