BR 376 Radon Protection To New Dwellings in Scotland.

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BRE Scottish Laboratory
Kelvin Road, East Kilbride, Glasgow, G75 0RZ 1999
Radon:
guidance on
protective measures
for new dwellings
in Scotland
BRE Scottish Laboratory
constructing the future

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BR376
ISBN 1 86081 334 8
© BRE copyright 1999

First published 1999
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iii
Contents
Introduction 1
About the maps showing designated radon-affected areas 2
Overview of protective measures 4

Risk level between 1% and 10%: Stage 1 protection 4
Risk level greater than 10%: Stage 2 protection 5
Testing completed dwellings 5
Stage 3 protection 5
Designing and detailing for radon protection 6

Risk level between 1% and 10%: Stage 1 protection 6
Risk level greater than 10%: Stage 2 protection 8
Detailed information on protective measures 12

Radon-proof membranes 12
Membranes, materials and workmanship 12
Protection to cavities 12
Lapping and sealing of membranes and cavity trays 13
Continuity of membranes through internal walls 13
Continuity of membranes through party or separating walls 14
Slip or shear planes 14
Service penetrations 14
Tanking to basements and cellars 15
Blinding 15
Reinforced slabs 15
Condensation and cold bridges 15
Subfloor ventilation 15
Periscope ventilators 15
Subfloor depressurisation 16
Sumps 16
Provision of sumps 16
Location of sumps 16
Construction of sump and underground pipework 16
Other points to consider with sumps 18
Location of fans 18
Passive stack subfloor depressurisation 19
Extensions 19
Other hazards 19
High water-table 19
Garages 19
Stepped foundations 19
Landfill gas and radon 20
Existing buildings 20
Monitoring of completed dwellings 20
Acknowledgements 21
Further information 21
References and further reading 21
Maps of designated radon-affected areas 22

Introduction
Radon is a colourless and odourless radioactive gas formed where uranium

and radium are present. It can occur in any area of the country, but certain
regions, partly related to the underlying geology, will experience higher
concentrations. Radon seeps up through cracks and fissures in the soil and in
open areas is naturally dispersed into the atmosphere. Any solid enclosure in
these locations can inhibit this free dispersion of the gas and consequently
there is a danger of high concentrations of radon developing within buildings.
Such concentrations may constitute a risk to health.
Breathing in radon gas increases the chances of developing lung cancer and
since many people spend a high proportion of their time at home,
concentration levels in dwellings are very important. This report focuses on
new dwellings and the constructional features that affect this risk. Although
the risk is relatively insignificant for people visiting or living for short periods
in a dwelling with high levels of radon, long-term exposure can increase the
risk to the point where preventative action is recommended.
Radon originating in the sub-soil is transported up into the dwelling by air
movement. In traditional construction there are a number of paths through
which the gas can be carried into the living areas and these are illustrated in
Figure 1.
Key to ingress routes

1 Through cracks in solid floors
2 Through construction joints
3 Through cracks in walls below ground level
4 Through gaps in suspended floors
5 Through cracks in walls
6 Through gaps around service pipes
7 Through cavities in walls
Figure 1 Routes by which radon enters a dwelling

2 Introduction
This report provides guidance for preventative measures in new dwellings
and extensions to existing buildings. Practical measures are outlined which,
when applied to new dwellings, will significantly reduce the ingress of radon.
Guidance is provided for both solid and suspended floors. The gas must be
dealt with before it becomes a risk to health and therefore the measures are
generally applied at or below the lowest floor level.
The initial research on floors was undertaken in some of the worst affected
areas in the UK. The floors of the properties on which monitoring could be
carried out, were mainly concrete. The recommendations for concrete floors
in this report have been based on that work (BRE Report Radon: guidance on
protective measures for new dwellings ).
Methods for dealing with timber suspended floors are the subject of a
current research programme. The results of that work were not available for
inclusion within this report. The details for timber floors are therefore
provided as best practice advice in terms of current knowledge. These
recommendations may be modified as more information becomes available.
Protection from radon at work is specified in the Ionising Radiations
Regulations 1985[1], legislation made under the Health and Safety at Work
Act[2] administered by the Health and Safety Executive. The technical advice
contained in the present report may, however, be of use to designers and
builders of new structures whose form of construction and compartmentation
is similar to housing and where the heating and ventilation regime is similar to
that used in housing. This is likely to include small office buildings and some
primary schools. Further information is contained in the HSE/BRE guide
Radon in the workplace.
About the maps showing designated radon-affected areas

Radon concentration is measured in bequerels per cubic metre (Bq/m3). The
National Radiological Protection Board (NRPB) is currently assessing radon
levels in dwellings, throughout the UK. These assessments are being carried
out on behalf of the Department of the Environment, Transport and the
Regions (DETR) and the Scottish Executive. They seek to determine the risk
of high radon concentrations for each area of the country. Where tests on
existing dwellings show that 1% of the dwellings in that area are likely to have
a radon concentration above 200 Bq/m3 (the Action Level), the area is
designated as a Radon Affected Area. New dwellings or an extension to a
dwelling within one of these Affected Areas should be constructed according
to the recommendations provided in this report.
Two affected areas have been identified for Scotland and they are shown
on the specially prepared maps included in this report. These maps are based
on the NRPB document Radon affected areas: Scotland, Northern Ireland [3]. The
maps may be subject to change in the light of additional information from
further testing. It is important therefore to check that the latest revisions are
being used.
The guidance which follows deals with dwellings built within the shaded
areas in those maps.
The maps show two levels of risk of dwellings having concentrations of
radon in excess of 200 Bq/m3: between 1% and 10% risk, and greater than 10%
risk. New properties built outside the areas of risk shown on the maps do not
require any protection against radon at the construction stage. This is
consistent with advice on existing properties where the assessed levels are less
than 200 Bq/m3. Where, however, testing shows average readings of above
200 Bq/m3 in any dwelling, irrespective of age or location, remedial protective
measures are advised to reduce this to below the 200 Bq/m3 Action Level.
Testing can only be undertaken in completed and occupied buildings. It
is not possible to test the proposed site of a new dwelling to predict its
radon level when completed.
About the maps showing designated radon-affected areas 3

Key to maps
The two levels of assessed risk are shown on the maps as two shaded areas.
The lighter shading (from 1% to 10% risk level) indicates where Stage 1
protective measures should be applied. The darker shading (greater than 10%
risk level) indicates where both Stage 1 and Stage 2 measures are required.
There are further Stage 3 measures which can be applied should
post-construction testing show that the radon levels are still above the Action
Level. It is not necessary, however, to apply these measures at the
construction stage.
The maps use 5 km grids for identifying the known radon-affected areas.
These 5 km grids are based upon the National Grid used by Ordnance Survey
so can be easily cross-referenced to the local area Ordnance Survey maps at
the scales of 1:50 000, 1:25 000 or 1:10 000 used for planning purposes.
Overview of
protective measures
It can be demonstrated that even a small reduction in radon levels can

produce significant health benefits. In areas where a risk has been predicted
therefore, it is required by building regulations to design the construction of
buildings to deal with the risk.
The ingress of radon in buildings is always associated with airflow and there
are two main approaches to dealing with this. For new dwellings, a complete
barrier should always be installed to cut off the flow of air, from the sub-soil,
penetrating into the occupied areas. Additionally, where it is considered
necessary, the concentration of the radon can be further reduced by
ventilation below the barrier. These approaches are outlined below and
discussed in more detail later in the report. They should be applied as directed
by the shading on the maps.
Risk level between 1% and 10%:

Stage 1 protection
Where a dwelling is to be built within one of the Radon Affected Areas, a gas-
tight membrane should be provided below the lowest occupied floor level
(Figure 2). The membrane must be a minimum of 1200 gauge polyethylene
and cover the entire area below the dwelling or extension, as the minimum
protection against the assessed risk. Appropriate attention must be given to
design and installation of the membrane including sealing joints, linking the
membrane to the cavity tray replacing the normal damp-proof course, and
sealing around entry and exit points for mains services.
This radon-proof membrane need not be in addition to a damp-proofing
membrane or, where required, membrane protection from landfill gases. A
single membrane should be sufficient provided it is designed to meet the most
onerous requirements from damp proofing, landfill gas and radon. Stage 1
Stage 1 protection radon protection measures, outwith landfill areas, are summarised in the box
New dwellings or extensions in areas of on the left.
risk level between 1% and 10% as Where the floor is suspended rather than solid, normal ventilation measures
indicated by the relevant radon risk maps, as required by the Technical Standards for compliance with the Building
should incorporate Stage 1 protection Standards (Scotland) Regulations 1990[4], should be applied across the solum.
comprising a continuous radon-proof
membrane between the dwelling and the
soil.
A radon-proof membrane must be a
minimum of 1200 gauge polyethylene.
Appropriate attention must be given to
design and installation of the membrane
including sealing joints, linking the
membrane to the cavity tray replacing the
normal damp-proof course, and sealing
around entry and exit points for mains Figure 2 Stage 1 measures
services. to prevent radon entry
Radon-proof membrane
Risk level greater than 10% 5
Stage 2 protection Risk level greater than 10%:

New dwellings or extensions in areas of
Stage 2 protection
risk level greater than 10% as indicated
by the relevant radon risk maps, should Experience has shown that where radon levels are high, a signifi cant number of
have Stage 1 protection (a radon-proof dwellings built in areas where the risk is greater than 10% but with the Stage 1
membrane). They should also measures applied will still show average readings of greater than 200 Bq/m3.
incorporate Stage 2 protection. Additional measures will then be necessary to reduce the levels further.
This comprises provision for additional
The additional measures are dependent on the form of construction of the
subfloor ventilation. For a suspended
floor. The main approach, however, is to attempt to remove most of the radon
concrete floor with a supported membrane
at floor level, the ventilation provisions before it reaches the underside of the radon-proof membrane. Additional
required by the Technical Standards should ventilation is generally the most effective way of achieving this.
be increased by 50%. In other Where there is a void beneath the Stage 1 radon-proof membrane, as
constructions, a radon sump with occurs in concrete suspended floors, the necessary ventilation provisions
connecting pipework is required below the across the solum, as required by the building regulations, should be increased
membrane. by 50% (the deemed-to-satisfy specification requires 1500 mm2 for at least
every metre run of the wall). Where the construction is solid between the
membrane and the sub-soil, however, a permeable layer of hardcore must be
laid across the solum and a sump provided. The sump can be activated later, if
required (Stage 3 measures).
Testing completed dwellings

The performance of any radon protection measures can only be established
by subsequent testing. A dwelling should be occupied for at least a month
before testing for radon begins. The dwelling must be occupied and in normal
use during the testing, which will ideally last for three months. The tests are
carried out by placing small plastic detectors in the lounge and in a bedroom.
These will be left for the duration of the testing period and then posted back
to the testing organisation for analysis. A number of organisations will carry
out testing for a fee if occupants or landlords are concerned about the radon
levels in any dwelling.
The results of the testing, which are confidential to the applicants, will state
the average concentration levels. If this is higher than 200 Bq/m3, the
applicants will be advised to seek advice on additional measures (Stage 3) to
reduce the concentration to a safe level. The reference to Stage 3 here
assumes that Stage 1 and Stage 2 measures have already been applied.
High levels can also occur in dwellings built in local ‘hot spots’ outside the
areas shaded in the risk maps. The presence of these ‘hot spots’ can only be
revealed by testing the completed dwelling. New dwellings built outside the
shaded areas are unlikely to have the Stage 1 or 2 measures incorporated in
the construction, so guidance in BRE Report Radon sump systems: a BRE guide
to radon remedial measures in existing dwellings should be followed.
Stage 3 protection
If tests show that further measures are required, the approach will be broadly
the same irrespective of location and initially assessed risk. Ventilation must
be induced below the floor or radon-proof membrane. Where a sump has not
been provided, it will need to be installed. The ventilation will reduce radon
seepage into the dwelling by dilution and either:
● depressurisation of the void or hardcore by sucking the gas out of the
subsoil and expelling it harmlessly to the atmosphere; or
● pressurisation, overcoming the natural tendency for radon to rise from the
subsoil and into the building.
A mechanical fan connected to the sump can drive either of these options.
Where a sump has been provided in an appropriate location, it may be driven
by heat convection and operate as a passive stack system.
Details of these methods can be found in BRE Report Radon sump systems: a
BRE guide to radon remedial measures in existing dwellings.
Designing and detailing

for radon protection
Note on illustrations It is of paramount importance that any radon-proof barrier is properly

The figures included in this guidance only designed and installed.
illustrate the principles of providing a radon-
proof membrane and supplementary
Risk level between 1% and 10%:
subslab ventilation. For clarity the
positioning of damp protection, insulation, Stage 1 protection
method of support of the cavity tray, etc, Building regulations require the provision of protection against moisture from
may have been omitted. They should not
the ground. This protection varies depending on the type of floor adopted.
be considered working drawings. It is
For solid concrete floors a damp-proof membrane is required and can be
the designer’s responsibility to develop
final details suitable for individual
inserted either above or below the slab. This membrane may also act as a
buildings. radon-proof membrane but must be bonded to a sealed cavity tray system in
the wall to provide an overall barrier. The minimum acceptable thickness for a
moisture-proof membrane is 1000 gauge polyethylene. This needs to be
increased to 1200 gauge polyethylene to satisfy the requirements for a
radon-proof membrane.
In suspended floor construction, the ventilation that removes underfloor
moisture will also help to dilute the radon concentration in the solum space
and consequently within the dwelling. Air must not be drawn into the
dwelling from this void for any purpose (eg air for combustion).
Concrete suspended floors can be built either with or without a damp-
proofing membrane. Where a radon-proof membrane is required, it may be
additional to the standard provision for resisting moisture from the ground.
Timber suspended floors can also be built without a damp-proofing
membrane, provided the solum is covered with a layer of 100 mm of concrete.
This is considered sufficient for restricting the evaporation of moisture from
the ground but is not an effective barrier against radon gas. The construction
of suspended timber floors in radon-affected areas must also incorporate a
radon-proof membrane in the solum cover. The concrete cover may then be
reduced to 50 mm. The membrane should be linked to a cavity tray laid within
the walls of the dwelling. Sealing of any joints in the barrier and sealing
around service penetrations is also required. The flooring shall preferably be
boarded with tongued and grooved or rebated joints. The floor perimeter and
all service penetrations through the floor shall be sealed.
Stage 1 protection: in-situ (ground-supported) concrete floor

In the examples illustrated in Figures 3 and 4, the damp-proof membrane,
which is shown above and below the in-situ concrete respectively, provides a
radon-proof membrane. The joints in the membrane must be sealed to make
them as gas-tight as possible. Service penetrations must also be sealed and
the cavity tray and damp-proof course (dpc) must be lapped over the floor
membrane and sealed.
Radon membrane
Floor topping
In-situ concrete dpc
floor slab
Cavity tray
Figure 3 Stage 1 radon protection to an in-situ or ground-supported concrete floor

(membrane over slab)
Radon membrane
Floor topping
In-situ concrete dpc
floor slab
Cavity tray
Figure 4 Stage 1 radon protection to an in-situ or ground-supported concrete floor

(membrane under slab)
Stage 1 protection: suspended (beam-and-block) concrete floor

In the example illustrated in Figure 5, a radon-proof membrane is provided
above the suspended concrete floor and linked to a cavity tray in the external
walls. The joints in the membrane and the cavity tray must be sealed to make
the construction as gas-tight as possible. Service penetrations must also be
sealed and the cavity tray must be lapped over the floor membrane and sealed.
Radon membrane
Floor topping
Solum void
Suspended
concrete floor
Air vent
Figure 5 Stage 1 radon protection to a suspended concrete floor
Stage 1 protection: suspended timber floor

The simplest method of establishing a barrier to radon for this type of flooring
is to insert a 1200 gauge polyethylene membrane within the solum cover and
bond this to the sealed damp-proof course in the walls. The membrane shown
in Figure 6 is located below the concrete cover. The ventilation requirements
for the underfloor space will remain as required by the Technical Standards[4]
(the deemed-to-satisfy specification requires 1500 mm2 for at least every
metre run of the wall). The risk of timber decay must be considered when
8 Designing and detailing for radon protection

Radon membrane
Timber Solum cover

floor joists of concrete
Floor Solum
boards void
Air vent
Figure 6 Stage 1 radon protection to a suspended timber floor
placing membranes and the incorporation of a radon-proof membrane within

the timber part of the floor is not therefore recommended.
Risk level greater than 10%:

Stage 2 protection
This incorporates the Stage 1 measures, but in addition the following
guidance also applies.
In areas where there are higher levels of radon, minor imperfections in the
membrane may leak sufficient radon gas to cause the Action Level to be
exceeded. In these high radon areas this risk is addressed by the provision of
additional protection. When appropriate, this will be in the form of increasing
the ventilation across the solum. Alternatively it may be a radon sump
constructed below the barrier membrane, but at this stage non-operating. The
sump can be activated later if required.
Stage 2 protection: in-situ (ground-supported) concrete floor

In the example illustrated in Figure 7 the radon-proof membrane is laid below
the concrete floor slab and continued across the cavity wall. The slab as
shown needs to be reinforced since it is supported on the inner leaf of the
cavity wall. A traditional ground-bearing slab may settle after completion and
this could rupture the radon-proof membrane at the point where the slab
meets the external wall. The option of additional ventilation if required, is
provided by the construction of a sump.
Alternative position for subfloor

Radon depressurisation pipe. Pipe must be
membrane sealed where it penetrates the membrane
Floor In-situ
Subfloor topping concrete
depressurisation floor slab
pipe dpc
Cavity
tray
Figure 7 Stage 2 protection of an in-situ or ground-supported concrete floor

(membrane under slab)
Radon Alternative position for subfloor depressurisation pipe.
membrane Pipe must be sealed where it penetrates the membrane
Cavity tray
Floor In-situ
topping concrete
Subfloor floor slab dpc
depressurisation
pipe
Figure 8 Stage 2 protection of an in-situ or ground-supported concrete floor

(membrane over slab)
Alternatively the example in Figure 8 illustrates the radon-proof membrane

laid over the concrete floor slab and continuing across the cavity.
Where an unreinforced ground-bearing slab is used the critical area is
where the radon-proof membrane bridges the joint between the slab and the
wall. This must be carefully designed to allow for differential movement
between the slab and the wall without tearing the membrane.
Stage 2 protection: suspended concrete (beam-and-block) floor

In the example illustrated in Figure 9 the radon-proof membrane is positioned
over the floor structure and bonded to sealed cavity trays at the edges.
Supplementary protection is provided by increasing the ventilation provisions
required by the Technical Standards by an additional 50% (the deemed-to-
satisfy specification requires 1500 mm2 for at least every metre run of the
wall). Although underfloor ventilation reduces the amount of radon that the
barrier is required to exclude, it is inadequate without a membrane. The
radon-proof membrane must be installed across the construction.
Position for Radon membrane

optional fan Floor topping
if needed
later Solum void
Suspended
concrete floor
Air vent
Figure 9 Stage 2 protection of a suspended concrete floor
Stage 2 protection: suspended timber floor

It is not possible to provide a radon-proof membrane at floor level with this
type of construction. The only reasonable option for the Stage 1 measures is to
place a radon-proof membrane in the solum cover. A sump is required below
the radon-proof membrane and hardcore must be incorporated in a similar
manner to that required for the ground-supported concrete slab. A typical
example is shown in Figure 10.
The above examples are not the only options available; alternative solutions
may be adopted, such as raft foundations, fully tanked basement (eg fully
waterproofed using asphalt).
10 Designing and detailing for radon protection

Radon membrane Alternative position for subfloor depressurisation
pipe. Pipe must be sealed where it penetrates
the solum concrete
Solum cover
of concrete Timber
floor joists
Floor Solum
boards void
Subfloor
depressurisation Air vent
pipe
Figure 10 Stage 2 protection of a timber suspended floor
Stage 3 protection
Where testing of a new dwelling incorporating Stages 1 and 2 protection
shows that the radon levels are above 200 Bq/m3, the property will require
additional, Stage 3, measures.
Where the property already has a sump and underground pipework in
place, a vertical discharge pipe can be connected to the pipework and the
system made live by fitting a fan to the discharge pipe. Where the sump and
discharge pipe are centrally located in the dwelling, the ventilation can also be
driven by passive stack ventilation (PSV). The discharge pipe will then heat up
with the rest of the dwelling and this, coupled with the effect of wind blowing
over the terminal, will drive the stack system.
In the case of suspended concrete floors, where Stage 2 is simply the
provision of additional ventilation below floor level, there is no sump system
to be activated. Should it be necessary, the rate of ventilation and radon
dispersion can be supplemented by the installation of an electrically powered
fan. This fan may replace one of the sub-floor ventilation grilles and should be
provided on the leeward side of the dwelling to extract air from the solum
void.
If the property does not have a sump, an edge sump (or sumps) should be
constructed by excavating a small cavity below the membrane and connecting
this to a vertical discharge pipe. This procedure, since it is post-construction,
is the same as that used for older properties where a radon problem has been
identified. BRE Report Radon sump systems: a BRE guide to radon remedial
measures in existing dwellings also provides details on this.
For larger dwellings which require Stage 1 measures only, the comparative
costs of fitting one central sump during construction or a number of edge-
located sumps after construction should be considered.
Activating the sump ventilation system will further reduce the radon on the
underside of the membrane. Although this is not directly an issue at the time
of construction, an awareness of the purpose and use of the sump is helpful in
making decisions regarding location and access.
Even with Stage 3 measures in place and active, it cannot be guaranteed
that the radon levels will be reduced to less than 200 Bq/m3. The radon level
can only be established by further testing. If it is found to exceed 200 Bq/m3,
fine-tuning the protection measures will be necessary and will differ for each
dwelling.
Summary of protective measures 11
Summary of protective measures required in designated radon-affected areas

Suspended concrete Ground-supported Suspended timber
ground floors concrete floors ground floors
Stage 1 (applied when risk is between 1% and 10%)*
The solum void shall be adequately ventilated A radon-proof membrane shall be (a) The flooring shall preferably be boarded
and air shall not be drawn from the void into incorporated in the floor construction. with tongued-and-grooved or rebated
the dwelling for any purpose. joints.The floor perimeter and all service
All joints in the floor and all service penetrations shall be sealed.
penetrations shall be sealed. (b) The solum void shall be adequately
A radon-proof membrane shall be ventilated and air shall not be drawn from
incorporated in the floor construction. the void into the dwelling for any purpose.
(c) A radon-proof membrane shall be
incorporated in the oversite concrete.
Stage 2 (applied when risk is greater than 10%)*
The ventilation of the solum void shall be as A radon-proof membrane shall be (a) The flooring shall preferably be boarded
required by the Technical Standards plus incorporated in the floor construction. with tongued-and-grooved or rebated
another 50%. A sump and stub-duct shall be provided in joints.
Air shall not be drawn from the void into the hardcore below the concrete. The floor perimeter and all service
dwelling for any purpose. penetrations shall be sealed.
All joints in the floor and all service penetrations (b) The solum void shall be adequately
shall be sealed. ventilated and air shall not be drawn from
A radon-proof membrane shall be the void into the dwelling for any purpose.
incorporated in the floor construction. (c) A radon-proof membrane shall be
incorporated in the oversite concrete, and
a sump and stub-duct shall be provided in
hardcore below that concrete.
Stage 3 (only if indicated by post-construction testing)
Connect a fan to one of the subfloor airbricks. Connect the sump and stub-duct to a fan or passive stack for ventilation. Where a sump has not
been provided, this may be excavated under the floor membrane from outside the building.
*These areas of risk can be identified from the maps included in this report.
12
Detailed information on
protective measures
Once the method by which protection is to be provided has been decided, the
following detailed guidance will need to be considered.
Radon-proof membranes
Membranes, materials and workmanship
With careful design, selection of material and good workmanship, a single
membrane will satisfy the requirements of both damp-proofing and radon
protection.
Generally a membrane of 300 micrometre (1200 gauge) polyethylene sheet
will be adequate as a radon-proof membrane. It is acknowledged that some
diffusion will occur through the sheet. However, as most radon entry is
through cracks or gaps, this diffusion, which is very small, can be ignored.
Where the detailing or forms of construction indicate a greater than normal
risk of puncturing the membrane, reinforced polyethylene sheet should be
considered.
The radon-proof membrane can be constructed with other materials that
match the airtightness and waterproofing properties offered by
300 micrometre (1200 gauge) polyethylene. Alternative materials that can
prove suitable include modern flexible sheet roofing materials, prefabricated
welded barriers, self-adhesive bituminous-coated sheet products and asphalt.
Prefabricated welded barriers are likely to offer a greater confidence in
achieving radon-proof joints than the use of polyethylene sheet, but are more
expensive. Using polyethylene sheet over the bulk area of the floor, with a
more robust material as a damp-proof course or cavity tray for edge details,
has been shown to be effective.
It is important that the radon-proof membrane is not damaged during
construction. This might be achieved by installing the membrane at a later
stage of construction, for example over the floor immediately before laying of
the screed, as shown in Figure 11. If laid beneath the slab, the membrane may
need to be protected against damage when fixing reinforcement and laying
the concrete.
It is essential to check that the membrane is not damaged in any way before
it is covered with concrete or other materials. Any damage should be repaired
before proceeding with later works. Damage to the membrane can be
repaired by overlaying it with a piece of membrane material held securely in
place, preferably by sealant, and with a minimum overlap of 150 mm.
Protection to cavities
One of the routes by which radon might enter a building is by way of the wall
cavities (Figure 12), and therefore the radon-proof membrane should extend
across the cavity to prevent radon entry. Where the membrane crosses the
cavity, it will need to be constructed in a manner that prevents water being
transferred from the outer to the inner leaf. The membrane should be
Radon-proof membranes 13
1 2 3
External wall
Cavity tray extending Suspended and building Floor topping and
150-200 mm across concrete floor shell completed insulation installed
floor beyond the making the over membrane
inner face of wall structure weathertight taped to cavity tray.
Airbrick All work carried out
Weephole within weathertight
Cavity filled structure
with concrete
to provide
support to
cavity tray
Figure 11 Typical construction sequence showing membrane details at external wall for a suspended concrete floor
Figure 12 Radon entry through unprotected cavities
continuous and as airtight as possible; all joints, including any in the cavity
tray, should be carefully and durably sealed. Dry lapping is not satisfactory.
As with the provision of all damp-proof courses, weepholes will have to be
provided in the outer leaf to drain the cavity. To ensure that the cavity tray is
fully supported, the cavity should be filled up to the level of the membrane
with mortar.
Lapping and sealing of membranes and cavity trays

Attention to detail and good workmanship are essential if the membrane is
to be effective.
When the membrane material is selected, consideration should be given to
jointing. Some materials are difficult to seal in adverse weather. Commonly
available materials for sealing polyethylene include adhesive tapes and self-
adhesive synthetic rubber strip sealants. Both can prove effective if installed
correctly, although the latter is likely to offer greater confidence in achieving
radon-proof joints.
Wherever the membrane or tray needs to be lapped and sealed, care must
be taken to ensure a very good standard of workmanship. It is important to
check that all joints have been correctly sealed prior to covering with later
construction. It should be borne in mind that radon is a gas, so it is necessary
to achieve as gas-tight a seal as possible between all parts of the membrane
and to seal any penetrations.
Continuity of membranes through internal walls

The radon-proof membrane should be continuous across the whole plan of
the building, including taking it through or under internal walls.
Where internal walls sit on top of a ground-bearing concrete slab, the wall
should be built off the membrane or its covering in such a way as to leave the
14 Detailed information on protective measures

Loadbearing wall
Light partition
600 mm strip of membrane under

wall with main membrane lapped
and sealed later
Figure 13 Ensuring continuity of the radon-proof membrane passing through internal walls
membrane intact (Figure 13). Sometimes it will be convenient to build these

walls off a 600 mm wide strip of membrane or damp-proof course material.
The main membrane can then be lapped with the strip and the joint sealed
before screeding. This will reduce the risk of damage from traffic.
Similarly, where internal walls are constructed with their own foundations,
a strip of membrane material will need to be built-in. The main membrane can
then be sealed to the strip. This strip will double as a damp-proof course
within the wall.
Continuity of membranes through party or separating walls

Semi-detached and terraced dwellings should be considered together with
the adjacent dwellings with regard to the installation of the radon-proof
membrane. The membrane will need to continue across party or separating
walls where they occur.
Slip or shear planes

It is important to ensure that the inclusion of membranes with cavity trays
does not adversely affect the structural integrity of loadbearing walls.
The designer should consider avoiding having a cavity tray directly on top
of a membrane, or vice versa, within any loadbearing wall, as this can create a
slip or shear plane. This becomes more important where both of the materials
being used have smooth surfaces (like polyethylene). The risk is most severe if
the building is likely to be subjected to lateral loading, as might be the case in
exposed locations. The risk is considered minimal for one- and two-storey
dwellings, but it is more significant with taller buildings.
In view of the expense of correcting deflected walls, avoidance of slip
planes in all construction is advised. One solution is to join the membrane to
the cavity tray over the floor instead of within the wall.
Service penetrations
Where possible, service entries should avoid penetrating the radon-proof
membrane. Where this is not possible it will be necessary to construct an
Tape
airtight seal around each entry (Figure 14). Prefabricated ‘top hat’ sections are
‘Top hat’ available from some membrane manufacturers for sealing around pipe entries.
Radon- The membrane should preferably not be lapped at penetrations because of the
proof
membrane
difficulty of sealing. With careful design all supply services, with the exception
of mains water, can be brought up the outside of the building to enter through
walls. However, accommodating service entries in walls may limit where
Figure 14 Achieving an airtight seal internal fixtures can be placed. Traps and other services should be located so
around service penetrations as not to damage the radon-proof membrane within the floor slab.
Subfloor ventilation 15
Tanking to basements and cellars
If a basement or cellar is to be fully tanked to prevent damp penetration, it will
also provide radon protection. There is no need to provide supplementary
protection such as a sump in such cases.
Blinding
Where a membrane is to be placed over fi ll material, the fi ll should be blinded (ie
its surface fi nished with a fi ne material) to leave a surface which will not puncture
the membrane. This is especially important if 1200 gauge polyethylene is used,
but care is required even with tougher reinforced membrane materials. Care
must be taken to ensure that the blinding material does not block up the voids
throughout the depth of the fill, or the efficiency of the sump system will be
impaired. This is particularly important if the permeable fill is of minimal
thickness. The material therefore should be granular, without sharp edges
that would puncture the membrane. Foam sheeting could be used instead of
blinding, but this is likely to be more expensive.
Where the radon-proof membrane would otherwise be left exposed within
a ventilated space, it is advisable to cover it with a thin topping of concrete to
reduce the risk of damage by following trades.
Reinforced slabs
Where an in-situ concrete slab is laid with its edge supported on the inner leaf
of an external wall, the slab must be strong enough to prevent cracking in the
centre of the slab should the fill beneath settle. Such slabs should be
reinforced. Where unreinforced slabs are laid, radon-proof membranes
should accommodate any possible settlement of the slab.
Condensation and cold bridges

Condensation and cold bridging are matters to be considered in the overall
design. For further guidance see BRE Report Thermal insulation: avoiding risks.
Subfloor ventilation
No air shall be drawn into the building from the floor void, for example for
the provision of air for solid fuel, oil- or gas-fired combustion appliances.
Periscope ventilators
Where periscope subfloor ventilators are used, the joints between the
different parts of the ventilators must be taped to reduce the risk of radon
entering the cavity. As it is difficult to seal a radon-proof membrane or cavity
tray to a periscope ventilator, it is important to try to position ventilators so
that they do not penetrate the membrane or cavity tray (Figure 15).
Cavity fill insulation

Cavity tray
for damp Floor topping
protection
Insulation
Weephole
Radon membrane Radon membrane in

in wall floor sealed to radon
membrane in wall
75 mm
Suspended
concrete floor
Periscope air vent.

Joints in two-piece
vents should be taped
Cavity fill
Figure 15 Positioning of periscope air vents


Subfloor depressurisation
Where a ground-supported floor is to be constructed and Stage 2 radon
protection measures are required, a radon sump should be provided. This
enables subfloor depressurisation to be introduced with relative ease at a later
date if required. Subfloor depressurisation involves drawing radon-laden air
from beneath a building and discharging it harmlessly into the atmosphere. It
should be noted that although this report refers to subfloor depressurisation,
in some cases, particularly where soils are highly permeable, subfloor
pressurisation may be an effective alternative. Such pressurisation is not
covered in this report and further advice can be obtained from BRE.
Sumps
Provision of sumps
Where the assessed risk is greater than 10%, a sump and its associated
pipework should be built into all new dwellings or extensions at the time of
construction. This provision for additional ventilation is not activated,
however, unless testing determines that it is necessary. The active ventilation
of the sump is defined as Stage 3 measures, but these are not part of the
construction of new dwellings. Sumps require associated pipework to link
them with a suitable outlet and for fans or passive stacks to be connected. The
cost and inconvenience of retrofitting these sumps and associated pipework,
after the building is completed, can be disproportionately high.
Location of sumps
For a typical dwelling a single sump will probably be sufficient. Where clean
permeable fill has been used, a single sump is likely to have an influence over
Pipe taken through the an area of approximately 250 m2, or for a distance of 15 metres from the sump.
wall or up through the roof Where any part of the dwelling on clean permeable fill is more than 17 metres
from the sump, or where an area of greater than 10 square metres is more than
15 metres from a proposed single sump, a second sump will be required.
Where two or more sumps are provided, it is possible to link these through a
single fan extract pipe.
A sump will operate in a more efficient manner when centrally located
under the dwelling (Figure 16). It should be constructed to ensure that the
Sump
entry to the connecting pipes is not blocked when the fill is placed. To allow
Plan views
for maximum depressurisation, fill material should not contain excessive fines.
Figure 16 Central positioning of sump It is also possible to provide the required ventilation by edge-located mini-
under dwelling sumps. However, they are not as efficient as central sumps and therefore in
larger dwellings, or dwellings with non-rectangular plan shapes, more than
one may be required. Depending on the location, this mini-sump may also
require its own vertical pipe and fan.
Construction of sump and underground pipework

A simple sump can be constructed using bricks laid in a honeycomb bond so
as to form a box around the end of the pipe (Figure 17). Mortar should be used
for horizontal joints to avoid subsequent collapse when compacting fill
around the sump. However, it is essential that all perpends are left open.
A stub-duct from the sump needs to be 110 mm diameter PVC-U using
standard couplings which are sealed and airtight. To avoid penetrating the
radon-proof membrane unnecessarily, the pipe should preferably be taken
through the wall, not up through the floor. This permits a relatively easy
connection to a fan mounted on the external wall should the sump need to be
activated.
Ideally the pipe should terminate about 100 mm from the external wall, and
be located at the rear of the dwelling or where subsequent installation of a
boxed-in fan and vertical stack will be least obtrusive. Until such time as a fan
is installed, the pipe should be capped off with an access plug just above
ground level to prevent vermin and rain penetration (Figure 18). There is no
Sumps 17
Paving slab Concrete

Polyethylene
sheet
Blinding
110 mm diameter Hardcore

PVC-U pipe
Bricks laid in
honeycomb
Ventilation
bond. Perpends
gaps
must be left open
Bricks laid in honeycomb bond.
Perpends must be left open
Figure 17 Radon sump details
Access plug
Pipework
from sump
Figure 18 Pipework from sump capped-off with an

access plug just above ground level
advantage to be gained by capping at ground level with a vent cowl.

A simple edge-located mini-sump can be constructed by excavating a small
hole (about 400 × 400 × 400 mm) in the hardcore or fill alongside the
perimeter wall to form an open area around the end of the pipe. The sump can
be covered with a 600 × 600 mm paving slab or similar to provide permanent
formwork to support the floor slab. It is important to ensure that the pipe is
well sealed where it passes through the wall (Figure 19). Prefabricated sumps
or simple sumps, as described above, can also be used as edge-located sumps.
It may be desirable for aesthetic reasons to locate pipework in ducts inside
the dwelling and to take the outlet from the vertical pipework through the
roof. This will require the vertical pipe to pass through the membrane. The
joint must be formed to provide an airtight seal between the pipe and the
membrane. The pipe must not discharge into the dwelling or the attic space.
Permanent Plate indicating location

formwork of sump pipework below
In-situ
concrete slab Access plug
Hardcore
Sump
Pipework from sump

sealed where it passes
through wall
Sump approximately
400 x 400 x 400 mm
Figure 19 Edge-located sump detail


A vertical pipe leading from the sump through the roof may operate as a
passive stack ventilator without a fan due to the effect of heat in the dwelling
and wind blowing over the terminal (stack system). Aspirating cowls may
help in this respect. If the radon levels are still above the Action Level, the
extract can be boosted by a fan located in the roof space.
It should be noted that the sump and stub-duct are only installed as a
fallback measure and do not provide any radon removal until such time as a
vertical pipe and a fan are installed or until the sump is connected to a
passive stack system.
Other points to consider with sumps

It is important to label the capped-off extract pipe so that it can be located in
the future and its purpose made clear. A discreet sign fixed to an adjacent wall
would suffice. This should reduce the risk of accidental connection to
drainage fittings.
If the subfloor area comprises several compartments, then sumps may be
required for each compartment. These may be connected to a manifold and a
single fan (Figure 20(a) and (b)). However, in most cases there is no need to
establish a manifold of pipes. A single sump located alongside the separating
wall, with a few bricks omitted or pieces of pipe located within the wall to
allow depressurisation, will suffice (Figure 20(c)). It is important for fill to
contain minimal fines so as not to impair the efficiency of the depressurisation
system.
Key
Sump
Fan
Plan views
(a) Pipework manifolded (b) Pipework manifolded (c) Bricks omitted

to external fan to internal fan in separating wall
Figure 20 Location of sumps within multi-compartment subfloor areas
Prefabricated sumps may be used as an alternative to brick construction.

Geotextile drainage matting laid beneath the slab (Figure 21) can perform
the function of a sump if it is connected to a stub-duct and extract pipe. The
matting is likely to prove more expensive than a sump.
Reinforced in-situ
concrete slab
Radon membrane
Geotextile matting
Hardcore
Figure 21 Geotextile matting used as an alternative to a sump
Location of fans
Although not required at the construction stage, fan location must be
considered in relation to sump positioning and the stub-duct and vertical pipe.
The vertical pipe should be positioned with the outlet well away from
windows, doors and ventilation grilles, ideally discharging just above eaves
level. Low-level discharge may be possible if there are no openings or vents
close by. Where pipework is ducted through the dwelling and a fan is fitted, it
Figure 22 Pipework ducted internally, should always be placed as close to the outlet as practical (Figure 22). This
with the fan outlet through the roof and not keeps most of the pipework under suction, since even slight leaks could
ventilated into the roof space increase indoor radon concentrations.
Extensions 19
Passive stack subfloor depressurisation
Subfloor depressurisation is usually achieved using an electric fan to provide
suction. However, it may be possible to depressurise the subfloor area
sufficiently without using a fan. Such a system would comprise a vertical stack
pipe taken through the dwelling from the radon sump to discharge at a point at
or above ridge level. Passive stack ventilation is best suited to centrally located
sumps. Further information is available in BRE Good Building Guide 25.
Extensions
Any extension erected in an affected area, even where exempted from
compliance with the Technical Standards, should have appropriate radon-
protective measures incorporated in the construction if it is to be enclosed.
For a dwelling with existing radon-protective measures, an extension
should incorporate protective measures complying with the latest
recommendations. The radon-proof membrane to the extension should be
linked to the system of protection for the existing dwelling. Guidance on how
this might be achieved can be found in BRE Good Building Guide 25 (see Part
4: Protecting new extensions and conservatories).
Where the dwelling has a system already operating from a sump, new
connections to this system could lead to short circuits in the airflow.
Extensions, or alterations affecting the system or subfloor, therefore must be
carefully considered and advice sought where necessary.
Other hazards
High water-table
In areas where it is known that the water-table is particularly high, or the level
fluctuates, there is a risk that radon sumps may become waterlogged and
therefore ineffective. In such cases tanking should be used to prevent water
ingress and provide radon protection. There is no need to provide a radon
sump when tanking is used. It should be noted that, generally, water will act as
a screen to radon. However, if the water level fluctuates, the air pressure in the
soil will also change, which in turn may drive more radon into the building.
Garages
Integral garages with occupied rooms above, or with direct access through a
doorway from the garage to the dwelling, need the same provision as the rest
of the dwelling.
Stepped foundations
Where possible, stepped foundations should be avoided, as they complicate
the achievement of radon protection using only sealing techniques. It may
prove less expensive to excavate around the dwelling (Figure 23) to provide a
ventilated space, than to try to build into the hillside and seal all the faces of
the building which are below ground level. Knowledge of how to construct
stepped foundations sealed against radon is limited, but the following points
should be considered.
● Where a suspended concrete floor is used, any void below it should be
ventilated to the outside.
Ventilation ● It is important that any radon-proof membrane should be incorporated in
space
such a way as not to create a slip plane. This is of particular importance for a
retaining wall. Similarly, continuity of any structural reinforcement will
need to be considered at points where it would penetrate the membrane.
Structural requirements remain of paramount importance.
● As with floors built on one level, it is important to try to avoid positioning
service entries where they would penetrate the radon-proof membrane.
Figure 23 Provision of a ventilated space Where they do penetrate the membrane they will need to be adequately
around a building built into the hillside sealed.

● It may be possible to use self-adhesive bitumen-coated polyethylene sheet
for the vertical radon-proof membrane. However, it may require some form
of additional restraint if it is not to suffer from wind damage during
construction. It would also be advisable to apply a render coat on lathing or
a masonry skin over the membrane for protection. This is of particular
importance where storey-height areas of the sheet are being applied.
An alternative to this solution is to tank the basement area fully with
asphalt. This has been found to work successfully and provides a robust
solution to radon ingress.
● Subfloor depressurisation and the difficulty of retro-fitting a sump should
be considered where a solid floor is proposed in an Affected Area.
Similarly, in basement construction it will be necessary to consider
providing depressurisation to the areas of soil backfilled against the external
walls. Geotextile drainage matting could be used in place of sumps. It could
prove particularly useful for providing a vertical ventilation space behind
retaining walls.
Proprietary waterproofing systems and surface coating products available for

waterproofing purposes, such as liquid bitumen, cementitious coatings, and
plastic-based coatings, may be suitable for radon protection. However, long-term
integrity of the membrane is critical and preference should be given to products
which can accommodate minor movement and are unlikely to deteriorate
significantly over the service life of the building. The requirement for seals to
be gas-tight re-emphasises the need for workmanship to be of a very high quality.
Landfill gas and radon

There may be cases where the dwelling being constructed is located on, or
adjacent to, a landfill site or old coalfield. In such cases additional precautions
may be needed to deal with methane. Appropriate measures for dealing with
methane are described in BRE Report Construction of new buildings on gas-
contaminated land. The measures described exceed those required for radon,
so where both methane and radon are present, methane-protective measures
should be applied, and only intrinsically safe (non-sparking) fans and
switchgear should be used.
Existing buildings
In addition to the use of centrally located sumps, experience gained by BRE in
developing radon remedial measures for use in existing dwellings has led to the
development of externally excavated sump systems. Research has shown that
such systems can prove effective in reducing indoor radon levels within small to
medium-sized dwellings with a ground fl oor area of up to 30 m2 (see comments
under Location of sumps above). This would suggest that although it is preferable to
locate a sump centrally within a new dwelling, an edge-located mini-sump with
good surrounding fill could be adequate for small to medium-sized dwellings.
Guidance on externally excavated sumps can be found in BRE Report
Radon sump systems: a BRE guide to radon remedial measures in existing dwellings.
Monitoring of completed houses

There are no mandatory requirements for dwellings to be tested for radon. If,
however, a test is contemplated, then, in order to obtain the most reliable
results, dwellings should be monitored for a period of several months when
occupied using etchtrack (plastic) detectors. Ideally, monitoring should be
carried out during the winter. Indoor radon concentrations are likely to be at
their highest at this time of year because of increased heating coupled with a
reduction in window opening. Ideally, dwellings should be monitored only
after they have been occupied for several months so that measurements are
not affected by windows being open for drying-out purposes.
Acknowledgements 21
Acknowledgements
The guidance in this report draws upon the research and experience of
Building Research Establishment Ltd. Thanks go to the members of the
National Radiological Protection Board for their assistance in preparing this
report, and to all those who provided comment during the consultation stage.
Further information
● For further advice regarding building matters contact: BRE Scottish
Laboratory, Kelvin Road, East Kilbride, G57 0RZ; telephone 01355 576255.
● For further advice regarding radon measurement contact: Radon Survey,
National Radiological Protection Board, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon,
OX11 0RQ; telephone 01235 831600.
References and further reading

[1] Ionising Radiations Regulations 1985. Statutory Instrument 1985 No 1333. London,
HMSO, 1985.
[2] Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974.London, HMSO, 1974.
[3] National Radiological Protection Board. Radon affected areas: Scotland, Northern
Ireland. Documents of the NRPB, 1993, Vol 4, No 6. London, HMSO, 1993.
[4] The Scottish Executive. Technical Standards for compliance with the Building
Standards (Scotland) Regulations 1990 (as amended).
Building Research Establishment

Reports
Construction of new buildings on gas-contaminated land. BR212, 1991.
Radon: guidance on protective measures for new dwellings. BR211, 1999 (third edition).
Thermal insulation: avoiding risks. BR 262, 1994.
Scivyer C R and Gregory T J. Radon in the workplace. BR293, 1995.
BRE guides to radon remedial measures in existing dwellings

Pye P W. Sealing cracks in solid floors. BR239, 1993.
Scivyer C R. Surveying dwellings with high indoor radon levels. BR250, 1993.
Scivyer C R. Major alterations and conversions. BR267, 1994.
Scivyer C R, Cripps A and Jaggs M P R. Radon sump systems. BR227, 1998
(second edition).
Scivyer C R and Jaggs M P R. Dwellings with cellars and basements. BR343, 1998.
Stephen R K. Positive pressurisation. BR281, 1995.
Welsh P A, Pye P W and Scivyer C R. Protecting dwellings with suspended timber floors.
BR270, 1994.
Good Building Guides

BRE publications are available from: GBG25 Buildings and radon
CRC Ltd GBG26 Minimising noise from domestic fan systems and fan-assisted radon mitigation
151 Rosebery Avenue systems
London, EC1R 4GB
tel: 0171 505 6622 Video
fax: 0171 505 6606 Radon, no problem. 1994.
Licensed copy from CIS: fraser.walsh@scotland.gsi.gov.uk, Scottish Building Standards Agency, 09/04/2014, Uncontro
22
Maps of designated radon-affected areas
Map 1 Estimated proportion of dwellings exceeding the Action Level in each 5 km grid shown: Highland region
Licensed copy from CIS: fraser.walsh@scotland.gsi.gov.uk, Scottish Building Standards Agency, 09/04/2014, Uncontro
Insch
Maps of designated radon-affected areas

Map 2 Estimated proportion of dwellings exceeding the Action Level in each 5 km grid shown: North-East Scotland
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Overview of protective measures 4

Designing and detailing for radon protection 6

Detailed information on protective measures 12

References and further reading 21

Maps of designated radon-affected areas 22

Radon is a colourless and odourless radioactive gas formed where uranium

Key to ingress routes

Figure 1 Routes by which radon enters a dwelling

About the maps showing designated radon-affected areas

About the maps showing designated radon-affected areas 3

It can be demonstrated that even a small reduction in radon levels can

Risk level between 1% and 10%:

Risk level greater than 10% 5

Stage 2 protection Risk level greater than 10%:

Testing completed dwellings

Designing and detailing

Note on illustrations It is of paramount importance that any radon-proof barrier is properly

Stage 1 protection: in-situ (ground-supported) concrete floor

Figure 3 Stage 1 radon protection to an in-situ or ground-supported concrete floor

Figure 4 Stage 1 radon protection to an in-situ or ground-supported concrete floor

Stage 1 protection: suspended (beam-and-block) concrete floor

Figure 5 Stage 1 radon protection to a suspended concrete floor

Stage 1 protection: suspended timber floor

8 Designing and detailing for radon protection

Timber Solum cover

Figure 6 Stage 1 radon protection to a suspended timber floor

placing membranes and the incorporation of a radon-proof membrane within

Risk level greater than 10%:

Stage 2 protection: in-situ (ground-supported) concrete floor

Alternative position for subfloor

Figure 7 Stage 2 protection of an in-situ or ground-supported concrete floor

Figure 8 Stage 2 protection of an in-situ or ground-supported concrete floor

Alternatively the example in Figure 8 illustrates the radon-proof membrane

Stage 2 protection: suspended concrete (beam-and-block) floor

Position for Radon membrane

Figure 9 Stage 2 protection of a suspended concrete floor

Stage 2 protection: suspended timber floor

10 Designing and detailing for radon protection

Figure 10 Stage 2 protection of a timber suspended floor

Summary of protective measures 11

Summary of protective measures required in designated radon-affected areas

Stage 1 (applied when risk is between 1% and 10%)*

Stage 2 (applied when risk is greater than 10%)*

Stage 3 (only if indicated by post-construction testing)

Figure 12 Radon entry through unprotected cavities

Lapping and sealing of membranes and cavity trays

Continuity of membranes through internal walls

14 Detailed information on protective measures