Chapter 5: Induction and Recursion

Trần Hòa Phú

Ngày 29 tháng 4 năm 2024

5.1 Mathematical Induction

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Theorem
To prove that P(n) is true for all positive integers n, where
P(n) is a propositional function, we complete two steps:
Basic Step we verify that P(1) is true.
Inductive Step Assume that P(k) is true for k is an
arbitrary positive integer. We prove that P(k + 1) is also
true.

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Example Show that if n is a positive integer, then
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ... + n =
2
Solution
n(n + 1)
P(n) : ”1 + 2 + ... + n = ”.
2
1.2
Basic step P(1) : ”1 = ”. So P(1) is true.
2
Inductive step Assume that P(k) is true for k arbitrary positive integer:
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + ... + k =
2
And we need to prove that P(k + 1) is also true.
(k + 1)(k + 2)
1 + 2 + ... + k + k + 1 =
2
In fact,
k(k + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2)
1 + 2 + ... + k + k + 1 = +k +1=
2 2
Therefore, P(k + 1) is also true.
In conclusion, by mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all positive integers n.
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 Exercise
1.Use mathematical induction to show that

1 + 2 + 22 + ... + 2n = 2n+1 − 1
for all nonnegative integers n.
2. Suppose {an } satisfies

a n

= 2an−1 , ∀n ≥ 2
a = 1

1
Prove that an = 2n−1 ∀n ≥ 1.

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 Strong Induction
Theorem
To prove that P(n) is true for all positive integers n, we complete
two steps:
Basic step verify that P(1) is true.
Inductive step Assume that P(1), P(2), .., P(k) are true for k is an
arbitrary positive integer. Then we need to prove P(k + 1) is also
true.

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Example
Prove that every amount of postage of 12 cents or more can be
formed using just 4-cent and 5-cent stamps.

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 Exercise

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 5.3 Recursive Definitions and Structural
Induction
Definition
Recursion is a way to define an object in terms of itself.
Example Define a sequence an = 2n n = 1, 2, ... by
recursion.
Solution
an = 2.2n−1 = 2.an−1 n = 1, 2, 3, ...
a0 = 1

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 Exercise
Give a recursive definition of the sequence
{an }, n = 1, 2, 3, ... if
a) an = 6n
b) an = 2n + 1
c) an = 10n
d) an = n(n + 1)
f) an = 1 + (−1)n
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 Exercise
1) Let F (n) be the sum of the first n positive integer.
Give a recursive definition of F (n).
2) Let G(n) be the product of the first n positive integer.
Give a recursive definition of G(n).

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 Recursively Defined Sets and Structures
Example
Consider the subset S of the set of integers recursively
defined
Basic step: 3 ∈ S
Recursive step: If x ∈ S, y ∈ S, then x + y ∈ S

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 Exercise
Give a recursive definition of each of these sets
a) A = {2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...}
b) B = {..., −5, −1, 3, 7, 11, ...}
c) C = {3, 12, 48, 192, 768, ...}
d) D = {1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, ...}

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 P∗
The set of string
Definition
The set ∗ of strings over the finite set (alphabet) is
P P

defined recursively by
Basis step λ ∈ ∗ (λ is the empty string containing no
P

symbols)
Inductive step If w ∈ ∗ and x ∈ , then wx ∈ ∗.
P P P

Example
= {1} ⇒ ∗ = {λ, 1, 11, 111, ...}: is set of string made
P P

by 1 with arbitrary length.

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 Exercise
P∗
Find if = {0, 1}.
P

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 Exercise
Let S be the subset of the set of ordered pairs of integers
defined recursively by
Basis step: (0, 0) ∈ S
Recursive step: If (a, b) ∈ S, then
(a + 2, b + 3) ∈ S and (a + 3, b + 2) ∈ S
A.(8,15) B.(9,15) C.(10,15) D.(12,15)

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 Exercise
Let S be the set defined recursively as follows:
Basis step: 2 ∈ S
Recursive step: If x ∈ S, then 2x ∈ S
What is S?
A. S = {2n |n = 1, 2, ...}
B. S = {22n |n = 1, 2, ...}
C. S = {2n|n = 1, 2, ...}

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 Recursive Algorithms
Definition
An algorithm is called recursive if it solves a problem by
reducing it to an instance of the same problem with smaller
input.

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 Algorithm 1: A Recursive Algorithm for Computing n!
procedure factorial(n: nonnegative integer)
if n = 0 then return 1
else return n. factorial(n − 1)
{ output is n!}

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 Algorithm 2: A Recursive Algorithm for Computing an
procedure power (a : nonzero real number, n: nonnegative
integer)
if n = 0 then return 1
else return a. power(a, n − 1)
{ output is an }

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 Algorithm 3: A Recursive algorithm for computing gcd(a, b)
procedure gcd(a, b : nonnegative integers with a < b)
if a = 0 then return b
else return gcd(b mod a, a)
{ output is gcd(a, b)}

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 Algorithm 4: A Recursive Linear Search
Algorithm
search(i,j,x) is the procedure that search for first occurrence of x in
the sequence ai , ai+1 , ..., aj .
procedure search(i, j, x : i, j, x , 1 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ n)
if ai = x then
return i
else if i = j then
return 0
else
return search(i + 1, j, x )
{ output is the location of x in a1 , a2 , ..., an if it appears, otherwise
it is 0}
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 Algorithm 5: A Recursive Binary Search Algorithm

Example To search for 8 in the list

1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10
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 Proving Recursive Algorithms Correct
Example
Show that the following algorithm is correct by using
mathematical induction.
procedure factorial(n: nonnegative integer)
if n = 0 then return 1
else return n. factorial(n − 1)
{ output is n!}

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 Recursion and Iteration
A Fibonacci sequence is
fn = fn−1 + fn−2 ∀n ≥ 2, f0 = 0, f1 = 1 (1)

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Merge Sort

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 Exercise
Consider the following algorithm
procedure F(a1, a2, ..., an : integers)
if n = 0 then return 0
else return an + F (a1, a2, ..., an−1)
Find
a) F (1, 3, 5) b) F (1, 2, 3, 5, 6)

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 Exercise
Let P(n) be the statement that n! < nn , where n is an
integer greater than 1. What do you need to prove in the
basis step if using induction method?
A. Show that P(2) is true
B. Show that P(3) is true
C. Show that P(4) is true
D. Show that P(1) is true

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 Exercise

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 Exercise
Find a recursive definition for the set of all integers divisible
by 3.
A. 3, −3 ∈ S and if a ∈ S then 3a ∈ S
B. 3 ∈ S and if a, b ∈ S then a − b ∈ S
C. 3 ∈ S and if a, b ∈ S then a + b ∈ S
D. 3 ∈ S and if a ∈ S then 3a ∈ S.

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 Exercise
Give a recursive definition of the sequence
an = 5n, n = 1, 2, ...
i. a0 = 0, an = an−1 + 5 for n = 1, 2, 3, ...
ii. a1 = 1, an = an−1 + 5 for n = 2, 3, ...
iii. a1 = 5, an−1 = an + 5 for n = 2, 3, ...
iv. a1 = 5, an = an−1 + 5 for n = 2, 3, ..

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 Exercise
Find a recursive definition for the set of all positive integers
NOT divisible by 4
i. If a ∈ S then a + 4 ∈ S
ii. 1, 2, 3 ∈ S. If a ∈ S, then a + 4, a − 4 ∈ S
iii. If a ∈ S, then a − 4, a + 4 ∈ S
iv. 1, 2, 3 ∈ S. If a ∈ S, then a + 4 ∈ S
A. i B. ii C. iii D. iv

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 Exercise
Given the recursive algorithm that computes the n-th
Fibonacci numbers
Procedure F(n: natural numbers)
If n = 0 then F (n) := 0
else
If n = 1 then F (n) := 1
else Fn) := F (n − 1) + F (n − 2)
How many additions are used if n = 6?
A. 7 B. 8 C. 9 D. 12

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 Exercise
Let S be the set defined recursively by:
5∈S
If x ∈ S then x + 5 ∈ S. What is S?
A. S = {5, 10, 15, 20, ...}
B. S = {0, 5, 10, 15, ...}
C . S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
D. S = {..., −10, −5, 0, 5, 10, ...}

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 Exercise
Find a recursive definition for the sequence
an = 1 + (−1)n n = 0, 1, 2, ...
i) a0 = 0, a1 = 2, an = an−2 for n > 1
ii) a0 = 2, a1 = 0, an = an−2 for n > 1
iii) a0 = 2, an = an−1 − 2 for n > 0
A.i B. ii C. iii D. None

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 Exercise
Given the recursive algorithm
Procedure AL(x integer, n positive integer)
If n =1 then AL(x,n) = x
else AL(x,n)= AL(x,n-1)+x
Find the value of AL(3,6)
A.18 B.12 C.6 D.9 E. None

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 Exercise
Find the output of the recursive algorithm if input n=5
procedure TT(n: integer)
If n=1 then f(1) = 0
else f(n) = f(n-1)*n
A.-120 B. -240 C.0 D. 120 E.240

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 Exercise
Given the recurrence relation
fn = 2fn−3 − 5fn−4 + 2n
How many initial conditions are needed to determine all
further terms?
A.2 B.4 C. None D.3 E.1

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 Exercise
In the strong induction proof of the following problem
Problem: Prove that P(n) is True for all n ≥ 24 with
P(n) : ”∃a, b ∈ Z+ : n = 5a + 7b”.
In order to prove P(k + 1) is True, we should .............................
A. use P(k − 4) : ”k − 4 = 5x + 7y , x , y ∈ N” is True and k + 1 = k − 4 + 5
B. use P(k − 2) : ”k − 2 = 5x + 7y , x , y ∈ N” is True and k + 1 = k − 2 + 3
C. use P(k − 1) : ”k − 1 = 5x + 7y , x , y ∈ N” is True and k + 1 = k − 1 + 2
D. use P(k − 3) : ”k − 3 = 5x + 7y , x , y ∈ N” is True and k + 1 = k − 3 + 4

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 Exercise
Given a recursive definition of the set of strings S
0∈S
x ∈ S → x 00 ∈ S
Which one is true?
i) 0000 ∈ S
ii) 00000 ∈ S
A. i B. ii C. Both D. None

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