Received: 30 August 2023

| Revised: 4 March 2024

| Accepted: 19 March 2024

DOI: 10.1111/sum.13055

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Effects of biodegradable poly(butylene adipate-­

co-­terephthalate) and poly(lactic acid) plastic degradation
on soil ecosystems

Pavani Dulanja Dissanayake1,2 | Piumi Amasha Withana1,3 | Mee Kyung Sang4 |

Yoora Cho1,3 | Jeyoung Park5,6 | Dongyeop X. Oh5,7 | Scott X. Chang8 |
Carol Sze Ki Lin9 | Michael S. Bank10,11 | Sung Yeon Hwang5,12 | Yong Sik Ok1,3,13
1
Korea Biochar Research Center, APRU Sustainable Waste Management Program & Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering,
Korea University, Seoul, Korea
2
Soils and Plant Nutrition Division, Coconut Research Institute, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka
3
International ESG Association (IESGA), Seoul, Korea
4
Division of Agricultural Microbiology, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Wanju, Korea
5
Research Center for bio-­Based Chemistry, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Ulsan, Korea
6
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, Seoul, Korea
7
Department of Polymer Science and Engineering and Program in Environmental and Polymer Engineering, Inha University, Incheon, Korea
8
Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
9
School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
10
Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
11
University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
12
Department of Plant & Environmental New Resources, Kyung Hee University, Yongin, Korea
13
Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Correspondence
Yong Sik Ok, Korea Biochar Research
Center, APRU Sustainable Waste
Management Program & Division of
Environmental Science and Ecological
Engineering, Korea University, Seoul
02841, Korea.
Email: yongsikok@korea.ac.kr
Sung Yeon Hwang, Research Center for
Bio-­based Chemistry, Korea Research
Institute of Chemical Technology
(KRICT), Ulsan, Korea.
Email: crew75@khu.ac.kr
Funding information
National Research Foundation of
Korea(NRF) grant funded by the
Abstract
Despite that biodegradable plastics are perceived as environmentally friendly,
there is a lack of comprehensive understanding of their fate in soil. Current
Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) frameworks, along with new
UNEP regulations on plastic pollution, necessitate scientific information on
plastic degradation in soils for developing sustainable biodegradable plastics.
In this study, we examined the degradation rates of two biodegradable plastics,
poly(butylene adipate-­co-­terephthalate) (PBAT) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA), in
a laboratory microcosm experiment using uncontaminated soil, with PBAT or
PLA added at 8.3% (w/w). Our aim was to further understand the impact of these
plastic types on soil properties and microbial communities under different incu-
bation temperatures. Both PBAT and PLA treatments elevated cumulative CO2

Pavani Dulanja Dissanayakea and Piumi Amasha Withana contributed equally to this study.

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
© 2024 The Authors. Soil Use and Management published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Society of Soil Science.

Soil Use Manage. 2024;40:e13055.  wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/sum | 1 of 16

https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.13055
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2 of 16    DISSANAYAKE et al.

Korean government (MSIT) (NRF-­

2021M3H4A3A02102349);
Basic Science Research Program
through the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded
by the Ministry of Education (NRF-­
2021R1A6A1A10045235).;
National Research Foundation of
Korea (NRF) grant funded by the
Korea government (MSIT) (No.
2021R1A2C2011734).;
OJEong Resilience Institute, Korea
University.
efflux compared with the control soil incubated at 25 and 58°C. After 33 weeks,
9.2% and 6.1% of the added PBAT and PLA degraded, respectively, at 58°C, while
only 2.3% of PBAT and 1.7% of PLA degraded at 25°C, implying slower degrada-
tion rates of PBAT and PLA under the lower temperature. Degradation at 58°C
increased total soil carbon by 0.6%, 1.9%, and 4.3% for Control, PBAT, and PLA,
respectively, and soil electrical conductivity by 0.17, 0.33, and 2.38 dS m−1, respec-
tively, but decreased soil pH. Microbial diversity and richness decreased under
thermophilic conditions at 58°C compared with that at 25°C. We conclude that
the degradation of PBAT and PLA varies with environmental condition, and in-
fluences soil properties.

KEYWORDS
biodegradable plastics, circular economy, environmental, social, and governance (ESG),
greenwashing, soil resource

1 | I N T RO DU CT ION Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2022).

Since the introduction of Bakelite in 1907, plastics have
become pervasive because of their high durability and low
cost (Amaral-­Zettler et al., 2020). However, these char-
acteristics lead to plastic waste persisting for thousands
of years (United Nations Environment Program, 2023),
with plastics accumulating globally in soils and other eco-
system compartments (United Nations, 2022). Plastics,
originating from sources such as mulch films and green-
house covers, are gradually transformed into microplas-
tics (MPs) (i.e., particles <5 mm in size) through physical
abrasions, UV light exposure, higher soil temperatures,
and increased oxygen availability (He et al., 2018).
Microplastics modify the physical, chemical, and bi-
ological soil properties (Palansooriya et al., 2022; Wang,
Wang, et al., 2022; Dissanayake et al., 2022), impacting
crop growth (de Souza Machado et al., 2019), and have
important, potential implications for human health (Tian
et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2020). Therefore, researchers
worldwide are actively seeking sustainable solutions for
plastic waste management. Biodegradable plastics derived
from renewable resources such as plant materials are
recognized as alternatives to polyethene, polypropylene,
poly(vinyl chloride), and fossil fuel-­based olefin plastics
(Moshood et al., 2022; Sintim et al., 2019). The primary
considerations for creating green and sustainable plas-
tics involve using renewable feedstocks, ensuring proper
degradation, and developing safe products. Biodegradable
plastics present a promising avenue for realizing and
advancing a circular economy focused on resource effi-
ciency, remanufacturing, and recycling (To et al., 2019).
During the UN Climate Summit (COP-­27) in 2022, offi-
cials emphasized the global need to embrace reusable, bio-
degradable, and compostable plastic substitutes (United
According to the European Bioplastic Organization, bio-
degradable plastics can be either bio-­based (e.g., poly(-
lactic acid) (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), and
poly(butylene succinate) (PBS)) or fossil fuel-­based (e.g.,
poly (butylene adipate-­ co-­
terephthalate) (PBAT) and
poly(ε-­caprolactone)(PCL)) (European Bioplastics, 2023a,
2023b). Bioplastics such as PBAT, PBS, and PLA are the
most commonly used biodegradable plastics (European
Bioplastics, 2023a, 2023b).
PBAT is a synthetic polyester with aromatic groups
enhancing its mechanical properties and is typically
employed as a biodegradable plastic in mulch film pro-
duction. Biodegradation of PBAT is largely driven by al-
iphatic polyester chains, while PLA is produced through
glucose fermentation, wherein glucose is first converted
into lactic acid and then transformed into PLA (Serrano-­
Ruiz et al., 2021). The ester linkages of PLA are slightly
hydrolysed at temperatures above 30°C (Castro-­Aguirre
et al., 2016). Consequently, PLA degrades 20 times faster
in soils than high-­ density polyethylene, although the
degradation periods in marine environments are similar
(Chamas et al., 2020).
The degradation potential is a critical characteristic of
biodegradable plastics. Biodegradation is a chemical pro-
cess wherein materials undergo conversion into water,
CO2, and biomass-­like natural substances through micro-
bial activity in the environment. This process is contingent
upon abiotic factors, such as temperature and moisture.
The biodegradability of materials in soils is commonly as-
sessed against industrial composting standards for plastics
(EN 13432), requiring over 90% biodegradation of biode-
gradable plastic-­based products within 180 days at ambi-
ent temperatures (European Bioplastics, 2023a, 2023b).
Despite assessing the degradability of biodegradable

DISSANAYAKE et al.
plastics under diverse environmental conditions, there is
a lack of evidence regarding the biodegradation of PBAT
and PLA in soils, except in composting scenarios.
The market for biodegradable plastics is experiencing
continuous growth, with major industry players such as
BASF (Germany), Novamont (Italy), LG Chem (Korea), SK
GeoCentric (Korea), and CJ Cheiljedang (Korea) manufac-
turing notable biodegradable plastic products. BASF, for
example, produces high-­quality, fully compostable Ecoflex®
and PLA derived from sugars. The compostable and bio-
degradable plastic “Ecovio®” is utilized in the production
of mulch films (BASF, 2023). LG Chem has developed
poly(lactate-­co-­
hydracrylate) (PLH) with 100% biologi-
cal materials (corn glucose and waste glycerol), suitable
for disposable cups and bags, among other products (LG
Chem, 2022). Additionally, they claimed that, in addition to
industrial composting, PBAT could be biodegraded in soils,
making it an excellent material for mulch films in agriculture
(LG Chem, 2022). Polyhydroxyalkanoate-­based PHACT®
developed by CJ CheilJedang is another 100% bio-­based
and marine biodegradable plastic, claimed to biodegrade in
marine and soil environments, as well as in domestic and
industrial compost conditions (CheilJedang, 2022).
Biodegradable plastics have extensive applications in
agriculture, including mulching films and greenhouse cov-
ers, as well as in the medical sector for polymer scaffolds
used in transplantation and tissue engineering (Kuang,
Chen, et al., 2022). Furthermore, they are employed in the
packaging industry (Kim et al., 2023) and serve as mate-
rials for electronic devices (Kuang et al., 2023; Kuang,
Ju, et al., 2022; Wang, Liu, et al., 2022; Wang, Wang,
et al., 2022), indicating the rapid development of biode-
gradable plastic-­based products. However, a critical issue
arises when assessing the annual sustainability reports
published by global industries that develop biodegradable
plastics and associated products. Current evaluations are
primarily focused on marine environments or composting
stations and, lack comprehensive data on the 100% biode-
gradability of these plastics under environmentally realis-
tic soil conditions. This absence of clear evidence has led
to a serious problem known as “plastic washing,” where
industries may falsely claim that their products are recy-
clable, compostable, and biodegradable (Nature, 2022),
potentially contributing to “greenwashing.” Greenwashing
occurs when products are labelled as “fully biodegradable”
without substantial scientific evidence or a robust assess-
ment of trade-­offs. As plastic and plastic waste-­related reg-
ulations are not yet standardized, the introduction of new
plastic regulations by the UN in 2024 (United Nations, 2022)
emphasizes the need for scientifically validated informa-
tion regarding the breakdown of biodegradable plastics in
soils and their effects on soil fertility. Additionally, with the
Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) framework
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   3 of 16
gaining prominence in assessing the sustainability of in-
dustries based on indices such as carbon emissions, waste,
clean technologies, renewable energy, and climate change,
global industries must strive to produce more environmen-
tally friendly products (Senadheera et al., 2021). Given
these international initiatives, both the industry and sci-
entific communities require novel information on the
breakdown of biodegradable plastics and their associated
environmental impacts, particularly under environmen-
tally realistic soil conditions.
Several researchers have analysed the impact of differ-
ent biodegradable plastics on soil. Rauscher et al. (2023)
found that the introduction of PBAT into sandy loam
soils (1%, w w−1) and loam soils (1%, w w−1) resulted
in increased CO2 emissions increased from 0.51 and
0.82 mg (in control soils) to 0.79 mg CO2 per gram of soils
and 1.03 mg CO2 per gram of soils, respectively. Zhou
et al. (2021) observed a substantial increase in soil mi-
crobial biomass carbon (MBC) and dissolved organic car-
bon (DOC) when PHA was added to soils (10%, w w−1),
reaching 1723 and 904 times greater (131 and 163 mg kg−1,
respectively) compared with reference conditions in con-
trol soils. Additionally, MBC and DOC were 12 and 54
times higher, respectively, in poly-­3-­hydroxybutyrate-­co-­
3-­hydroxyvalerate (PHBV)-­treated soils than in controls
(Zhou et al., 2021). The authors noted an elevated mi-
crobial growth rate in the microplastisphere (soil-­plastic
interface) compared with the bulk soil. Furthermore, the
addition of PHBV (10%, w w−1) altered the soil bacterial
community composition and increased the relative abun-
dance of Verrucomicrobia and Acidobacteria phyla com-
pared with reference conditions.
Serrano-­Ruiz et al. (2023) assessed the impact of buried
debris from PBAT-­and PHB-­based biodegradable mulch
films on crop growth and observed that PHB-­based mulch
film debris severely inhibited tomato and lettuce growth
by 90% and 95%, respectively. Depending on the chemical
composition of biodegradable mulch films, interactions
with the surrounding biotic and abiotic environments can
occur, leading to the discharge of degradation-­associated
biomass into soils and significant changes in soil proper-
ties, such as pH and other physicochemical and biological
properties (Serrano-­Ruiz et al., 2023). Brown et al. (2023)
observed a dose-­dependent reduction in maize growth and
foliar nitrogen (N) when soils were treated with 0.01%,
0.1%, 1%, and 10% (w w−1) of PHBV. The reduction in fo-
liar N content was also reflected in soils, where PHBV re-
duced both NH4+-­N. The control soils had 4.53 mg kg−1 of
NH4+-­N, whereas 10% PHBV decreased it to 0.77 mg kg−1
in soils. Several other studies (Li et al., 2014; Tanunchai
et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2019) have reported significant
variations in the microbial community composition of
soils after applying biodegradable plastics.
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4 of 16    DISSANAYAKE et al.

The current understanding of the rate of biodegradable
plastic degradation in soils remains uncertain and poorly
understood, with new and ongoing research focused on this
area (Figure 1). To ensure the long-­term sustainability of
biodegradable plastics, it is critical to evaluate their degrad-
ability dynamics under environmentally realistic and rele-
vant soil conditions and to assess potential impacts on soil
properties, crop productivity and food security. Products
based on biodegradable plastics, particularly mulch
films, fertilizers, and seed coats, are anticipated to com-
pletely degrade after being tilled into the soil (Brodhagen
et al., 2017), and this degradation should ideally occur
in situ. Therefore, agricultural soils must provide suitable
conditions for the degradation of biodegradable mulch
films. The post-­ biodegradation, residual end products
should ideally be CO2, water, and biomass, contributing
to the reduction of persistent microplastics in agricultural
soils resulting from polyethylene mulch films. Additionally,
post-­biodegradation, the end products should not adversely
affect crop growth or alter soil physicochemical and biolog-
ical properties (Qi et al., 2020). Achieving the overarching
goal of producing biodegradable plastics that can return to
nature without harming the environment requires a thor-
ough investigation and evaluation of their effects on soil
properties and quality.
Consequently, as part of a large-­scale field experiment
examining the degradation of PBAT and PLA in soil, we
conducted a pilot study involving laboratory incubation
experiments. The objectives of this study were to analyse:
(1) the degradation rates of PLA and PBAT in soils over
time, (2) the effect of temperature on the degradation pro-
cesses, and (3) the impact of PLA and PBAT degradation
on soil chemical properties and microbial diversity. This
study represents the first attempt to evaluate the degra-
dation rates of PLA and PBAT in soils and evaluate their
effects on soil properties.
2 | MATERIALS AND METHO D S
2.1 | Soil sampling and characterization
Surface soil samples (0–20 cm) were collected from an ex-
perimental agriculture station in Deokso, Gyeonggi-­do,

F I G U R E 1 Keyword map of publications from 2010 to 2022, obtained from the Scopus database by searching the terms “Bioplastic
OR Bioplastics” AND “Biodegradable AND Plastics” AND “Soils OR Soil” AND “Degradation” in the title, keywords, and abstract of
publications (The areas of coloured nodes indicate the amount of research, and the lines between the nodes represent associations).

DISSANAYAKE et al.
Korea (37°35′00″ N, 127°14′11″ E). The samples were
meticulously processed by removing roots and debris,
followed by air-­ drying. Subsequently, the dried sam-
ples underwent a 2-­ mm stainless-­ steel sieve process
prior to utilization. The recorded soil parameters indi-
cated a pH of 6.79 ± 0.01, electrical conductivity (EC) of
0.06 ± 0.02 dS m−1, and total C (total C%) of 0.38%.
2.2 | Incubation with biodegradable
plastic
2.2.1 | Production of PBAT and PLA
To evaluate the degradation of PBAT (Mw = 130 kDa)
and PLA (Mw = 160 kDa) in agricultural soils, sam-
ples of PBAT and PLA were prepared. These samples
were sourced from the Research Center for Bio-­Based
Chemistry at the Korea Research Institute of Chemical
Technology (KRICT). The production process involved
a combination of diols and dicarboxylic acids, including
dimethyl terephthalate, adipic acid, and 1,4-­butanediol,
utilizing a two-­ step melt-­
polymerization method. The
polymerization process continued until the pressure
dropped below 100 mTorr. The resultant product was
quenched in cold water, collected, and then dried in a
vacuum oven at 60°C for 24 h. PLA production, on the
other hand, employed the ring-­opening polymerization
of L-­lactic acid. Detailed information on the PBAT and
PLA production processes can be found in the methods
by Kim et al. (2023) and Thanh et al. (2022).
2.2.2 | Soil incubation
Each microcosm received 100 g of dried, 2 mm-­ sieved
soils. The control consisted of soils without biodegradable
plastic, while the treatment groups included soil +8.3% (w
w−1) PBAT, and soil +8.3% (w w−1) PLA. To ensure op-
timal degradation of PBAT and PLA in soils, application
rates of 8.3% (or 12:1 w w−1) were selected in accordance
with the ISO 17556:2019 method for assessing biodegrada-
ble plastic degradation in soils. In each microcosm, a glass
vial containing 5 mL of 2 M NaOH was placed to capture
CO2 emitted from the soil during PBAT and PLA degra-
dation. To determine the effect of the temperature on the
degradation of PBAT and PLA in agricultural soils, one
set of microcosms was maintained at room temperature
(25°C, RT), and another was maintained at high tempera-
tures (industrial composting temperature; 58°C, HT) in
automatic incubators (MIR-­554, SANYO Electronic Co.
Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) for 33 weeks. Many studies have eval-
uated the degradability of biodegradable plastics under
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   5 of 16
composting conditions compared with that of soils, fol-
lowing the standards developed by the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) (Ahn et al., 2011;
Emadian et al., 2017). According to the ASTM D5338, the
method for determining aerobic biodegradation of plastic
materials under controlled composting conditions, 58°C,
which is the recommended industrial composting temper-
ature. This investigation used both temperatures to com-
pare PBAT and PLA degradation under composting and
natural environmental conditions. Each treatment had
four replicates, and the moisture content of the soil was
maintained at 70% of its water-­holding capacity.
2.3 | Analysis of CO2 efflux and soil
properties
2.3.1 | CO2 efflux
The CO2 efflux rates were determined bi-­weekly by titrat-
ing NaOH (2 M) in each vial against 1 M HCl using a phe-
nolphthalein indicator, according to methods described by
Anderson (1983). The CO2 efflux was determined for micro-
cosms with PBAT and PLA, and those without PBAT and
PLA (control), and blanks (vials containing NaOH, without
soil or biodegradable plastics) using the following approach:
First, the glass vial (containing NaOH) was removed, and
the entire NaOH volume (the remaining NaOH volume
after reacting with CO2) was transferred into a volumetric
flask. Next, 5 mL of distilled water was added to the glass
vial, the inner walls were thoroughly washed, and the wash-
ings were added to a volumetric flask containing NaOH.
Then, 1 mL of BaCl2 (0.5 M) was added to the volumetric
flask and the resulting solution was mixed well (the reac-
tion between CO2 and NaOH produced NaCO3, and BaCl2
precipitated carbonate as insoluble BaCO3). Finally, 1–2
drops of phenolphthalein indicator were added to the volu-
metric flask until the solution turned pink, which was then
titrated against 1 N HCl. The volume of acid required to ti-
trate NaOH was recorded, and the following expression was
used to calculate the amount of CO2 released from the soil
during exposure to NaOH:
Milligrams of C or CO2 = (B − V ) N ∗ E
where B = volume (mL) of acid required to titrate NaOH in
the jars from the control cylinders without soil and biode-
gradable plastics to the endpoint. V is the volume (mL) of
acid required to titrate NaOH in jars exposed to the soil at-
mosphere to the endpoint. N = normality of the acid (1 N);
and E = equivalent weight.
To express the data in terms of carbon, E = 6, and to
express it as CO2, E = 22.
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6 of 16    DISSANAYAKE et al.

2.3.2 | Calculation of % PBAT and PLA 16S gene was amplified using the universal primers
biodegradation in soils 341F and 805R. The remaining sample was air-­dried,
and its chemical properties were analysed. Soil suspen-
The biodegradation percentages of PBAT and PLA were sions were prepared with deionized water at a 1:5 ratio
calculated as following detailed methods described by to determine the soil pH. Electrical conductivity (EC)
Lefaux et al. (2004) and Saadi et al. (2012). For both PBAT was determined following centrifugation and filtra-
and PLA, the percentage degradation is expressed as: tion of the soil solution with Whatman 42 filter paper
[( ) ( ) ] (Igalavithana et al., 2017). The total carbon content was
CO2 T − CO2 B analysed using a CHN elemental analyser (Elementar
% biodegradation = × 100 %
Analysensysteme GmbH, Germany).
( )
CO2 Th

where (CO2)T is the cumulative CO2 efflux (g) in each mi-

crocosm with PBAT, PLA, and the control; (CO2)B (g) is 2.5 | Quality control and statistical
the cumulative CO2 efflux (g) in the blank microcosm; and analysis
(CO2)Th (g) is the theoretical amount of CO2 (g) that can be
produced by the total oxidation of PBAT and PLA, calcu- All treatments were replicated four times, and results
lated as follows: are reported as mean ± standard deviation. Blanks and
analytical-­grade reagents were used for all analyses. One-­
44
( )
CO2 = C(TOT) × ×M way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using
12
the Statistical Analysis System ver. 9.3 (SAS, Cary, USA).
where C(TOT) is the total organic carbon (g) in PBAT and Tukey's honest significant difference test (Tukey's HSD
PLA (g g−1), M is the mass of PBAT and PLA added into each test) was conducted to identify significant differences be-
microcosm, and 44 and 12 are the molar mass of CO2 and tween treatments and statistical significance was accepted
atomic mass of carbon (g mol−1), respectively. at p < .05. Pearson's correlation analysis was performed
using RStudio software (Version 4.2.1, RStudio Inc.,
Boston, MA, USA).
2.4 | Soil properties

At the end of the soil incubation period, approximately
5 g of each soil sample was collected in 15 mL sterilized
falcon tubes and stored for a month at 4°C. These sub-
samples were analysed to determine microbial com-
munity composition, bacterial richness, and diversity,
as described previously by Dissanayake et al. (2022).
Genomic DNA from soil subsamples (approximately
0.5 g) was extracted using a FastDNA spin kit (MP
Biomedicals, USA) according to the manufacturer's
instructions. Briefly, the V3–V4 region of the bacterial
3 | RESULTS AND DISC USSIO N
3.1 | Soil pH
The degradation products of PBAT and PLA in soils al-
tered pH and a significant reduction of soil pH was ob-
served because of degradation of both PBAT and PLA
at 58°C (Table 1). Shah et al. (2008) reported that PBAT
degradation could occur through various pathways: en-
zymatically by bacteria, fungi, and algae in the natural

T A B L E 1 Soil pH, electrical

Total carbon
−1 conductivity (EC), and total carbon
Treatment pH EC (dS m ) (%, w w−1)
content of soils at the end of the
b
Control—RT 6.45 ± 0.04 0.20 ± 0.02bc 0.75 ± 0.02bc incubation period.
PBAT—RT 7.31 ± 0.42ab 0.12 ± 0.02c 0.72 ± 0.09c
ab c
PLA—RT 6.87 ± 0.15 0.12 ± 0.01 0.96 ± 0.30bc
Control—HT 7.92 ± 0.41a 0.17 ± 0.02bc 0.58 ± 0.03c
PBAT—HT 6.31 ± 0.11b 0.33 ± 0.05b 1.93 ± 0.40b
c a
PLA—HT 3.65 ± 0.05 2.38 ± 0.07 4.38 ± 0.51a
Note: PBAT and PLA = poly (butylene adipate-­co-­terephthalate) = poly (lactic acid). RT and
HT = room temperature (25°C) and high temperature (58°C), respectively. Same letters in a particular
column indicate no significant differences between treatments (at p < 0.05). Data are presented as
mean ± standard deviation (n = 4).
Abbreviation: EC, electrical conductivity.

DISSANAYAKE et al.
environment, as well as through chemical hydrolysis or
thermal degradation. In this study, the degradation of
PBAT at 25°C increased the soil pH from 6.45 (control
soils) to 7.31. In contrast, Li et al. (2022) reported that
the presence of PBAT microplastics did not impact soil
pH. At different PBAT application rates in soils (0%,
0.02%, 0.2%, 2%, and 5% w w−1), soil pH at 25°C re-
mained almost the same as the control, measuring 7.87.
PBAT degradation involves the cleavage of adipate ester
groups, and the process intensifies at higher tempera-
tures (Herrera et al., 2002). This leads to the production
of vinyl esters and acids such as terephthalic acid and
adipic acid (Al-­Itry et al., 2012; Jia et al., 2021), contrib-
uting to a decrease in soil pH. Consequently, the soil pH
of loaded soils (6.31) was lower than that of control soils
(7.92) at 58°C, as acidic by-­products were released dur-
ing PBAT degradation.
PLA undergoes natural degradation through the hy-
drolysis of its ester bonds (Karamanlioglu et al., 2017).
Microbial degradation is initiated after hydrolysis of
high-­ molecular-­weight PLA (Saadi et al., 2012), oc-
curring at elevated temperatures in aqueous media
(Itävaara et al., 2002; Karamanlioglu & Robson, 2013;
Lunt, 1998). Karamanlioglu and Robson (2013) reported
that PLA does not degrade in soils at 25–37°C, even over
a year. During microbial degradation, microorganisms
mineralize PLA and generate CO2 and CH4 under aer-
obic and anaerobic conditions, respectively (Zaaba &
Jaafar, 2020).
In the current study, the soil pH of the control was 6.45
at 25°C, whereas PLA degradation increased pH values
to 6.87 (Table 1). PLA is sensitive to thermal degradation
(Velghe et al., 2023) and can absorb moisture, resulting
in the hydrolysis of its ester linkages and the subsequent
breakdown of its long macromolecular chains. Hydrolysis
rates increase with temperature, and slow hydrolysis of
PLA ester linkages occurs during exposure to moisture at
temperatures of at least 30°C, releasing smaller oligomers
and monomers that can alter soil pH (Castro-­ Aguirre
et al., 2016; Chamas et al., 2020). During a 2-­year field ex-
periment aimed at evaluating the effects of biodegradable
plastic-­based mulch films (PLA/PHA based) on soil prop-
erties (average soil temperature at a depth of 10 cm <30°C),
Sintim et al. (2019) observed that mulch film degradation
did not significantly affect soil pH, as soils without mulch
films had an average pH of 6.0, whereas those in exper-
imental plots had an average pH of 5.9. PLA hydrolysis
generates lactic acid. Karamanlioglu and Robson (2013)
and Goto et al. (2020) reported that water-­soluble materi-
als, such as formic acid and acetic acid, may also be pro-
duced during PLA degradation because of side reactions
caused by heat or oxygen, although the specific reactants
and mechanisms remain unknown. The production of
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   7 of 16
organic acids, such as lactic acid, during PLA degradation
can decrease soil pH. In the current study, the degradation
of PLA at 58°C decreased soil pH to 3.65 relative to that
of the control (7.92). This pH between 3 and 4 is consis-
tent with the acidity (pKa) of lactic acid oligomers (Dong
et al., 2013; Siparsky et al., 1998) and is below the opti-
mal pH range (6.4–7.3) for food production of many crops
(Moebius-­Clune et al., 2016).
3.2 | Soil EC
Heiniger et al. (2003) asserted that the EC of soil serves
as an indicator of its available nutrient availability.
Consequently, the degradation products of biodegrad-
able plastics can modify the concentrations of available
nutrients in the soil. For instance, Rillig et al. (2019) ob-
served that the microbiological degradation of biodegrad-
able plastics, such as PBAT and PLA, could reduce soil
nutrient content. In our investigation, the degradation
of PBAT and PLA at 25°C resulted in a slight decrease in
soil EC (0.12 dS m−1) compared with that of the control
soils (0.20 dS m−1), which was not statistically significant
(Table 1). This may imply that PBAT and PLA undergo
degradation at room temperature, albeit at extremely low
rates, with microorganisms subsequently consuming the
resultant degradation products. Consequently, there were
no observable degradation-­associated changes in soil EC
at room temperature, necessitating further exploration in
future studies conducted at approximately 25°C.
Sintim et al. (2019) evaluated the impacts of various
biodegradable plastic-­based mulch films, including PLA/
PHA-­based mulch films, on soil ecosystem health. They
found that degradation of most mulch films in soil (at tem-
peratures <30°C) decreased the soil's EC to 2.14 dS m−1
compared with reference soils (EC = 2.44 dS m−1). In con-
trast, our study demonstrated that degradation processes
of PBAT and PLA in soils at 58°C increased their EC to
0.33 dS m−1 and 2.38 dS m−1, respectively, compared with
the control soils (0.17 dS m−1). These elevated EC values
correspond to high concentrations of available nutrients
because of the accumulation of degradation products. The
degradation of PLA resulted in higher soil ECs compared
with that of PBAT, possibly because the degradation prod-
ucts of PLA were released more rapidly at 58°C than those
of PBAT.
3.3 | Total soil carbon
The use of biodegradable plastics in agriculture is an-
ticipated to rise, necessitating a clear understanding of
the influence of degradation on material circulation in
 |
8 of 16   
agricultural soils. Given that PBAT and PLA are aliphatic
polyesters, they can degrade into CO2, water, and other
biomass under soil and compost conditions, and these
processes and dynamics are governed by heat, water, oxy-
gen, organisms, and enzymes (da Silva et al., 2018; Weng,
Jin, et al., 2013; Weng, Wang, et al., 2013; Fu et al., 2020).
Total soil carbon (C) encompasses both organic and in-
organic C content. Organic C is found in the organic mat-
ter fraction, consisting of cells of microorganisms, plants,
and animals in various stages of decomposition, stable
“humus” biosynthesized from cellular residues, and highly
carbonized compounds. Inorganic C is predominantly
present in carbonate minerals (Nelson & Sommers, 1983).
No studies have assessed how soil C fractions vary with
the degradation of biodegradable plastics in soils. In an
investigation of the degradation behaviour of PBAT/PLA
blends in freshwater with sediment, Fu et al. (2020) ob-
served that the degradation rates of PLA were greater than
PBAT. In the current study, the initial soils had a total C
(total C%) of 0.38%, and PBAT and PLA degradation in
soils increased the total C%, suggesting that hydrolysis
of PBAT and PLA can occur under anaerobic conditions
(Table 1).
Comparative analyses of C-­, H-­, and O-­like elemental
changes in biodegradable plastics before and after degra-
dation indicated a decrease in total C% after the degrada-
tion of biodegradable plastics (Fu et al., 2020). In contrast,
Sintim et al. (2020) reported that the breakdown of PLA-­
and PHA-­based biodegradable mulch films (15% PHA and
1.6% PLA) in sandy loam soils increased the extractable
organic carbon by 20%, largely because of the biomass re-
lease into soils. In the current study, the total C% in soils
containing PBAT (1.93%) and PLA (4.38%) heated at 58°C
was higher than that in soils heated at 25°C. PLA typically
degrades slowly at ambient soil temperatures because of
the slow rate of hydrolysis under low temperatures and/
or low-­moisture conditions or in the absence of PLA-­
degrading organisms (Shogren et al., 2003). The high % of
C in the PLA-­treated soil under high-­temperature condi-
tions was likely governed by lactic acid dynamics, which
can promote the activity of thermophilic organisms'
(Itävaara et al., 2002; Zellner et al., 1994), thereby acceler-
ating the rate of PLA degradation.
3.4 | Soil bacterial diversity and richness
All rarefaction curves obtained in this study reached a
saturation plateau, confirming that the number of sam-
pled sequences was sufficiently high to reveal the species
richness of the bacterial community. To assess the alpha
diversity of the microbial community in the soils follow-
ing PBAT and PLA degradation, both Chao1 and Shannon
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DISSANAYAKE et al.
diversity indices were evaluated. Our data indicated that
bacterial diversity and richness were similar in soils con-
taining each type of biodegradable plastic (Figure 2).
Furthermore, degradation of PBAT and PLA in soils
at 25°C did not impact the relative abundance and diver-
sity of Acidobacteria and Proteobacteria compared with
reference soils (Figure 3). In contrast, Rüthi et al. (2020)
observed PBAT and PLA additions to soils at 15°C in-
creased the relative abundance of both Actinobacteria and
Proteobacteria. The comparable relative abundances of
bacterial phyla in the treatment and reference soils in the
current study indicate that degradation of PBAT and PLA,
which increased biomass, did not hinder soil bacteria
from maintaining their growth, activity, and abundance.
We postulate that the introduction of biodegradable
plastic-­based products such as mulch films into soils may
be somewhat advantageous; however, further research is
needed to evaluate this hypothesis.
Unlike the degradation of PBAT and PLA at 25°C, their
degradation at 58°C significantly reduced both bacterial
diversity and richness. This was indicated by the lower
relative abundance of bacterial phyla in the treated soils
at 58°C compared with the control soils. This reduction
likely occurred because only thermophilic bacteria (i.e.,
Firmicutes and Actinobacteria) thrive at such high tem-
peratures. The degradation of PBAT and PLA at 58°C sig-
nificantly reduced both bacterial diversity and richness.
In particular, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria can survive
at temperatures of 74.6–90.8°C (Zhang et al., 2019) and
40–80°C (Shivlata & Satyanarayana, 2015), respectively.
Moreover, Chloroflexi can thrive at temperatures of 45.5–
68.5°C (Bryant, 2019). Consequently, relative abundances
of Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Chloroflexi were high
following the degradation of PBAT and PLA in soils at
58°C. Bacterial richness and diversity exhibited a signif-
icant negative correlation with cumulative CO2 efflux
(Table 2), suggesting that specific types of bacteria play
important roles in enhancing the degradation processes of
biodegradable plastics in soils.
3.5 | CO2 efflux
The cumulative CO2-­C (C derived from CO2) was deter-
mined by periodically analysing the CO2 efflux during
the incubation period, serving as a measure of PBAT and
PLA degradation in soils (Figure 4). Generally, the degra-
dation rate of biodegradable plastics depends on factors
such as the type of plastic (i.e., its chemical and physi-
cal structure), abiotic factors (UV, temperature, mois-
ture, and pH), and biotic processes (microbial activity)
(Folino et al., 2020). Temperature was a primary factor
influencing the breakdown of biodegradable plastics in
 |

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DISSANAYAKE et al.    9 of 16

F I G U R E 2 (a) Shannon diversity index and (b) Chao-­1 index of the soil at the end of the incubation period. Error bars indicate the
standard deviation. Similar letters above the error bars indicate no significant difference at p < 0.05. PBAT and PLA represent poly (butylene
adipate-­co-­terephthalate) and poly (lactic acid), RT and HT represent room temperature (25°C) and high temperature (58°C).

F I G U R E 3 Relative abundances of bacterial phyla at the end of incubation in soils containing poly (butylene adipate-­co-­terephthalate)
(PBAT) and poly (lactic acid) (PLA). RT and HT represent room temperature (25°C) and high temperature (58°C), respectively.

soil (Chamas et al., 2020). At 58°C, a significant increase
in CO2 efflux was observed in all treated soils, signifying
an accelerated PBAT and PLA degradation rate with ris-
ing temperatures. The observed low degradation rates at
25°C suggest that both PBAT and PLA would necessitate
more time for degradation in soils under normal condi-
tions than in soils at 58°C. Nonetheless, soil degradation
rates were lower compared with compost, as observed
by Castellani et al. (2016), where PLA/PBAT blends re-
sulted in cumulative emissions of 59.6 g CO2 vessel−1 (23 g
of PLA/PBAT blend for 276 g of compost). Thermophilic
conditions (temperatures >40°C) facilitated water ab-
sorption by PBAT and PLA, hastening their chemical
hydrolysis. Consequently, these biodegradable plastics be-
came more hydrophilic, accelerating their biodegradation
(Morro et al., 2019).
The mechanical properties of PLA change when it
reaches its glass transition temperature (55–60°C), thus
accelerating its degradation in thermophilic conditions
(Cucina et al., 2021). At room temperature (25°C), the
mobility of polymer chains with high glass transition tem-
peratures is limited, resulting in low degradability (Sintim
 |

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10 of 16    DISSANAYAKE et al.

et al., 2020). In this study, PBAT exhibited a faster deg-

Cumulative CO2 efflux

radation rate than PLA at both temperatures. However,
none of the samples displayed a plateau of CO2 efflux after
33 weeks of incubation, indicating that complete degrada-
tion of both PBAT and PLA requires more than 33 weeks.
At both temperatures (25 and 58°C), PBAT was de-
graded more than PLA. By the end of the incubation pe-

1.00
riod (33 weeks), 2.3 and 9.2% of PBAT had degraded at 25
and 58°C, respectively, whereas the corresponding values
for PLA were 1.7% (25°C) and 6.1% (58°C). As shown in
Shannon index

Figure 4, the higher CO2 efflux during PBAT degradation

(relative to PLA) also suggests a greater extent of PBAT
−0.66** degradation at both temperatures. These findings under-
1.00

score that although PBAT and PLA can undergo degrada-

tion in soil within a certain timeframe, their degradation
processes are influenced by environmental factors such as
temperature, soil microorganisms, and moisture.
In natural soil microcosms, the degradation of poly-
Chao −1 index

mers is a complex process that involves both physicochem-

ical and microbial processes (Qi et al., 2017). The higher
0.94**
−0.71**
1.00

degradation rate of PBAT compared with that of PLA at

both temperatures can be attributed to several factors, in-
cluding differences in their chemical structures, suscep-
tibility to hydrolysis, microbial activity, and temperature
(Qi et al., 2017). These factors collectively contribute to
Total carbon

the observed variability in degradation rates of these two

Pearson's correlation coefficients between soil properties and cumulative CO2 efflux.

biodegradable plastics in soil environments.

−0.54**
**

0.43*

The PBAT is an aliphatic-­aromatic copolyester com-

1.00

−0.63

posed of 1,4-­butanediol, adipic acid (BA), and terephthalic

acids (BT). Its biodegradability is attributed to the pres-
ence of a butylene adipate group containing ester linkages
Electrical conductivity

that are more susceptible to hydrolytic cleavage, particu-

Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.

larly in the presence of moisture (Elvers et al., 2016). The

non-­crystalline portion of the butylene adipate structure
degrades faster than the crystalline portion of the BT
structure (Ferreira et al., 2019). Conversely, PLA is an
0.25ns
0.90**
−0.52**
**
1.00

−0.59

aliphatic polyester derived from lactic acid through the

ring-­opening polymerization of lactide isomers, including
(−,−)-­ lactide, (+,+)-­
lactide, and (±)-­ lactide. The com-
position of these isomers affects the properties of PLA.
Similar to PBAT, PLA contains ester bonds that are sus-
ns

−0.29ns
−0.88**
**

*
1.00

−0.86
0.31
0.41

ceptible to hydrolysis and has a vastly different chemical

pH

structure (Kim et al., 2023). PBAT degradation primarily

results from hydrolytic cleavage and microbial attack,
readily degrading the butylene adipate structure. PBAT
biodegradation can be considered as hydrolysis under
the influence of microbial enzymes, during which the BA
Cumulative CO2 efflux
Electrical conductivity

structure with a non-­crystalline portion degrades faster

than the BT structure with a crystalline portion (Ferreira
Shannon index
Chao −1 Index
Total Carbon

et al., 2019). In contrast, PLA degradation in soil involves

TABLE 2

two primary processes: chemical hydrolysis and biodeg-

radation. During chemical hydrolysis, PLA's ester bonds
pH

break down into carboxylic acids and alcohols in the

*

DISSANAYAKE et al.
F I G U R E 4 Cumulative CO2 efflux
during incubation experiments. PBAT
and PLA = poly (butylene adipate-­co-­
terephthalate) = poly (lactic acid). RT and
HT = room temperature (25°C) and high
temperature (58°C), respectively.
presence of hydronium ions. However, complete hydroly-
sis without a catalyst is both energy-­and time-­consuming
(Qi et al., 2017). During microbial degradation, special-
ized PLA-­degrading microorganisms release extracellular
depolymerase enzymes. These enzymes, induced by sub-
stances such as silk fibroin, elastin, gelatin, peptides, and
amino acids, target intramolecular ester bonds in PLA to
form oligomers, dimers, and monomers. Subsequently,
these low-­molecular-­weight compounds penetrate micro-
bial cell membranes and are further broken down into car-
bon dioxide, water, and methane by intracellular enzymes
(Qi et al., 2017).
Compared with other biodegradable materials, PLA
exhibits a prolonged degradation period in soil be-
cause of its resistance to microbial degradation (Ferreira
et al., 2019). Conversely, PBAT is generally more sus-
ceptible to hydrolysis in the presence of moisture than
PLA, as the ester linkages in PBAT are prone to hydro-
lytic cleavage, often accelerating degradation in moist
soils (Ferreira et al., 2019). Notably, the PLA-­degrading
bacteria identified, including Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and
Stenotrophomonas (Qi et al., 2017), were absent in ana-
lysed soils, where Proteobacteria and Acidobacteria were
predominant (Figure 3). This observation aligns with
the findings of Han et al. (2021), indicating that several
members of Proteobacteria, such as Bradyrhizobium,
Ramlibacter, and Variovorax, previously not directly linked
to PBAT degradation, were dominant degraders of PBAT
in soils. Furthermore, our study identified Proteobacteria
in PBAT-­degraded soils at 25°C, suggesting their potential
|
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   11 of 16
contribution to increased PBAT degradation compared
with PLA. Existing scientific evidence indicates that the
limited distribution of PLA-­degrading bacteria in natural
environments, mainly belonging to Firmicutes, thermo-
philic bacteria (Qi et al., 2017). Surprisingly, Firmicutes
bacterial phyla were observed in PLA-­incorporated soils
at 58°C during our study. Thermal degradation of PLA be-
comes effective above 100°C through the scission of the
ester bonds (Velghe et al., 2023), explaining the higher
biodegradation observed at 58°C (6.1%) compared with
25°C (1.7%). The slow hydrolysis of PLA ester linkages in
moist conditions at temperatures of at least 30°C releases
smaller oligomers and monomers. PBAT's ester linkages
are more prone to hydrolytic cleavage, making it suscep-
tible to degradation in both moist soils at 25°C and 58°C,
with water accelerating ester bond breakdown.
Temperature significantly influences chemical and
biochemical reaction rates, with higher temperatures
generally increasing hydrolysis rates. The effect of tem-
perature on the rates of biochemical, physiological, or be-
havioural processes can be characterized using a thermal
performance curve (TPC). TPCs typically exhibit three
distinct phases: (1) an ascending phase with increasing
temperature, (2) a plateau phase that includes the thermal
optimum (Topt) for the trait, and (3) a sharp decline at
higher temperatures. Enzyme denaturation beyond a cer-
tain temperature threshold can lead to detrimental effects,
including the cessation of cellular growth (Pischedda
et al., 2019). In laboratory settings, soil biodegradation
testing often occurs at temperatures around 25–28°C,
 |
12 of 16   
suggesting that biodegradation rates may be slower under
natural soil conditions (Pischedda et al., 2019). As a re-
sult, both PBAT and PLA will degrade more rapidly at
58°C compared with 25°C. An increase in temperature en-
hanced the overall degradation process of both polymers.
PBAT, because of its chemical structure, is more prone
to hydrolysis and is susceptible to microbial breakdown,
leading to a higher degradation rate compared with PLA.
Elevating the temperature to 58°C accelerates the degra-
dation of both polymers by boosting microbial activity
and hydrolytic reactions. However, the accelerated degra-
dation of PBAT is primarily attributed to its inherent sus-
ceptibility to hydrolysis, surpassing the slower hydrolysis
process of PLA.
Examining existing research on the degradation of bio-
degradable plastics in soils reveals considerable variability
in study design and methodologies. This diversity arises
from variations in experimental conditions and assess-
ment methods employed to evaluate plastic degradation
in soils. Researchers have utilized pristine biodegradable
plastics, plastic blends, and various biodegradable plastic-­
based products such as mulch films and packaging mate-
rials, leading to disparities in study outcomes. Moreover,
study durations range from months to years, and different
soil types with varying textures, chemical compositions,
and physical properties have been employed. This variabil-
ity in soil characteristics extends to microbial populations
and their diversity assessments, which are key factors in-
fluencing plastic degradation dynamics. Additionally, sci-
entists have adopted various methodologies to assess the
degradation rates of biodegradable plastics in soil. These
methods include evaluating bond cleavage (i.e., mass
loss, monitoring CO2 evolution, and measuring changes
in molecular weight), assessing alterations in chemical
functionality (i.e., using chemical analyses to detect spe-
cific functional groups and gauging changes in the surface
density of polar functional groups), and by evaluating
changes in material properties (i.e., examining polymer
strength, thermal analysis, and observation of surface
modifications during degradation) (Chamas et al., 2020).
The multitude of variables and approaches makes draw-
ing definitive conclusions regarding the degradation of
biodegradable plastic in soils challenging.
In a comprehensive study on the biodegradation of
different biodegradable plastics, PBAT (2 mm film) exhib-
ited variable degradation rates after 120 days of exposure
to various soil types at a temperature of 30°C in dark-
ness, ranging from 0.3 to 16% (Han et al., 2021). Souza
et al. (2019) observed a degradation rate of 18.4% for
PBAT films (1*1 cm2) in soils at 28°C over 182 days, while
Rapisarda et al. (2022) observed PBAT films (2*2 cm2)
degradation rate of 4.6% after 90 days of biodegradation at
30°C. Meanwhile, PLA (pellets) exhibited a degradation
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DISSANAYAKE et al.
level of approximately 16% over 180 days at a controlled
temperature of 25 ± 2°C (Palsikowski et al., 2018).
Furthermore, the influence of temperature on PLA degra-
dation was evident in buried PLA films with thicknesses
of 30 and 40 micrometres, showing degradation percent-
ages of 10.3 and 17.2% after 20 days at 30°C and increasing
to 17.9 and 25.6% at a higher temperature of 40°C (Rudnik
& Briassoulis, 2011).
As mentioned earlier, the degradation rates of PBAT
and PLA are highly subjective, and dependent on environ-
mental conditions, even in the context of this investiga-
tion. Biodegradation of biodegradable plastics in soils is
an inherently highly complex process affected by experi-
mental conditions and the physiochemical properties of
plastics. Therefore, abiotic and biotic conditions must be
carefully considered when referring to soil degradation
dynamics of biodegradable plastics.
4 | CONC LUSIONS
The experimental results reported in this study imply
that PBAT has a higher degradation rate than PLA at
both 25°C and 58°C. Notably, both biodegradable plas-
tics exhibited slower decomposition rates at lower tem-
peratures, underscoring the prolonged time required
for degradation in soils under natural conditions in-
fluenced by temperature and moisture availability.
Within the 33-­week timeframe, neither PBAT nor PLA
achieved complete degradation in soil, emphasizing the
need for an extended period to undergo full breakdown.
Nevertheless, during the same period, 2.3 and 9.2% of
PBAT and 1.7 and 6.1% of PLA degraded at 25°C and
58°C, respectively. Our current findings also reveal
that the degradation of biodegradable plastics signifi-
cantly impacts fundamental soil chemical properties,
including pH, EC, total carbon content, and composi-
tion and diversity of microbial communities. These out-
comes introduce a novel approach for evaluating the
decomposition of biodegradable plastic-­based products
under environmentally realistic soil conditions prior
to commercialization. Simultaneously, it is important
to conduct comprehensive analyses of how soil phys-
icochemical and biological properties evolve during the
degradation of these products, exploring potential im-
plications for crop growth, productivity, and food secu-
rity. Such scrutiny ensures the overall sustainability of
the biodegradable plastic industry while safeguarding
soil resources for sustainable food production.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean

DISSANAYAKE et al.
government (MSIT) (No. 2021R1A2C2011734). This re-
search was also supported by the Basic Science Research
Program through the National Research Foundation of
Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (NRF-­
2021R1A6A1A10045235). This work was also supported
by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)
grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT) (NRF-­
2021M3H4A3A02102349) and the OJEong Resilience
Institute, Korea University.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence the work reported in this
paper.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are avail-
able from the corresponding author upon reasonable
request.
ORCID
Sung Yeon Hwang https://orcid.
org/0000-0002-4618-2132
Yong Sik Ok https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3401-0912
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How to cite this article: Dissanayake, P. D.,
Withana, P. A., Sang, M. K., Cho, Y., Park, J., Oh, D.
X., Chang, S. X., Lin, C. S. K., Bank, M. S., Hwang, S.
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poly(butylene adipate-­co-­terephthalate) and
poly(lactic acid) plastic degradation on soil
ecosystems. Soil Use and Management, 40, e13055.
https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.13055