THE CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM

An object at rest is said to

be in equilibrium. The
subject concerned with
the determination of the
forces acting on and
within a structure at rest
is called statics.

=> The two necessary

conditions for
equilibrium are:

First condition: the vector

sum of all the forces on an
object must me zero:

Second condition: the

sum of all the torques
(about any arbitrary
axis ) must be zero:

A LEVEL

It is important with statics problems to apply the equilibrium

condition to only one object at a time.
 STABILITY AND BALANCE

An object in static equilibrium is said to be in (a) stable, (b)

unstable, or (c) neutral equilibrium, depending on whether a
slight displacement leads to (a) a return to the original position,
(b) further movement away from the original position, or (c) est
in a new position
 Phases of matter
The plasma state is
The three common
often referred to as
state of matter are
the fourth state of
solid, liquid and gas
matter

Liquid are gases A solid maintains a

are collectively fixed shape and a fixed
called fluids, size; even if a large is
meaning they applied to solid, it does
have ability to not readily change in
flow shape or volume

A liquid does not maintain a fixed shape- it takes

on the shape of its container- but like f solid it is
not readily compressible, and its volume can be
changed significantly only by a very large force.

A gas has neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume-

it will expand to fill its container.

Density and specific gravity

mj pVg
=

The density, Ρρ, of a substance (Ρρ is p

=

m
the lowercase Greek letter rho) is 9-gravity =
9 81
.

P-density
defined as its mass per unit volume: m-mosthe
 Pressure
Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of
an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure
(also spelled gage pressure) is the pressure relative to the ambient pressure.
Pressure. Pressure exerted by particle collisions inside a closed container.

Pressure is defined as force per unit area,

where the force F is understood to be the
magnitude of the force acting
perpendicular to the surface area A:
pressure P = A/F .

-
You have to be able to
E
solve it to pass the
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exam
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It is important to note that

You can do it with
a straw put to the
can of Coca-Cola
tire gauges, and most other
pressure gauges, register
the pressure above and
beyond atmospheric
pressure. This is called
gauge pressure. Thus, to get
the absolute pressure, P, we
must add the atmospheric
pressure, P0 , to the gauge
pressure, PG :
P = P0 + PG . P P. Po
= +
 Stevin’s law is for counting pressure in liquid
We use for that
with the depth [h] given atmosphere

Pressure increases by approx 1 atm every 10m of depth

Stevin's law states that the pressure at any point

within a fluid at rest is only proportional to the
depth of that point, i.e. the pressure inside a fluid
increases with the depth. P = P0 + ϱgh. (1) where
P0 is the atmospheric pressure, ϱ is the fluid
density, g is the gravity acceleration, and h is the
depth.

Pascal’s principle states that if an external

pressure is applied to a confined fluid, the
pressure at an

Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle states that an object

submerged wholly or partially in a fluid is buoyed up by a
force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces

F b for buoyancy
 Object sinks if P >
Pf

W = mg
Archimedes' principle is the statement that the
buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of W’ = mg-FB =m’g
the fluid displaced by the object. The simplicity and
power of this idea is striking. If you want to know the W- W’ = FB
buoyant force on an object, you only need to
determine the weight of the fluid displaced by the
object.

L It’s for the legend with god grown

Bernoulli’s principle states that where the velocity of the
fluid is high, the pressure in it is low, and viceversa. For
steady laminar flow of an incompressible and non
viscous fluid. Bernoulli’s equation, which is based on the
law of conservation of energy is
Pressure is higher where velocity is lower
(bernoullis equation)

Fluid in Motion
There are two main types of fluid flow. If
the flow is smooth, such that neighbouring ·

layers of fluid slide by each other smoothly, ·

the flow is said to be streamline or laminar

flow. In streamline flow, each particle of
fluid follows a smooth path, called
streamline, and these paths do not cross
one another. Above a certain speed, the
flow becomes turbulent. Turbulent flow is
characterised by erratic, small, whirlpool-
like circles called eddy currents or eddies.
Eddies absorb a great deal of energy, and
although a certain amount of internal
friction called viscosity is present even
during streamline flow, it is much greater
when the flow is turbulent. A few tiny drops
of ink or food colouring dropped into
moving liquid can quickly reveal whether
the flow is streamline or turbulent
 Poiseuille’s Equation
Viscosity If a fluid had no viscosity, it could flow through a level tube
Refers to friction within a fluid and is or pipe without a force being applied. Viscosity acts like a
essentially a frictional force between sort of friction (between fluid layers moving at slightly
different speeds), so a pressure difference between the ends
adjacent layers of fluid as they move
of a level tube is necessary for the steady flow of any real
past one another F =
A
Pas
= unit =

mm
N S
.

= fluid, be it water or oil in a pipe, or blood in the circulatory

l

(Pascal-Second) system of a human.

TRLP-
n
=
Fl/vA
Q =

F =
force

velocity
v =

l
A
=

=
distance

area
=pressureSee
l =
length of tube
m
=
viscosity m
=
viscosity
Q = volume rate of flow (a)

Surface tension
surface tension, property of a liquid surface displayed by its acting
as if it were a stretched elastic membrane. This phenomenon can
be observed in the nearly spherical shape of small drops of liquids
and of soap bubbles. Because of this property, certain insects can
stand on the surface of water. A razor blade also can be supported
by the surface tension of water. The razor blade is not floating: if
pushed through the surface, it sinks through the water.
F

V =

U Surface
= tension

F = Force

l =
length

Capillarity
In tubes having very small diameters, liquids are observed to rise or fall
relative to the level of the surrounding liquid. This phenomenon is called
capillarity, and such thin tubes are called capillaries.
 Atomic theory of matter

The atomic theory of matter postulates that all matter is made up of tiny
entities called atoms, which are typically 10^(-10)m in diameter.

Atomic and molecular masses are specified on a scale where ordinary

carbon is arbitrarily given the value of 12.0000u (atomic mass unit)

The distinction between solids,liquids and gasses can be attributed to

the strength of the attractive forces between the atoms or molecules
and to their average speed

Temperature and thermometers

In everyday life, temperature is a measure of how hot or cold

something is. A hot oven is said to have a high temperature, whereas
the ice of a frozen lake is said to have a low temperature.

Instruments designed to measure temperature are called

thermometers. There are many kinds of thermometers, but their
operation always depends on some property of matter that
changes with temperature. Many common thermometers rely on
the expansion of a material with an increase in temperature. The
first idea for a thermometer, by Galileo, made use of the
expansion of a gas. Common thermometers today consist of a
hollow glass tube filled with mercury or with alcohol colored with
a red dye, as were the earliest usable thermometers

How does it work?

A thermometer works on the principle that solids and liquids tend to
expand with temperature. When a thermometer lamp is immersed in a
given solution or substance, mercury begins to rise. This increase in
mercury is studied on a temperature scale.
In order to measure temperature
quantitatively, some sort of
numerical scale must be defined.
The most common scale today is
the Celsius scale, sometimes
called the centigrade scale. In the
United States, the Fahrenheit
scale is also common
 The zeroth law of Thermodynamics

Two objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium if,

when placed in thermal contact, no net energy flows
from one to the other, and their temperatures do not
change

If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system,

ten they are in thermal equilibrium with each other

What is thermal equilibrium ?

The zeroth law of thermodynamics is an observation. When
two objects are separately in thermodynamic equilibrium
with a third object, they are in equilibrium with each
other. As an illustration, suppose we have three objects as
shown on the slide. Object #1 and object #2 are in physical
contact and in thermal equilibrium. Object #2 is also in
thermal equilibrium with object #3. There is initially no
physical contact between object #1 and object #3. But, if
object #1 and object #3 are brought into contact, it is
observed that they are in thermal equilibrium.

Thermal expansion
Thermal expansion is the
increase, or decrease, of the
size (length, area, or volume) of
a body due to a change in
temperature. Thermal
expansion is large for gases,
and relatively small, but not
negligible, for liquids and solids.
bl =
xl9T
si =
change in temperature

= changeinlena h
x =
coefficient of linear expansion

l =
10 +
Al

Plot
9T = T -
T
, Al =
1-1 .
The change in volume in most solids, liquids and gases is
proportional to the temperature change and the original volume V 0

=
B

The coefficient of volume expansion, ß, is approximately

equal to 3 α for uniform solids

Water is unusual because, unlike most materials

whose volume increases with temperature, its volume

The gas laws and absolute temperature

 The ideal gas law

The ideal gas law, or equation of state

for an ideal gas, relates the pressure P,
volume V, and temperature T( in kelvin’s
of n moles of gas by the equation

One mole is that amount of a substance

whose mass in grams is equal to the
atomic or molecular mass of the
substance

Avogadro’s Number

Is the number of
atoms of
molecules in one
mole of a pure
substance
 Ideal Gas: Assumptions

Large # of molecules, N, each of mass m,

moving in random directions with a variety of
speeds

The molecules are, on average, far apart from

each other: Average separation >> diameter of
molecules

Molecules obey Newton’s laws and are assumed

to interact only when they collide —> potential
energy of attractive forces << average kinetic
energy per molecule

Collisions between molecules and surgical

container walls are elastic; also, collisions have
a short duration compared with time between
collisions

The ideal gas law and the molecular

interpretation of Temperature
According to the kinetic theory of gases, which is
based on the idea that a gas is made up of
molecules that are moving rapidly and at random,
the average translation kinetic energy of the
molecules is proportional to the temperature T
(in kelvins):
 Distribution of molecular speeds

At any moment, there exists a wide distribution of molecular

speeds within a gas. The maxwellian distribution is derived from
simple kinetic theory assumptions, and is in good agreement
with experiment for gases at not too high a pressure

Real Gases and Changes

of Phase
The behaviour of real gases
at high pressure, and when
near their liquefaction
point, deviates from the
ideal gas law due to the
finite size of molecules and
to the attractive forces
between molecules
 Van der Waals Equation of state

The van der Waals equation Below the critical

of state takes into account temperature, a gas can
the finite volume of change to a liquid if
molecules, and the sufficient pressure is
attractive forces between applied; but if the
molecules, to better temperature, no amount
approximate the behaviour of pressure will cause a
of real gases liquid to form

The triple point of a substance is that

unique temperature and the pressure
at which all three phases- solid,liquid,
and gas- coexist in equilibrium.
Because of its precise reproducibility,
the triple point of water is often taken
as a standard reference point.
 VAPOR

Vapor refers to a substance in the gas phase at a temperature

lower than its critical temperature. It’s typically used in the
context of substances that can exist in multiple phases (solid,
liquid, gas), with Vapor being the gaseous form of a substance
that is normally a liquid or solid at room temperature and the
pressure. For example, water Vapor refers to the gaseous form
of water.

VAPOR PRESSURE

Vapor pressure refers to the pressure exerted by a Vapor in

thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases ( solid
or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system. In a
simpler terms, it’s the pressure exerted by the gas molecules
when they have reached a balance between escaping from the
liquid or solid phase and returning to it.
 EVAPORATION
Evaporation of a liquid is
the result of the fastest
moving molecules
escaping from the surface.
Because the average
molecular velocity
decreases after the fastest
molecules escape, cooling
takes place during
evaporation.

SATURATED VAPOR PRESSURE

Saturated Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a Vapor in

thermodynamic equilibrium with its liquid ( or solid ) phase at a
given temperature. At this point, the rate of evaporation of the
liquid equals the rate of condensation of the Vapor, resulting in a
stable pressure of the Vapor above the liquid. This is the maximum
pressure that the Vapor can exert at that specific temperature.

Saturated vapor pressure

refers to the pressure of the vapor above the liquid when the
phases are in equilibrium. The vapor pressure of a substance
(such as water) depends strongly on temperature and is equal to
atmospheric pressure at boiling point. Lecture

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of

water Vapor present in the air compared to the
maximum amount of water Vapor the air can hold at
given temperature. It is expressed as a percentage.
Specifically relative humidity is calculated using
the following formula:
 MEAN FREE PATH
The mean free path is the average distance the
molecule moves between collisions with other
molecules. It is inversely proportional to the
collisional cross section and to the gas number
density

Diffusion
Diffusion is the process whereby molecules
of a substance move (on average) from one
area to another because of a difference in
concentration. The rate of diffusion, J, is
directly proportional to the concentration
gradient (Fick’s law):
 Second law of thermodynamics
( Clausius statement )

Heat can flow spontaneously from a

hot object to a cold object; will not
flow spontaneously from a cold
object to hot

Heat engines

A heat engine is a device for changing High temperature Th

Thermal energy,by means of heat flows,
,

into useful work QH

-
=
W+ 2 #

Engine

W
·

Low temperature T.
Efficiency