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Action Knowledge and Symbolic Knowledge The Computer As Mediator Conocimiento Basado en La Acci N y Conocimiento Simb Lico El Equipo Inform Tico Como
Action Knowledge and Symbolic Knowledge The Computer As Mediator Conocimiento Basado en La Acci N y Conocimiento Simb Lico El Equipo Inform Tico Como
Jeanne Bamberger
To cite this article: Jeanne Bamberger (2018) Action knowledge and symbolic knowledge.
The computer as mediator / Conocimiento basado en la acción y conocimiento simbólico.
El equipo informático como mediador, Infancia y Aprendizaje, 41:1, 13-55, DOI:
10.1080/02103702.2017.1401316
More specifically, the work discussed here shares obvious aspects with the current
Maker Movement, both harking back to Dewey and his emphasis on ‘learning by
doing’. For instance, Osberg et al. (2008) say:
However, there are important differences. The core of the Maker Movement
seems well described by the following quote:
Give the pupils something to do, not something to learn; and the doing is of such a
nature as to demand thinking; learning naturally results. (Dewey, 1916, p. 191)
Getting started
Work at the Graham and Parks School began in the fall of 1985. Susan Jo Russell,
who had been a classroom teacher and was now completing her PhD in technol-
ogy and education, joined me in starting the project. The school, in a working
class neighbourhood of Cambridge, MA, is named after Sondra Graham, a social
activist and former member of the Cambridge School Committee, and Rosa Parks,
well known for the role she played in the struggle for equal rights in the 1960s.
The core of the student population mirrored the diverse population of Cambridge,
and in addition included most of the Haitian Creole speaking children in the city.
We began with the teachers. All the teachers in the school (grades K–8) were sent
an invitation to join the project. We described it as an opportunity to think
together about children’s learning through sharing puzzles and insights from the
classroom. Twelve teachers signed up, with a core group of eight becoming
regular participants. We had expected the initial planning period to last perhaps
16 J. Bamberger
two months, but the teachers felt ready to bring children to the Lab only after we
had worked together for close to six months. As it turned out, those six months
were critical in shaping the form that the Lab took.
The Lab, a large, empty room in the school, was gradually ‘furnished’ with a great
variety of materials for designing and building structures that work — gears and
pulleys, LegoTM blocks, pattern blocks and large building blocks, Cuisenaire rods,
batteries and buzzers for building simple circuitry, foam core, wood and glue for
model house construction, as well as drums and keyboards for making music. And the
10 Apple IIe computers took their place as another medium for building structures
that worked and that made sense — what we came to call ‘working systems’.4 The
children renamed the room the ‘Design Lab’. Some 250 children ranging in age from
six to 14 participated in Lab activities over a period of about four years.
It was a month into working with the teachers that the Apple computers
arrived. Unpacking and putting them together was a necessary first step towards
helping the teachers gain a feeling of intimacy with the machines. Learning the
computer language Logo was a further step towards this sense of intimacy, and it
had a surprising spin-off: perhaps because the computer was still a totally new
medium in 1985, the teachers shed their initial fears and became fascinated,
instead, with their own and one another’s confusions around their interactions
with the machine. Probing their confusions came to be seen as a source of insight:
what was the basis of the confusion and how could you find out?
This new productive source for inquiry had another unexpected spin-off.
Stories from the classroom turned to children’s confusions and how to understand
them: making the assumption that no matter what a child said or did, it was
making sense to her, the question was, how could we find the sense she was
making? As Mary Briggs put it, ‘I hear a child saying this really weird thing, but
if only I could look out from where that child is looking, it would make perfect
sense’.
Watching the children at work (see Figure 1), we often saw learning going on
that grew out of the children’s easy moves between hands-on and computer-based
thinking and making. While the learning was often elusive, it suggested a possible
general design for children’s future projects that would both encourage and
perhaps make more explicit the learning that we had begun to see happening in
the Lab.
Learning from the children, our goal became to provide an environment in
which making occurred in a variety of media (Lego™ cars, geometric blocks,
huge cardboard gears, pulleys, foam core houses, drums for playing rhythms),
along with using the Apple computers as a platform for construction (graphics,
music, quiz programs, puzzles). We would design projects that differed in the
kinds of objects/materials used, that utilized differing sensory modalities, that held
the potential for differing modes of description (graphic, symbolic), but that
shared conceptual underpinnings (Bamberger, 1991).
In designing this environment, we were drawing on what we had found in the
past to be the effective learning strategies that children were bringing with them
from outside of school: to learn by noticing and drawing out principles from the
Mending spaces / Espacios remediadores 17
success of the objects and the actions that worked. Here again we find a connec-
tion to Dewey:
It is possible to find problems and projects that come within the scope and
capacities of the experience of the learner and which have a sufficiently long span
so that they raise new questions, introduce new and related undertakings, and create
a demand for fresh knowledge . . . [N]oting the bearing and function of things
acquired . . . has the advantage of being of the kind followed in study and learning
outside of school walls where data and principles do not offer themselves in isolated
segments with labels already affixed. (Dewey, 1931/1964, p. 423)
In the Lab, the computer played a role as mediator in addressing these questions.
As Papert (2005) sees it, the computer is a ‘transitional object’. While the
computer was used as another medium for designing and building working
systems, there were stunning differences in its everyday use and function in the
children’s designing. Indeed, the differences created a potentially generative
tension between making things with hands-on materials and making things with
the computer.
For example, in the hands-on situation, makers begin with action and rarely, if
at all, make verbal or written descriptions of what they know how to do. In the
computer situation, makers must begin by describing what they want to happen in
a symbolic programming language. Once made, the description is meant to
become what they have described — symbol becomes digitized object/action!
Also by contrast, descriptions written on paper remain static. The individual
reading the description must put its described pieces together and often needs to
ask, ‘Did I get it right?’ In this regard the computer has a unique capability: you
are not left in doubt; descriptions sent to the computer immediately turn into the
things or actions described by the programming language; the feedback regarding
‘Did I get it right?’ is provided almost automatically.
Sometimes, however, the computer becomes a strangely reflecting playground
as the programmed instructions produce provocative surprises. These are the
critical moments of learning. You ask yourself, ‘Wow, I wonder why that hap-
pened?’ ‘What does that tell me about how I’m understanding the problem?’
‘How do I probe this puzzlement?’
The children needed time to notice and play with these surprises. Rather than
turning away as if they had failed, they made experiments to interrogate what had
happened — much as they knew how to do in fixing their bikes or the LegoTM
cars they made in the Lab.
But the computer experiments had a special quality: because descriptions
became (virtual) actions, the relationship between symbol and action could be
tested. Indeed, chasing surprises, tracing the paths that led to them, turned out to
be a very productive way for the children to explore their own understandings and
confusions. Much as it had been with the teachers during the six months before
the children joined in, interrogating their confusions was often a critical and
exciting step towards insight. Strange encounters of a special kind.
Thus, rather than joining hand-made and computer-made systems to construct
a single working system (such as using the computer to control a LegoTM robot),
we urged the children to pay attention to differences in the kinds of things that
inhabited these two worlds. How did the differences between these design worlds
influence what they thought of to think about; what was different in the kinds of
problems, confusions and puzzles they encountered as they moved from the
familiar hands-on, real-time/space world to the virtual computer world?
Confronting the potential tension generated by these differences, rather than
avoiding them, turned out also to be important in helping the children move
more effectively between their ‘smart hands’ and the symbolic text-oriented
school world.
Mending spaces / Espacios remediadores 19
Working in the Lab, the children also noticed and helped us notice moments,
often caught on the fly, when the moves back and forth — between action in real
time/space and virtual action in computer space — revealed surprising similari-
ties. And, as we had hoped, the seeing of similarities (‘Hey, that reminds me of
what we did . . .’) often led to the emergence of a shared powerful principle that
was previously hidden. As I will show, capturing these insights and the discus-
sions that led to them produced some of the most significant learning for both the
children and the teacher-researchers.
Emerging ideas
The back-and-forth movement between materials, sensory modalities and modes
of description resulted in certain kinds of ideas becoming part of the Lab culture,
illuminating the children’s designing, building and understanding across all the
media. Three of these ideas were particularly present:
Chunking initially grew out of a specific need to work with the continuousness
of music. But its usefulness crept into designing with other materials as well.
Issues around ‘chunking’ became surprisingly evident in children’s often heard,
but rather unexpected question. As one student examined another student’s many-
pieced construction, we would hear him or her ask, ‘But what’s a THING, here?’
afternoon. Working with Mary and the children was an intense learning experi-
ence — learning that has influenced almost everything I have done since.
A COUNTDOWN
TO COUNTDOWN :START :DONE
IF :START = :DONE STOP
PRINT :START
COUNTDOWN :START – 1 :DONE
END
Figure 2. A spatial analogue graphic representation of the time of the drum doing the
faster beat procedure7.
FASTER 12 1
The gears
Gears also played an important role in the Lab as a means for helping children see
and feel shared principles across media and sensory modalities — e.g., kinds of
fast and slow, a counting unit, periodicity (see Figure 4).
As Seymour Papert has pointed out:
The gear, as well as connecting with the formal knowledge of mathematics, it also
connects with the ‘body knowledge’, the sensorimotor schemata of a child. You can
BE the gear, you can understand how it turns by projecting yourself into its place
and turning with it. It is this double relationship — both abstract and sensory — that
gives the gear the power to carry powerful mathematics into the mind. The gear
acts, here, as a transitional object. (Papert, 1980, p. viii)
Figure 3. A graphic representation of the computer clarinet doing the descending scale.
22 J. Bamberger
My hunch was that moving between clapping rhythms and playing with gears
could be a particularly lively playground for making this ‘double relationship’
manifest. On this particular Wednesday afternoon we moved through several
activities — from drumming, to walking, to playing with very large cardboard
gears, to clapping, and eventually to ‘telling’ the computer how to ‘play’ drum
patterns using MusicLogo. The gears were designed by Arthur Ganson6 and built
by a group of slightly older children.7
Mary asked the children as we moved over to the gears, ‘Now how could
these gears, the walking and the drumming we did sort of be alike?’ Rachel, one
of the students in the group, was standing by the gears, her hands actually being
the gears as she talked (see Figure 5). As she turned the gears, watching them go
around, she spontaneously made a proposal. The interaction includes Rosa and
Steve, another two students in the group.
Rachel: Oh, it’s a math problem. Like this one has (counting teeth on the smaller
gear) one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight — and you bring the
eight around four times to get it [the bigger gear] all the way around
once. Now how many teeth does that one [bigger gear] have?
Rosa: 24.
Rachel: No. Four times eight, 32. And the small one goes around four times
when that one goes around once.
Mary: (changing the focus) But I wanna know which one of those wheels is
going the fastest.
Steve: The smaller one.
Rachel: Both of them are going at the same speed.
Mending spaces / Espacios remediadores 23
In clapping, Leah’s hands acted out the 4:1 relationship of the two gears. That
is, each tap of her left hand is the bigger gear going around once; each group of
four taps of her right hand is the smaller gear going around four times (see
Figure 7).
Arthur’s spur-of-the-moment question neatly brought together the seemingly
disparate materials, modalities and means of description with which the children
had been working. Leah’s clapping was a kind of metaphor-in-action for the
relative motions of the two meshed gears — she had become the gears. For
Rachel the motion of the two gears embodied principles of ratio and ‘kinds of
Figure 6. Leah (at centre) taps the gear rhythm with both hands (4:1).
fastness’. And yet, hiding behind each student’s moves from one medium and
mode of expression to another were shared principles. Perhaps the most general-
izable shared principle was the fundamental idea of a ‘unit’ accumulating to make
related ‘periodicities’ — what the group of children had been calling simply
‘beats’.
Leah and Rachel were demonstrating the hunch we had had from the begin-
ning: children who are having difficulties learning in school can learn in profound
ways by extracting principles from the successful workings of their built objects
and their actions on and with them. The question still was, as it had been from the
beginning, could we help the children make working, functional connections in
the tension between what they knew how to do already in action, and the know-
about as expressed in more general symbolic form (see also Ryle, 1949)? Rachel
was clearly on the way; Leah was making moves in that direction; but what about
the others? Could the computer and MusicLogo enable more students to mediate
between action knowledge and symbolic knowledge?
children were used to: Instead of reflecting back to make descriptions after the
fact and after the act, they would need to describe, as instructions to the computer,
what they wanted to happen before the act. And instructions must be in the
symbolic form of a computer language — i.e., Logo. These were some of the
issues as we moved to the computers and to the next task.
BOOM [8 8 8 8 8 8 8] PM
We heard seven BOOM sounds, each with a duration of ‘8’. However, at this
point the children still had to discover what ‘8’ meant. I gave another example,
saying, ‘This one will go faster’:
BOOM [6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6] PM
Jeanne types:
BOOM [1 1 1 1 1 1 1] PM
And it did ‘go fast’. I also showed the children how Logo could play BOOM and
PING together, each in a separate ‘voice’ (see Figure 9).
And how can I find out? Listening, participating in his own experiment, he
confirmed his previous understanding; the contrast between the very fast 1s and
the slower 2s was eminently hearable.
To further confirm his understanding, Laf followed the numbers on the screen.
Tapping with his finger along with the 1s and 2s, relating his own actions to the
computer’s sound and virtual actions (see Figure 11), Laf was literally, physically
grasping the meaning of the 1s and 2s. Attentively and patiently, he continued
Figure 11. Finger drumming. (See video in Supplemental File online to watch Laf’s
finger drumming.).
Mending spaces / Espacios remediadores 29
Figure 12. BOOMs, and PINGS, 1’s and 2’s filling up the screen (see Supplemental
online file).
until the whole screen had been traversed (see Figure 12). Looking back, I see this
as a first example of coordinating symbol with sound and action. The numbers
stood still, the beats were sounding/moving, and Laf’s ‘finger-drumming’ was
marking each of them in action as time went on.
Starting with what he knew already (‘The lower you get the faster it gets . . . If
you put all 1s, it’ll go fast’), he tested that knowledge in action. Perhaps like a
scientist working with the puzzling behaviour of molecules, Laf needed to
differentiate between two closely related but slightly different elements (‘1’
and ‘2’). And like the scientist, he needed repetition — a critical sample size of
each element repeated over sufficient time, and in a controlled environment where
their differences and similarities could be clearly perceived as regularities.
Having observed instances of his essential elements behaving over a suffi-
ciently long time, and having confirmed that the behaviours of ‘1’ and ‘2’ do not
vary between the BOOM context and the PING context, Laf found that the ‘joints’
where the 1s and 2s met produced the revealing moments: the 1s went too fast for
him to follow, so he waited each time for the 2s to begin (see Figure 11 and listen
to the supplemental video file online).
Laf was using his available resources to do the work of making meaning. He
had invented a way to use the computer and MusicLogo as mediators between the
virtual world of symbols and his actions in real-time/space. And in retrospect, he
taught me how important it is to be able to slow down and take the time to repeat
so as literally to practise grasping meaning.
But there was more. Building on his experiment, Laf now used what he had
learned to make a whole piece of music. The piece was made up of alternating
rows of BOOMs and PINGs and 1s and 2s. Not surprisingly, he named his Logo
procedure TO LAF (see Figure 13).
Seeing and hearing what Laf had made, Mary gathered the children’s attention:
Mary: Shhhh . . . Laf is going to play his piece.
30 J. Bamberger
Looking very excited, Laf said, ‘Here we go again’, and he typed: LAF PM.
Laf’s procedure filled the Lab as the children listened attentively all the way to
the end. The usually quiet Laf looked triumphant and the children clapped in
appreciation.
playground for gathering, grasping, mulling over and finally developing and
giving meaning to a whole symbolic table of shared 2:1 drumming ratios. As
further evidence of the importance Laf gives to representing time passing, notice
that with each pair, the PINGs, playing twice as fast (4s) as the BOOMs (8s), also
have twice as many iterations as the BOOMs. Thus, each pair of BOOMs and
PINGs will come out together — equal in total time.
The computer literally becomes a mediator helping to integrate symbol, sound
and action. Through building his initial interactive experiment, his repeated runs
of 1s and 2s, Laf built himself a powerful idea. Following his quiet, steady work
patiently, we see one child’s process of slowly transforming his continuous actions
into evolving static images, culminating in the invention of a fully developed
symbolic representation.
But wait: on the basis of this table, it was easy to assume that in building on,
generalizing upon his previous experiments with 1s and 2s, Laf had developed the
powerful idea of ratio. But notice the difference between the form of my static
representation of ratio and Laf’s representation of repeatable BOOMs and PINGs
(see Figure 16).
Put most simply, I have imposed upon Laf’s invention the traditional repre-
sentation of ratio. In that process, I have taken away time and action! Laf has
carefully marked each action, each iteration, as he moves through time and action
onto paper space. Each of the numbers in Laf’s table reflects an action or a
reaction: his finger drumming as he follows the computer’s ‘performance’. My
32 J. Bamberger
ratio representation, 6:3, 10:5, has obliterated actual iterations in motion and time,
collapsed them into a single symbolic representation — many events have
become one.
The table shown in Figure 16 does not actually show Laf grasping the concept
of ratio. Rather, it is a snapshot in an evolutionary process of learning. We are
seeing a moment on-the-way to an ‘abstracting process’: continuous actions in
time extracted, made discrete, held still gradually transforming into the symbolic
expressions that we teach in school. As Werner (1957) pointed out:
Abstraction can be defined as a mental activity by means of which parts of a unit are
detached from the whole and separate qualities — color, form, etc. — are experi-
enced in isolation. (p. 234)
I argue that Laf’s insights depend deeply on an environment that exploits the
computer in a way that is unique to it: the computer as a medium in which a
symbol defines itself by becoming what it does. To paraphrase Papert, Laf used
the computer as a ‘transitional object’. His continuing participation in this
productive tension between action and symbol could later yield the powerful
idea of ratio.
Conclusions
The activities described in these stories are not intended as recommendations to be
literally copied — e.g., ‘a curriculum’, or even ‘what to do in class tomorrow’.
Nor are they intended as a general recommendation for how the computer may be
effectively used in classrooms. The stories are meant rather as examples of a
context and an approach to learning.
To recapitulate, the examples of children at work have helped to illustrate
that knowledge is actively developed through experience, interpretation, con-
structions, questions, failures, successes. The examples are perhaps most
relevant for those children whose personal, powerful know how is failing
them in school largely because it has no way of coming in off the street
into the classroom. As mentioned at the beginning of this article, for children
living in an unstable, unpredictable world in flux, literally grasping, holding,
holding still, holding on, is a persistent need. These are children who often
Mending spaces / Espacios remediadores 33
feel that school is irrelevant and reciprocally are made to perceive themselves
as irrelevant, peripheral, in school settings.
In sum, I argue that the computer may play a special role as a resource for
inquiry and invention when students can build on what they know how to do
already, while working within a conceptual space and at a pace that they can
grasp. In this environment, instead of becoming passive consumers — the target
of selected others’ goods and information — children can potentially become
makers of new knowledge of which they can feel proud. And through this
empowerment they may also discover strategies for learning how to learn within
the school world and beyond.
Notes
1. Seymour Papert (1928–2016) was a professor in the Artificial Intelligence Lab and
the Director of the Logo Lab at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He
was the primary developer of the Logo computer language.
2. This work was carried out under the direction of the author together with the
invaluable help of Mary Briggs, the Special Education teacher in the school.
3. There is a clear relationship between what I am calling ‘action knowledge’ in
contrast to ‘symbolic knowledge’ and Ryle’s ‘knowing how’ and ‘knowing that’
(Ryle, 1949).
4. The 10 Apple IIe computers were donated by Apple Computer.
5. In the procedures that follow, the colon symbol (called ‘dots’) indicates a variable as
input.
6. Arthur Ganson, a kinetic sculptor, had designed both the materials and the tools with
which the children had worked.
7. A spatial analogue representation of the computer drum playing the faster beat
procedure.
34 J. Bamberger
Dewey sobre ‘el aprendizaje basado en la acción’. Por ejemplo, en Osberg et al.
(2008), se afirma:
Sin embargo, existen diferencias importantes. Esta cita parece describir muy bien
la esencia del movimiento maker:
Da a los alumnos algo que hacer, no algo que aprender; el proceso de hacer algo
exige la reflexión y, por tanto, el aprendizaje ocurre de manera natural. (Dewey,
1916, p. 191, traducción propia).
Aunque también aquí se fomenta que los alumnos ‘hagan’ y sean ‘hacedores’, en
enfoque principal de nuestro trabajo2 es a la vez más amplio y más específico
comparado con el actual movimiento maker. Estamos desarrollando contextos en
los que se desarrolla el aprendizaje como función de la tensión generativa entre la
acción y el símbolo. Animamos a los estudiantes a moverse libremente entre el
trabajo práctico con materiales en tiempo y espacio reales, por un lado, y por el
otro, crear y elaborar descripciones/representaciones que ejercen la función de
‘instrucciones’ en el espacio virtual del ordenador.
Los comienzos
El trabajo en Graham and Parks School comenzó en otoño de 1985. Susan Jo
Rusell, maestra de escuela que estaba completando su doctorado en tecnología y
educación, me acompañó en la puesta en marcha del proyecto. La escuela, en un
barrio de trabajadores de Cambridge, MA, recibió su nombre en honor de Sondra
Graham, una activista social y anterior miembro del Consejo escolar de
Cambridge, y de Rosa Parks, famosa por su papel en la lucha por los derechos
de la mujer en la década de los 60. El núcleo de la población estudiantil del centro
reflejaba la diversidad de la población de Cambridge, e incluía también gran parte
de los niños de la ciudad cuya lengua era el criollo haitiano. Comenzamos con los
docentes del centro. Se invitó a todos los docentes (grados K–8) a incorporarse al
proyecto, que describimos como una oportunidad para pensar juntos sobre el
aprendizaje infantil compartiendo dificultades y puntos de vista de sus clases
respectivas. Se apuntaron doce maestros y maestras, de los cuales ocho se
convirtieron en participantes habituales. Esperábamos que el periodo inicial de
planificación durara unos dos meses, pero los maestros no se sintieron preparados
para traer a los niños al laboratorio hasta después de haber trabajado juntos casi
seis meses. Esos seis meses resultaron críticos para darle al laboratorio la forma
que finalmente adquirió.
Fuimos ‘amueblando’ gradualmente el laboratorio, una sala vacía del centro,
con gran variedad de materiales para diseñar y construir estructuras funcionales:
engranajes y poleas, bloques LegoTM, piezas para patrones y bloques de
construcción, regletas Cuisenaire, baterías y timbres para construir circuitos
básicos, espuma, madera y cola para construir modelos de casas, así como
baterías y pianos para crear música. Y los equipos Apple IIe de aquel entonces
ocuparon su lugar como un medio más para construir estructuras que funcionasen
y tuviesen sentido; lo que denominamos ‘sistemas funcionales4’. Los niños
rebautizaron el aula como ‘Laboratorio de diseño’. Unos 250 niños y adolescentes
de entre seis y 14 años participaron en las actividades del laboratorio durante un
periodo de unos cuatro años.
Los equipos Apple llegaron cuando llevábamos un mes trabajando con los
docentes. El primer paso para ayudar a los maestros a sentirse cómodos con las
máquinas fue desembalarlas y montarlas. El paso siguiente fue el aprendizaje del
lenguaje de programación Logo, que tuvo unas repercusiones sorprendentes. Tal
vez porque los equipos informáticos constituían todavía un medio totalmente
nuevo en 1985, los docentes se libraron de sus miedos iniciales y pasaron a
sentirse fascinados por su propia confusión y la de sus compañeros sobre su
relación con las máquinas. Sus indagaciones sobre esta confusión pasaron a
considerarse una fuente de conocimiento: ¿Qué era lo que causaba la confusión
y cómo podían averiguarlo?
Mending spaces / Espacios remediadores 37
Figura 1. El Laboratorio.
de los objetos y las acciones que creaban. Y aquí, de nuevo, encontramos una
conexión con Dewey:
discusiones que conducían a ellas, produjo parte del aprendizaje más significativo
para ambas partes, niños y docentes.
Ideas emergentes
El movimiento entre materiales, modalidades sensoriales, y modos descriptivos,
hizo que cierto tipo de ideas llegasen a formar parte de la cultura del laboratorio,
iluminando los diseños realizados por los niños, sus construcciones y sus
conocimientos en todos los medios utilizados. Tres de estas ideas eran particu-
larmente persistentes:
Engranajes y ritmos
Durante nuestro trabajo en el laboratorio de Logo (una sección del Laboratorio de
Inteligencia Artificial de MIT dirigida por Seymour Papert), diseñé, con la ayuda
de otros, una versión musical del lenguaje de programación Logo, diseñado
originalmente por Papert y su equipo. Lo denominamos MusicLogo y, junto con
el lenguaje Logo, los niños podían utilizarlo en el laboratorio de diseño. Mientras
que Logo se utilizaba habitualmente para programar gráficos, con MusicLogo, los
niños podían trabajar con múltiples medios: en ocasiones haciendo gráficos, otras
veces haciendo música. La idea era trabajar en proyectos prácticos de diseño,
moviéndose entre medios y modalidades sensoriales, pero manteniendo unos
fundamentos de diseño de procesos de los que podían extraerse los principios
subyacentes compartidos. Así pues, dando forma a objetos y acciones con medios
tan distintos podía considerarse una manera de compartir un diseño estructural.
Por ejemplo, se hizo uso de un mismo procedimiento informático y los
principios subyacentes (en particular, la recurrencia) para producir una ‘cuenta
atrás’ (10–9–8–7 . . .), para que un sintetizador de batería tocase un ritmo creciente
y para que un sintetizador de clarinete tocase una escala descencente5. El proce-
dimiento de cuenta atrás es típico de Logo, mientras que el ritmo creciente de
batería y la escala descendente son procedimientos típicos de MusicLogo.
Figura 2. Una representación gráfica espacial y analógica del tiempo en el que se realiza
un ritmo de batería creciente.
FASTER 12 1
Engranajes
Los engranajes también desempeñaron un papel importante en el laboratorio como
elemento de ayuda para que los niños pudiesen visualizar y sentir principios
compartidos entre los distintos medios y modalidades sensoriales; es decir, dis-
tintos tipos de ritmos rápidos y lentos, unidades de conteo, periodicidad, etc.
(véase Figura 4).
Como dijo Seymour Papert:
Mi intuición me decía que experimentar con distintos ritmos y jugar con los
engranajes podría ser una manera especialmente entretenida de hacer manifiesta
esta ‘doble relación’. Un miércoles por la tarde, habíamos realizado diversas
actividades: tocamos la batería, caminamos, jugamos con enormes engranajes de
cartón, creamos ritmos con las manos y, por último, ‘dictamos’ al ordenador cómo
tocar distintos ritmos de batería utilizando MusicLogo. Los engranajes fueron
diseñados por Arthur Ganson6 y construidos por un grupo de niños algo
mayores7.
Cuando nos dirigíamos a los engranajes, Mary preguntó a los niños: ‘¿En qué
podrían parecerse estos engranajes a lo que hemos hecho antes, como caminar o
tocar la batería?’ Rachel, una de las alumnas del grupo, estaba de pie junto a los
engranajes, y sus manos eran los engranajes mientras hablaba (Figura 5). Mientras
giraba los engranajes y los veía dar vueltas, hizo una propuesta de manera
espontánea. En la interacción intervienen Rosa y Steve, otros dos alumnos del
grupo.
Mary: (cambia de enfoque) Pero yo quiero saber cuál de las dos va más rápido.
Steve: La pequeña.
Rachel: Las dos van a la misma velocidad.
Mary: (se dirige a Steve) ¿Tú dices que la más pequeña?
Steve: Sí, la más pequeña gira cuatro veces y va más rápido.
Mary: Pero Rachel dice que van a la misma velocidad.
Rachel Mira, no puedes hacer que esta vaya más rápido. Cada vez que esta va
. . . Ah, ¿quieres decir cuál de las dos gira más rápido?
Mary: Pues, no sé. ¿Tú qué crees?
Rachel: ¿A qué clase de rapidez te refieres?
Mary: ¿Qué clases hay?
Rachel: Un tipo de rapidez, podríamos decir . . . (indica el encaje de los dientes)
cómo va encajando cada diente así, ¿lo ves? Y otro tipo de rapidez
podría ser el tiempo que tarda esta rueda en dar una vuelta (Rachel está
describiendo la diferencia entre velocidad lineal y velocidad angular).
Mary: Mmm. ¿Y si nos referimos a la rapidez de los dientes?
Steve: La más pequeña.
Rachel: No, las dos van a la misma velocidad.
Mary: OK. ¿Y cuál de las dos da gira más rápido?
Rachel: La más pequeña.
Mending spaces / Espacios remediadores 45
Dando palmadas en la mesa, Lea representa la relación 4:1 entre las dos
ruedas. Es decir, cada palmada con la mano izquierda representa una vuelta de
la rueda grande, mientras que las cuatro palmadas de la mano derecha representan
las cuatro vueltas de la rueda pequeña (véase Figura 7).
Figura 6. Leah (en el centro) tamborilea el ritmo de los engranajes con las manos (4:1).
sencillo 2:1. Todos los niños repitieron el ritmo con las palmas (véase
Figura 8).
Los chicos ya estaban familiarizados con la programación de procesos y con el
significado de los números para elaborar gráficas Logo; lo que denominábamos
‘enseñar al ordenador’. Ahora, tenían que dar significado a esos números en el
nuevo contexto de MusicLogo. ¿Cuáles eran los vínculos entre las acciones y los
sonidos que hacían con las manos, los números que utilizaban en operaciones
aritméticas simples, los números que utilizaban para crear gráficas en Logo y los
que utilizaban como instrucciones en el ordenador para indicar las relaciones
temporales entre los ritmos producidos por el sintetizador?
También estaban acostumbrados a conversar cuando se quedaban atascados
durante una actividad. Se explicaban unos a otros o a un adulto lo que trataban de
hacer para que algo funcionase. No obstante, las descripciones que utilizaban de
esa construcción en tiempo real no solían incluir expresiones simbólicas o
numéricas ni siquiera después de la actividad. Así pues, lo que los niños iban a
hacer ahora sería lo inverso de lo que estaban acostumbrados a hacer: en lugar de
reflexionar después para describir algo después de la acción y después del acto,
ahora tendrían que describir primero, a modo de instrucciones para el ordenador,
lo que querían que sucediese, antes de que suceda. Y las instrucciones tenían que
adoptar la forma simbólica de un lenguaje de programación, Logo. Estas son
algunas de las cuestiones que surgieron cuando nos dirigíamos hacia los ordena-
dores y la siguiente tarea.
BOOM [8 8 8 8 8 8 8] PM
Escuchamos siete sonidos BOOM de una duración de ‘8’ cada uno. No obstante,
los chicos todavía tenían que descubrir el significado de ‘8’. Entonces introduje
otro ejemplo y les dije ‘Este irá más rápido’:
BOOM [6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6] PM
Jeanne escribe:
BOOM [1 1 1 1 1 1 1] PM
Y, en efecto, iba muy rápido. A continuación, les enseñé cómo Logo tocaba los
sonidos BOOM y PING a la vez, cada uno con su propia ‘voz’ (véase Figura 9).
Figura 11. Tamborileo con el dedo. (Véase el archivo complementario en línea para
observar el tamborileo con el dedo realizado por Laf.).
Pero nuestra mayor sorpresa fue cuando, a final de la sesión, Laf procedió a
elaborar una tabla completa de posibles ejemplos de tamborileos 2:1 (véase
Figura 15).
En la Figura 15 se pueden observar las representaciones de BOOM y PING
sonando consistentemente a la vez en proporciones de 2:1; 8:4, 6:3, 4:2, 10:5. El
primer experimento de Laf, que en ese momento me pareció una actividad sin
sentido, resultó haber sido un preludio en el que reunir, asumir, considerar y
finalmente desarrollar y dar significado a toda una tabla simbólica de propor-
ciones rítmicas de 2:1. Como una muestra más de la importancia conferida por
Laf a la representación del paso del tiempo, cabe resaltar que, con cada par, los
PING, que suenan el doble de rápido (secuencias de 4) que los BOOM (secuen-
cias de 8), también tienen el doble de iteraciones que los BOOM. Por tanto, cada
pareja de BOOM y PING aparecen a la vez, igualados en el tiempo total.
El ordenador se convierte literalmente en un mediador que ayuda a integrar el
símbolo, el sonido y la acción. Desarrollando su experimento interactivo inicial,
sus iteraciones de las series de 1 y 2, Laf se construyó una idea poderosa.
Siguiendo con paciencia su trabajo tranquilo y constante, podemos observar el
proceso de transformación de sus acciones continuas en imágenes estáticas en
desarrollo, que culminan en la invención de una representación simbólica total-
mente desarrollada.
Pero esperen: sobre la base de esta tabla, era fácil asumir que, al desarrollar y
generalizar sus experimentos previos con secuencias de l y 2, Laf desarrolló la
poderosa idea de proporción. Pero nótese la diferencia entre la forma de mi
representación estática de la proporción y la representación de las repeticiones
de BOOM y PING de Laf (véase Figura 16).
Sencillamente, sobre la invención de Laf, había impuesto la representación
tradicional de la proporción. En este proceso, he eliminado el tiempo y la acción.
Laf marcó cuidadosamente cada acción, cada iteración, mientras pasaba del
tiempo y la acción al espacio del papel. Cada uno de los números de su tabla
refleja una acción o reacción: su repiqueteo con el dedo, acompañando la
‘actuación’ del ordenador. Mi representación proporcional, 6:3, 10:5, ha eclipsado
las iteraciones reales en el tiempo y en movimiento, condensadas en una única
representación simbólica; muchos eventos se han convertido en uno.
La tabla que se ilustra en la Figura 16 no muestra en realidad cómo Laf asimila
el concepto de proporción, sino que constituye una instantánea de un proceso
54 J. Bamberger
La abstracción puede definirse como una actividad mental a través de la cual las
partes de una unidad se desprenden del todo y sus cualidades particulares — color,
forma, etc. — se experimentan de forma aislada (p. 234, traducción propia).
Conclusiones
Las actividades que se describen en estas historias no pretenden ser recomenda-
ciones para su reproducción literal ‘en el currículum’, ni siquiera pretenden
indicar ‘qué hacer mañana en clase’. Tampoco pretenden ser una recomendación
de cómo utilizar los ordenadores con eficacia en las aulas. Estas historias pre-
tender ser meros ejemplos de un contexto y de un enfoque hacia el aprendizaje.
Por resumir, los ejemplos descritos del trabajo de los niños nos han ayudado a
ilustrar que el conocimiento se desarrolla activamente a través de la experiencia, la
interpretación, las construcciones, las preguntas, los fracasos y los éxitos. Los ejem-
plos mostrados tal vez sean más relevantes para niños cuyo poderoso know how, su
conocimiento personal, les falla en la escuela, en gran parte porque no encuentra una
manera de pasar de la calle a la clase. Como se ha mencionado al principio del artículo,
para niños que viven un mundo inestable e impredecible, en flujo continuo, poder
asimilar, mantener, detener y mantenerse es una necesidad persistente. Estos niños
suelen sentir que la escuela es irrelevante y, de manera recíproca, se les hace percibir a
sí mismos como irrelevantes, periféricos, en un entorno escolar.
En definitiva, defiendo que el ordenador puede desempeñar un papel especial
como recurso para la exploración y la invención cuando los estudiantes son
capaces de desarrollar lo que ya saben hacer, mientras trabajan en un espacio
conceptual y a un ritmo que pueden asimilar. En este entorno, en lugar de
convertirse en consumidores pasivos, recipientes de información y bienes prove-
nientes de otros, los niños tienen la posibilidad de convertirse en constructores de
nuevo conocimiento del que pueden sentirse orgullosos. Y, a través de este
empoderamiento, también pueden descubrir estrategias para aprender cómo apren-
der en el mundo escolar y fuera de él.
Mending spaces / Espacios remediadores 55
Notes
1. Seymour Papert (1928–2016) fue profesor en Laboratorio de inteligencia artificial y
director del Laboratorio Log en el Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Fue
el primer desarrollador del lenguaje de programación Logo.
2. Este trabajo fue realizado bajo la dirección del autor, con la inestimable ayuda de
Mary Briggs, la profesora de educación especial de la escuela.
3. Existe una relación clara entre lo que llamo ‘conocimiento basado en la acción’, en
contraposición al ‘conocimiento simbólico’ y lo que Ryle denomina ‘saber cómo’ y
‘saber qué’ (Ryle, 1949).
4. Los 10 equipos Apple IIe fueron donados por Apple Computer.
5. En los procedimientos que se detallan, el símbolo ‘:’ (‘dos puntos’) indica una
variable como entrada.
6. Arthur Ganson, un escultor cinético, diseñó los materiales y las herramientas con las
que trabajaron los niños.
7. Representación analógica espacial de la batería electrónica tocando el ritmo rápido.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. / Los autores no han referido
ningún potencial conflicto de interés en relación con este artículo.
Supplemental data
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed here.
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