Content Of This Book

S No. Name Of the Chapter Pg No.

0. Basic Maths 2

1. Units and Measurements 27

2. Motion in a Straight Line 36

3. Motion in a Plane 45

4. Laws of Motion 64

5. Work, Energy, and Power 77

6. System of Particles and Rotational Motion 109

7. Gravitation 119

8. Mechanical Properties of Solids 129

9. Mechanical Properties of Fluids 139

10. Thermal Properties of Matter 149

11. Thermodynamics 159

12. Kinetic Theory 175

13. Oscillations 182

14. Waves 189

 Basic Rules

I Y=a (constant) e.g y=5

dy =0 dy
=0
dx dx
II Y=x (variable) e.g y=p
dy =1 dy
=1
dx dp

III Y=exponential variable e.g y=x2

dy
dy x2= 2x2-1 =2x
=> xn = nxn-1 dx
dx = 2x

IV Y=Axn ,A is a constant
e.g y=5x3
dy dy
= A[nxn-1 ] =5[x3] =15x2
dx dx
=5[3x3-1 ]
=5[3x2]
=15x2

V Y= exponential constant e.g y=4x

dy
= Ax => Ax loge A dy x
=4 log e A
dx dx

VI Y= log e x VII d x x
(e ) = e
dy 1 dx
dx x
=
 Differentiation Of Trigonometric Functions

I V

II VI

III

IV

Addition & Subtraction

Step #1 : Differentiate each term seperately.

Step #2 : Then, add or subtract their respective derivatives
e.g x e.g
6x2+ 1 + 2 + cosx 5x2+ logx + x 3/2 - sinx
x
dy 1/2
= 10x + 1 + (3x) - (cosx)
6[2x2-1] + 1 + 2x + cosx dx x 2
x 1
2

6[2x] + x- 12 + 2 x + cosx
x
12x + [ - 12 x ]
- 12 -1 + 2 + cosx
12x - 1 x- + 2x loge2 - sinx
3
2
2
Multiplication

U V Method

Step #1 : Let a term be u & other be v.

Step #2 : Apply this formula.
 dy dv du
= u +v
dx dx dx

e.g , cosxlogex
Let cosx be u
logex be v
dy dv du
= u +v
dx dx dx
= cosx
( ) ( )
dlogex + logex
dx
dcosx
dx

( x)
= cosx 1 + log x (-sinx)
e

= cosx - sinxlogex
x

Division

Step #1 : Let a term be u & other be v.

Step #2 : Apply this formula.

dy du dv
= v -u
dx dx dx
v2

y= x 3 + x2 + 2x
x
Let , numerator = u
denominator = v
dy du dv
= v -u
dx dx dx
v2
= x(3x 2 + 2x + 2) - 1(x3 + x2 + 2x)
x2
3 2
= 3x + 2x + 2x - x3- x2-2x

= 2x3 + x2 = x 2 (2x + 1)
x2 x2
= 2x + 1

Chain Rule

Step #1 : Express the original function as a simpler function as u , where u

is a function of x.
Step #2 : Differentiate the function you got.
Step #3 : Multiply the derivatives together , leaving your answer in terms of
original function (i.e x)
Illustration Of Chain Rule

1. y = x+1
y=(x2+ 1)1/2
Step I
[ xn = nxn-1 ]
1/2 We want ‘x‘ in place of (x2 + 1)
y=(x2+ 1)
1/2-1
to make it easier & simple
y=1/2(x2+ 1)
Step II
[ We supposed x2+ 1 1]
We differentiate x2 + 1
Differentiate of x 2 + 1 supposing it to be x

2x + 0 Step III
[Multiplying with the result of step II] Multiply the result with diff.
1/2-1 of what we had supposed
y=1/2(x2+ 1) (2x)
-1/2
=1/2(x2+ 1) (2x)
 Application Of Derivatives

Given to find :
Value of ‘x’ in question at which dy is maximum/minimum value for
=0
slope. dx

dy
=0
dx
When ; the slope gives horizontal graph.

Illustration :)
Find ‘x’ for which equation y=x2- x +1 gives dy =0
dx
dy
=0
dx
dy
=> d (x2- x+1)
dx
dx
0 = 2x-1+0
0 = 2x-1
1 = 2x Me scoring 100/100 by
using padhleakshay notes
x=1/2
My Teacher :-
Steps for finding value of maxima/minima

1. Differentiate the given equation at

dy
=0
dx

2.Get two values from the final equation after differentiation the original eq.
3.Put the values got in the ‘’differentiation of the final equation”
4.If you got the value of equation

(I) +ve slope ---> minimum

(II) -ve slope ---> maximum
 => Reverse Process of differentiation
If ; df(x) = f’(x) Differentiation of f(x)
dx
Integration of f(x)
Then; f’(x)dx ;= f(x)

Differentiation
gives us a slope of graph at minute ranges. i.e limit X ---> 0

Integration
gives us area between curve & horizontal axis.

Area under slope :

Sum of area of rectangle bars

=l*b
=y0(dx) + y 1(dx)____________ + y’(dx) + green spaces

Basic Rules

Integration of rectangular bars given :

green spaces + area by bars
x=x’
y dx = area under curve
x=0
I dy
= x n , x is a variable
dx
y(dx) = xn(dx)

= xn+1 + c , c is a constant
n+1
dy 2
#e.g =x
dx
y(dx) = x2(dx)

=x2+1 + c
2+1 = xn+1 + c , c is a constant
n+1
= x3 + c
3

Nothing value written Indefinite Integration

Note : We always add constant c to indefinite (no limits ) integration

#e.g if n=-1

II x-1 (dx) = 1 (dx)

x
= log e |x| + c

Random People :
padhleakshay ke
notes acche nhi
hai

mai jisne notes

padhkar 100/100
score kiya
 Definite Integration

Limits written
a a
I
b
x n (dx)
[ n+1 ]b
= x n+1

= an+1 - bn+1
n+1 n+1
= ( an+1 - bn+1 )
n+1

e.g 3 3

2
x1(dx) =
[ 1+1x ]2
1+1

3
[ 2 ]2
= x 2

= 32 - 22
2
= 9 - 4= 5
2 2

a
II x-n (dx) = 1 dx
b xn
When ; xn dx where n -n

x-n(dx) = x-n+1 + c
-n+1
 5
x -1 (dx) = 1 dx
2 x
5
[
= log |x| ]2
= loge5 - loge2
= loge 5/2

a a
III x-1 (dx) = 1 (dx)
b b x
a
[
= log e |x| + c
b]
= log e a - log e b
= log e__
a
For Definite
b

IV ex dx = e x + c

V ax dx = ax + c ; a is a constant
logea

e.g 4x dx = 4x + c
loge4

*Take it easy bruh (❁´◡`❁)

VI Axndx = A xndx

[ n+1 ] + c
= A xn+1

e.g 2 x2dx = 2 x2dx

[ 2+1 ] [3 ]
= 2 x2+1 + c = 2 x3 + c = 2x + c
3
3

Integration Of Trigonometric Functions

*cscx=cosecx
 Addition & Subtraction
#Step 1 : Integrate each term separately
#Step 2 : Add/Subtract the results accordingly.
e.g y= x2 + 1
x
ydx = (
x2 + 1
x ) dx
= x2dx + 1 dx
x
= x2+1 + loge|x| + c
2+1

Multiplication

#Apply the formulas assuming to be u & v.

uvdx = u vdx - (u’ vdx)dx

e.g (xsinx)dx

Let u be x
v be sinx

uvdx = u vdx - (u’ vdx)dx

Derivative of x
xsinx dx ==> x sinx dx - 1 ( {sinxdx}dx

==> -xcosx - -cosxdx

==> -xcosx + cosxdx

==> -xcosx + sinx + c

 N TE : u,v assumption should be according to ‘ILATE’

U V
I L A T E
Inverse Exponential
e.g sin-1x e.g ex

Logarithm Trigonometric
Algebra e.g sinx , cosx
e.g log e x
e.g x 2

e.g ex x

ex exponential x u
x algebraic ex v DIY
2+1

Chain Rule

Step I : Assume the given function to be simpler

Step II : Differentiate as per assumption, but with original function
Step III : Divide the result with / by the differentiation of assumed function.
e.g sin2x

#1 : It would have been easier if x was in place of 2x.

Suppose as it
sinx
 #2 : Diff the term as per if it would have been our assumption.

sin2x = -cos2x But with original function

#3 : Divide it by derivative of term you supposed

sin2x ==> -cos2x/2 + c

Division

#Substitution Method
Step I : Assume & put the denominator as a variable, say (t).
Step II : Differentiate your assumption (i.e., denominator).
Step III : Put the value of the numerator from the relation
obtained from the result of step II.
Step IV : Put back the real value of t after integration of the
result of step III.

e.g x
dx 1.Let us assume denominator, 1+x² = t
1+x2
2. Differentiating Both Sides
==> x
dx
t
==> dt
2
dt/2=xdx
t
dt 3. Substitute in numerator
==>
2t
==>
( )
1 dt
2 t
==> 1
dt ( 1 )
2 t
==> 1 dt 4.Integrating result of Step II.
2 ( )
1
t 5.Put back real valve ie t = 1+x2

==>
1
log |t| + c
2 e
1
==> log |1+x2 | + c
2 e
 It is a mathematical tool which is used to make complex calculations easier.

# Another way to write & find exponents

If ax = m

Then loga m=x

i.e ax = m Where ; m>0

a>0 , a≠1

@ log a=c
b
c
Then b = a
3
e.g 2 = 8
In Logarithm Form
log 8=3
2
@ Read as : Log 8 to the base 2 isequal to 3.
Hence ; log10100=2
10 ki aisi power jisse 100 aa jaye.
e,g log 1010= 1
log 10 100= 2
log 10-2= undefined

Hence ; If y=logax
x>0 , a>0
a≠1
i.e a= any number except 1
i.e it can have 1.2,1.3,0.3,0.4 etc.
 +ve +ve
y=logax 1 0
-ve undefined

Exponential Functions

Exponents & Logarithms are inverse functions.

e.g 23 =8
ex =y
log 28=3
2 8=y

Note :- ex ; e is exponent value e=2.718 3

e.g ; if e 3
30=1
32=9
3-2=1/9

Hence ; if y=ex

+ve +ve
y=ex 0 1
-ve +ve

Inverse Relation

y=ex y=logex
Exponent
Logarithm
 x→- x→+
y→0 y→+

x→+ y→-
y→ x→0
x→0 y→+1
y→+1 x→0

Types Of Logarithm

Common Base Natural

Logarithm Logarithm

Base=10 Base=e
Denoted as log10x Denoted as lnx
Usually as logx

#Note : Wherever written as logx its to base e.

Properties Of Logarithm

Yaad
kar lo
We move anticlockwise from the x-axis of Ist quadrant for angles.

π=180° π=90°
2

3π=270° 2π=360°
2

Angles in π radians

π/2,5π/2

sin & cosec --> +ve All --> +ve

2π rad = 360° Others --> -ve Others --> -ve
π rad = 180° Silver All
π,3π 0,2π
1° = π rad Tea Cups
180
Tan & cot --> +ve cos & sec --> +ve
Others --> -ve Others --> -ve

3π/2,7π/2
Note :- We move anti-clockwise from x-axis of Ist quadrant for angles.
(i) Right of x-axis : cosθ=+1
(ii) Left of x-axis : cosθ=-1
(iii) sinθ at x-axis : 0
(iv) Up of x-axis : sinθ=+1
(v) Down of y-axis : sinθ=-1
(i) cosθ at x-axis : 0

sin & cosec --> +ve All --> +ve

Others --> -ve Others --> -ve

Tan & cot --> +ve cos & sec --> +ve
Others --> -ve Others --> -ve

Trick to Learn

# If written as cos(π+θ)
+ve : move ahead in clockwise direction
# If written as cos(π-θ)
-ve : move clockwise direction i.e θ° ; θ<= 90°
e.g cot(π-θ)
Lies in IInd Quadrant
only sin & cosec is +ve
Here is cot,
cot(π-θ)= -cotθ ---> same ratio
cot(π-θ)= -cotθ
e.g sin60°
↪ Sin(π/2 - θ)
↪ ↬ lies in Ist quadrant ---> all +ve
Sin(π/2 - 30°)
π/2 ---> co-ratio i.e sinθ ---> cosθ
↪ cos30°
↪ 3
2
e.g sin(-θ) or -sinθ
↪ Sin(0- θ)
4th Quadrant
Only cos/cosec is +ve
Here is sin, so -ve
sin(0-θ)= -sinθ

↪90 + θ ↪90 - θ
↪180 - θ ↪360 + θ
sinθ --> +ve sinθ --> +ve

sinθ --> -ve sinθ --> -ve

↪180 + θ ↪270 + θ
↪270 - θ ↪360 - θ

cosθ --> -ve cosθ --> +ve Tanθ --> -ve Tanθ --> +ve

cosθ --> -ve cosθ --> +ve Tanθ --> +ve Tanθ --> -ve

-θ 90-θ 90+θ 180-θ 180+θ

Sin -Sinθ Cosθ Cosθ Sinθ -Sinθ

Cos Cosθ Sinθ -Sinθ -Cosθ -Cosθ

Tan -Tanθ Cotθ -Cotθ -Tanθ Tanθ

270-θ 270+θ 360-θ 360+θ

Sin -Cosθ -Cosθ -Sinθ Sinθ

Cos -Sinθ Sinθ Cosθ Cosθ

Tan Cotθ -Cotθ -Tanθ Tanθ

Learn
These
physical quantities
A physical quantity is a measurable property of a physical system that can be
expressed quantitatively, typically with a number and a unit. Physical quantities can
be classified into two types: scalars and vectors. Scalars are quantities that have
only magnitude, such as mass, temperature, and energy. Vectors are quantities that
have both magnitude and direction, such as velocity, force, and acceleration.

unit
A unit is a standard quantity or measure that is used to represent or
describe a particular physical quantity or property. Units are used to
specify the magnitude or size of something, and they enable us to make
comparisons and communicate information in a standardized and
consistent way.
For example, units of length could be meters or feet, units of time could be
seconds or minutes, units of weight could be kilograms or pounds, and
units of temperature could be Celsius or Fahrenheit.

fundamental and derived units

Fundamental units
Fundamental units, also known as base units, are the basic units of
measurement for fundamental physical quantities. They are defined in
terms of physical standards, and all other units are derived from them.
International system of units
cgs : centimeter ,gram and second.
FPS : foot, pound and second.
MKS : metre, kilogram and second.
The use of the SI is encouraged by international treaty, and it is
widely used in scientific and technical fields, as well as in everyday
life.

Derived unit
Derived units are units of measurement that are derived from
fundamental units using mathematical equations.
For example, the unit of speed is meters per second (m/s), which is
derived from the fundamental units of length and time. The unit of
force is Newton (N), which is derived from the fundamental units of
mass, length, and time.
There are many other derived units, such as joules (J) for energy, watts
(W) for power, and pascals (Pa) for pressure.

Some important units

Astronomical unit (AU)

it is a unit of measurement equal to the average distance
between the Earth and the Sun.
11
1 AU = 1.5x10 m

Light year :
A light year is a unit of distance used in astronomy that represents
the distance that light travels in one year.
15
1LY = 9.46x10 m
Arc Length
Arc Length is given by:-
d𝑠=d𝜃(𝑟)
International system of units
cgs : centimeter ,gram and second.
FPS : foot, pound and second.
MKS : metre, kilogram and second.
The use of the SI is encouraged by international treaty, and it is
widely used in scientific and technical fields, as well as in everyday
life.

Derived unit
Derived units are units of measurement that are derived from
fundamental units using mathematical equations.
For example, the unit of speed is meters per second (m/s), which is
derived from the fundamental units of length and time. The unit of
force is Newton (N), which is derived from the fundamental units of
mass, length, and time.
There are many other derived units, such as joules (J) for energy, watts
(W) for power, and pascals (Pa) for pressure.

Some important units

Astronomical unit (AU)

it is a unit of measurement equal to the average distance
between the Earth and the Sun.
11
1 AU = 1.5x10 m

Light year :
A light year is a unit of distance used in astronomy that represents
the distance that light travels in one year.
15
1LY = 9.46x10 m
parsec (pc)
A parsec (pc) is a unit of measurement used in astronomy
to express distances to objects outside our solar system.
It is defined as the distance at which an object would
have a parallax angle of one arcsecond
16
1 Parsec = 3.6x10 m

Angstrom
The angstrom, also spelled Ångström, is a unit of length commonly
used in the field of atomic physics and nanotechnology.
it is denoted by Å
-10
1Å = 10 m

Fermi
The fermi is a unit of length used in nuclear and particle physics.
it is denoted by fm
1FM = 10 m

Question : Calculate angle of 1 degree in radian

To convert degrees to radians, we use the formula:

radians = (π / 180) x degrees

= (π / 180) x 1 degree
= 1.746x10 rad
 Significant Figures

Significant figures, also known as significant digits, are a way of indicating

the precision of a number or measurement. In scientific and engineering
calculations, it's important to know how precise a number is, so that the
correct level of precision is maintained throughout the calculations.

In scientific notation, significant figures are the digits that are not zero, and are
either measured or estimated with some degree of confidence or precision.

The rules for significant figures (also called significant digits) are:

Non-zero digits are always significant. For example, the number 243 has three
significant figures.
Zeros between non-zero digits are significant. For example, the number 506
has three significant figures.
Leading zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. For
example, the number 0.005 has one significant figure.
Trailing zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are significant only if the
number contains a decimal point. For example, the number 500. has three
significant figures.

Trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are ambiguous and should be
avoided by using scientific notation. For example, the number 500 may be
written as 5.00 × 10² to indicate that it has three significant figures.
Exact numbers (such as integers and defined constants) have an infinite
number of significant figures. For example, there are exactly 12 inches in a foot,
and the number 12 is an exact number.

ye sare rules ache se

padhna

These rules are used to determine the number of significant figures in a given
measurement or calculation, which is important for maintaining accuracy and
precision in scientific and engineering work.
 Dimension of a Physical Quantity

Dimension of a physical quantity is the power to which the fundamental

units must be raised to, in order to represent it.
Mass, length, time, temperature, electric current, luminous intensity and
amount of substance are the fundamental quantities. Physical quantities can
be expressed in terms of these fundamental quantities. These seven quantities
are the seven dimensions of the physical world.
The dimension of mass is denoted by [M]
The dimension of length is denoted by [L]
The dimension of time is denoted by [T] *ye sare Dimensions
The dimension of temperature is denoted by [K] ache se yaad kr lo
The dimension of electric current is denoted by [I]
The dimension of luminous intensity is denoted by [cd]
The amount of substance is denoted by [mol]
for example
How we can find the dimension of density?
We know density is mass divided by volume. Dimension of mass is [M].
Volume is a product of three lengths. Thus, the dimension of volume
3
will be [L ]

density=mass / volume
3
=[M]/[L ]
-3
=[ML ]

Note:
The dimension of a physical quantity will be the same as that of
the dimension of its unit.
There are some cases where some quantities are dimensionless even
when they have a unit. For example, angle is a dimensionless
quantity.
The dimensions of some common physical quantities are:
Application of Dimensional analysis

Checking the dimensional consistency of equations

Deriving relationships between physical quantities
Designing experiments
Developing models
Simplifying calculations

What are the limitations of Dimensional analysis

It cannot provide information about dimensionless constants

It assumes linear relationships
It may not account for all relevant variables
It does not consider the direction of causality
It may not apply to complex systems

conversion of one unit system to another

Conversion of units of physical quantities from one system to another system:

The method of dimensional analysis can be used to obtain the value of the
physical quantity in some other system when its value in one system is given.
As discussed earlier, the measurement of a physical quantity is given by:

Q = nu

If the unit of a physical quantity in a system is u 1 , and the numerical value is n1 ,

then:

Q=n 1 u 1 ................(1)
Similar in the other system if the unit is u2 and magnitude is n2 then:

Q=n1 u1 .......(2)
From Eqs. (1) and (2)
n 1u 1 =n2 u2 .................(3)
If a,b,c are the dimensions of a physical quantity in mass, length and time, then:
c
n1 [Ma1 Lb1 T1 ]=n2[M a2Lb2 T2c ]

Here M1 ,L1 ,T1 and M2 ,L 2,T2 are the units of mass, length and time in the two systems,
then
m1 a b
n1 = n2[ m2 ] [ L1 ][ T1
]
C

L2 T2

The equation can be used to find out the value of a physical quantity in the
second or the new system, when its value in first system is known.

To check the correctness of physical equation

We can check the correctness of the physical equation using the

principle of homogeneity. By the principle of homogeneity of
dimensions, the dimensions of all the terms on the two sides of an
equation must be the same.

for example

To check the correctness of an equation of force using dimensional

analysis, we need to analyze the dimensions of each term in the equation
and ensure that they are consistent with the dimensions of force.
-2
The dimension of force is [M L T ]
equation of force, F = ma, where F represents force, m represents
mass, and a represents acceleration.
so,
F=ma
-2
= [M][LT ]
-2
[F] =[MLT ]

Hence by principle of homogeneity the given equation is dimensionally correct.

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”
 Motion

Motion refers to the change in position of an object with respect to time. When an
object changes its position with respect to a reference point, it is said to be in
motion.
Motion can be described in terms of its speed, direction, and acceleration.

Position, Distance and Displacement:

Position: An object’s position is always expressed in relation to some reference

point, known as the origin. We take into account two physical quantities to express
the change in position.
Distance: This is the actual path that an object travels while in motion. Its
dimensions are [L] and its S.I. unit is ′m′.
Displacement: This term describes the variation between the final and initial
positions of an object during motion.

Differences Between Distance and Displacement:

*aasan bhasha me kahu tho coaching se chutne ke baad tum sidhe

ghar gaye tho displacment hua
or agar tum coaching se chutne ke baad pehle chai ki tapari pe gaye
and then ghar gaye tho distance
 Distance Displacement

It describes the actual path taken It denotes the difference between

by an object while in motion. the starting and ending positions.

It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

When an object is moving, the An object’s displacement during

distance it covers is always positive motion can be positive, negative or
and never negative or zero. even zero.

The distance travelled is always The amount of displacement is

more than, or equal to the size of negligible or equal to the distance
the displacement covered during motion.

The distance depends on the path The magnitude of displacement is

taken by the object. independent of the path travelled
by an object during motion.

Difference Between Speed and Velocity :

Speed Velocity

It is defined as the total distance It describes the division of the time

travelled divided by the amount of intervals during which a change in
time that the motion has occurred. location or displacement takes place.

It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity

Throughout motion, it is always During motion, it may be positive,

positive. negative or zero.
 It is more than or equal to the It is equal to or less than the
magnitude of the velocity speed.

Note
The amount of displacement is equal to the length of the entire path when an
object is moving in a straight line and in the same direction.

In this instance, the average speed and average velocity are of equal magnitude.
This isn’t always the case, though.

Scalar and Vector Quantities

Scalar Quantities
Scalar quantities are used to describe physical quantities that only have
magnitude and no direction.
Scalars include things like mass, length, time, distance, speed, work and
temperature, to name a few.

Vector Quantities
The term “vector quantity” refers to a physical quantity that has both
magnitude and direction.

It includes displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum and

torque. Scalar Vector
 Average Velocity and Average Speed:

Average Velocity
Average velocity is the total displacement of an object over a certain
period of time, divided by the time interval. In other words, it is the
change in position of an object divided by the time taken for that
change to occur.

Average Velocity =
(Final Position - Initial Position) / Time taken

Average Speed

Average speed is the distance traveled by an object over a

certain period of time, divided by the time interval. It is the
total distance traveled by an object divided by the time
taken for that journey.
Average Speed = Total Distance Traveled / Time Taken
 Instantaneous Velocity and Instantaneous Speed

Instantaneous velocity

Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of an object at a specific instant

in time.
It is the rate of change of an object's position with respect to time at
that specific moment.
Instantaneous Velocity = lim (Δt → 0) Δx / Δt
Its dimensions are [M0 LT-1] and its S.I. unit is m/s.

Instantaneous Speed

Instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at a specific instant in

time. It is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity of the object
Instantaneous Speed = |Instantaneous Velocity|
Its dimensions are [M0L T-1] and its S.I. unit is m/s.

Acceleration *vroom...vrooom

Acceleration is the rate of change of an object's velocity with respect to time. It

is the rate at which an object's velocity is changing in magnitude or direction,
or both.
a=vdv
dx

For example, if a car is initially traveling at a velocity of 30 km/h to the east

and after 5 seconds it is traveling at a velocity of 60 km/h to the east, its
acceleration can be calculated as:
Acceleration = (60 km/h - 30 km/h) / 5 s = 6 km/h/s to the east
This means that the car's velocity is increasing at a rate of 6 kilometers per
hour every second to the east.
Average Acceleration

The average acceleration during a period of time is defined as the

change in velocity divided by the time interval.
The average change in velocity per unit of time is hence known as
average acceleration.
a=(v2-v1)/(t2-t1), where v2 and v1 are the velocities at time t2 and t1,
respectively.
Its dimensions are [M 0L T -2] and its S.I. unit is m/s2.

Instantaneous Acceleration

Instantaneous acceleration is the acceleration of an object at a specific

instant in time. It is the rate of change of an object's velocity with
respect to time at that specific moment.

Mathematically, instantaneous acceleration is defined as:

a=limΔt→0(v/t)=dv/dt

Its dimensions are [M 0L T -2] and its S.I. unit is m/s2.

Note
Instantaneous acceleration is a vector quantity, meaning it has both
magnitude and direction. Its direction is the same as the direction of the
change in velocity. If the velocity is increasing, the acceleration is in the
same direction as the velocity, and if the velocity is decreasing, the
acceleration is in the opposite direction as the velocity.
 Uniform Circular Motion

Units UCM NUCM

θ : Angular Displacement rad ω=constant ω≠0
ω : Angular Velocity rad/s ɑ=0 ɑ≠0
ɑ : Angular Acceleration rad/s2 at = 0
as = v 2
ω=dθ
dt
ɑ=dω =ωdω
dt dt [ like 1D a= vdvdx ] r

Tangential Acceleration
at = dv =[ Rdω ]=> aT= Rɑ
dt dt
Total Acceleration = a2 + a2N
aTotal T
V (Tangential Velocity) aN = V2 = ω 2 r
Normal r
Acceleration
 Review

Graphs

Uniform motion

When a body travels the same distances over the same periods of time, it is
said to be in uniform motion.
In this case, the speed remains constant throughout the movement
In addition, during motion, there is no acceleration
Displacment - time graph

Nautre of slope : positive

 Velocity - time graph acceleration time graph

nature of slope : zero nature of slope of a – t

Non-Uniform motion

Non-uniform motion refers to motion where an object's velocity (speed and

direction) changes with respect to time.
Magnitude of Velocity increases or decreases with time
it moves with a constant speed in a straight line without changing its direction.

Displacment time graph velocity time graph acceleration – time

graph

ye sare Graphs bhi taiyaar kar

lena exam ke liye
“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK
QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”
 Scalars and Vectors

In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or vectors. Basically, the

difference is that a direction is associated with a vector but not with a
scalar.

Scalars
A scalar quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. It is specified completely
by a single number, along with the proper unit. Scalars can be added,
subtracted, multiplied and divided just as the ordinary numbers. Examples :
current, speed, pressure etc.

Vectors
Quantities which require both magnitude and direction to describe a situation
fully are known as vectors. For example, displacement and velocity are vectors.

Unit vector
A unit vector has a magnitude of one and hence, it actually gives just the
direction of the vector.
A unit vector can be determined by dividing the original vector by its
magnitude

â = a/|a|

Unit vectors along different co–ordinate axis are as shown below:

 Dot and Cross Product of Two Vectors

Dot Product of Two Vectors

The dot product, also known as the scalar product or inner product, is an
operation that takes two vectors and returns a scalar.

It is defined as the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the
cosine of the angle between them. The dot product of two vectors a and b is
denoted as a · b or <a, b>.

→ →
A · B = |A| |B| cos(θ)

where |a| and |b| are the magnitudes of the vectors, and θ is the angle between
them.

Dot product is called scalar product as A, B and cosθ are scalars. Both
vectors have a direction but their scalar product does not have a direction.
Properties OF Dot Product of Two Vectors

Dot product is commutative

A.B=B.A

Dot product is distributive

A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C

Dot product of a vector with itself gives square of its magnitude

A . A = AA cosθ = A

A . (λB) = λ(A . B)
where λ is a real number

The Cross Product of Two Vectors

The cross product, also known as the vector product, is an operation that
takes two vectors and returns a third vector that is perpendicular to both of
the input vectors.

It is defined as the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors, times the sine
of the angle between them, and a unit vector perpendicular to the plane
containing the two vectors. The cross product of two vectors a and b is denoted as
a × b.
 → →
A · B = |A| |B| sin(θ)

Where A & B are magnitudes of vectors A and B respectively and θ is the

smaller angle between them. Cross product is called vector product as A, B and
sinθ are scalars. Both vectors have a direction and their vector product has a
same direction.

Properties of The Cross Product of Two Vectors

The vector product is do not have Commutative Property.

A×B = – (B×A)

The following property holds true in case of vector multiplication

(kA)×B= k(A×B) =A×(kB)

If the given vectors are collinear then

A×B= 0

Following the above property, We can say that the vector multiplication of
a vector with itself would be
^=0
A×A= |A||A|sin0 n
Also in terms of unit vector notation

^ ^
^i × ^i=j × ^j=k × k=0

From the above discussion it also follows that

Position and Displacement Vectors

Position and displacement vectors are concepts used in physics and mathematics
to describe the location and movement of objects in space.

Position vector:-

A position vector is a vector that points from the origin of a coordinate

system to a particular point in space. It represents the position of the
point relative to the origin, and its magnitude is the distance from the
origin to the point.

Position vector of the object is the vector joining the origin to the point where
the object lies directed from origin to the point. It is usually denoted by →r.
Displacement vector:-

When an object is displaced from its position at point P to a new position at

-→
point P' (say), then the vector PP' having its tail at P and head at P' is called the
displacement vector of the object corresponding to its motion from P to P'.

Types of Vector

Equal vectors

Two vectors having same direction and equal magnitude are said to be
equal vectors. This is the necessary and sufficient condition for any two
vectors to be equal.If two vectors P and Q are equal, we can write P=Q

Zero vector
A vector with zero magnitude and an arbitrary direction is called a zero
→
vector. It is presented by 0 and also known as Null vector.

Negative of a Vector

The vector whose magnitude is same as that of A but the direction is opposite
to that of vector A is called a negative of A and is represented by -A.
Parallel vectors
A and B are said to be parallel vectors if they have same direction,and may or
may no thave equal magnitude (A॥B). If the directions are opposite, then A is
anti-parallel to B.

Coplanar Vectors

Vectors are said to be coplanar if they lie in the same plane or they are
parallel to the same plane, otherwise they are said to be non-coplanar
vectors.

Addition of Vectors

Triangular Law of Vector Addition

According to this law, if two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a
triangle, then the third side of the triangle, taken in the opposite direction,
represents the resultant vector.
→ →
In the figure, vectors A and B have an angle θ between them. Let the resultant
be R making an angle α with A. SN is perpendicular dropped from S on the line
→→ → →→
OP. A, B and R are taken as magnitude of A , B and R.
 In triangle OCB,

2 2 2
OB = OC + BC
2 2 2
OB = (OA +AC) + BC

In the right triangle ABC, we have

cos θ = AC/AB and sin θ = BC/AB

AC = AB cos θ and BC = AB sin θ

AC = Q cos θ and BC = Q sin θ --- (2)

Substituting values from (2) in (1), we have

2 2 2
R = (P + Q cos θ) + (Q sin θ)
R2 = P2 + Q 2cos 2θ + 2PQ cosθ + Q2 sin2θ

2 2
R = P + 2PQ cos2 θ + Q 2(cos2 θ + sin2 θ)

R2 = P2 + 2PQ cos2θ + Q 2 [cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1]

2 2 2
R= (P + 2PQ cos θ + Q ) → Magnitude of the resultant vector R

Important Notes on Triangle Law of Vector Addition

Triangle law of vector addition is used to find the sum of two vectors when
the head of the first vector is joined to the tail of the second vector.

Magnitude of the resultant sum vector R: R2 = (P2 + 2PQ cos θ + Q2)

Direction of the resultant vector R: ϕ = tan-1 [(Q sin θ)/(P + Q cos θ)]

Ques: Two vectors A and B have magnitudes of 4 units and 9 units and make
an angle of 30° with each other. Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant sum vector using the triangle law of vector addition formula.
 Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides
of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then the diagonal of the parallelogram
passing through that point will represent their resultant in magnitude and
direction.
Angle should be
n
considered betwee
the tail of vectors

If the resultant vector R makes an angle ϕ with the vector P, then the
formulas for its magnitude and direction are:

|R| = (P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ)

β = tan-1 [(Q sin θ)/(P + Q cos θ)]

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition Proof

In right-angled triangle OCD, we have

2 2 2
OC = OD + DC

2 2 2
OC = (OA + AD) + DC --- (1)

In the right triangle CAD, we have

cos θ = AD/AC and sin θ = DC/AC

 cos θ = AD/AC and sin θ = DC/AC

AD = AC cos θ and DC = AC sin θ

AD = Q cos θ and DC = Q sin θ --- (2)

Substituting values from (2) in (1), we have

2 2
R 2 = (P + Q cos θ) + (Q sin θ)

2 2 2 2 2
R = P + Q cos θ + 2PQ cos θ + Q sin θ

2 2 2 2 2
R = P + 2PQ cos θ + Q (cos θ + sin θ)

2 2 2
R = P + 2PQ cos θ + Q [cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1]

R= (P + 2PQ cos θ + Q ) → Magnitude of the resultant vector R

Next, we will determine the direction of the resultant vector. We have in right
traingle ODC,
tan β = DC/OD

tan β = Q sin θ/(OA + AD) [From (2)]

tan β = Q sin θ/(P + Q cos θ) [From (2)]

β = tan-1[(Q sin θ)/(P + Q cos θ)] → Direction of the resultant vector R

Important Notes on Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

To apply the Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition, the two vectors are
joined at the tails of each other and form the adjacent sides of a
parallelogram.

The triangle law and the parallelogram law of vector addition are
equivalent and give the same value as the resultant vector.
Maximum & Minimum result of two vectors
The resultant of two vectors is given by the parallelogram law
of vector addition, which is

In this equation, 𝐴 and 𝐵 are the two vectors and 𝜃 is the angle
between them When the angle between the two vectors is 0 degrees,
or cos𝜃 is 1, the resultant is maximum and is equal to R=P+Q. When
the angle between the two vectors is 180 degrees, or cos𝜃 is -1, the
resultant is minimum and is equal to 𝑅=P−Q.
When the two vectors are equal and in opposite directions, the
resultant is minimum and has a magnitude of zero because they
cancel each other out.
Ques:Two forces of magnitudes 4N and 7N act on a body and the
angle between them is 45°. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant vector with the 4N force using the
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition.

Sol :
Suppose vector P has magnitude 4N, vector Q has magnitude 7N and
θ = 45°, then by the parallelogram law of vectors addition:
|R| = (P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ)
= (42 + 72 + 2×4×7 cos 45°)
= (16 + 49 + 56/ 2)
= (65 + 56/ 2)
12.008 N
β = tan-1[(7 sin 45°)/(4 + 7 cos 45°)]
= tan-1[(7/ 2)/(4 + 7/ 2)]
28.95°
Answer: The magnitude is approximately 12 N and the direction is
28.95°.
 Multiplication of Vectors by Real Numbers

→
When a vector A is multiplied by a real number n, the quantity obtained is a
→ → →
vector n A whose magnitude is n times that of the original vector. |n A | = n| A |.
Its direction might be the same or opposite to that of the original vector
depending upon whether n is positive or negative.
→ →
If n is a positive number, nA and A have the same direction.

→ →
If n is a negative number, n A and A have opposite directions.
→
If n is zero, the magnitude of n A is also zero. Such a vector, →
whose
magnitude is zero is called a zero vector or a null vector and is denoted by
0. Since the magnitude of a null vector is zero, its direction cannot be
specified.
→
If n is a scalar quantity rather than just being a pure number, then the
dimension of n A is the product of dimensions of n and A.

MOTION IN 2D (PLANE)

Position vector and Displacement

→
The position vector r of a particle P, located in a plane with reference to
the origin of on xy–coordinate system is given by r = x ^i +y ^j , as shown
→

below.
Now, if the particle moves along the path as shown to a new position P1 with
→
the position vector r1 ;

r1 = x 1^i +y1 ^j

Average velocity

Average velocity is given by

→
vavg = Δ r /Δt =(Δx ^i + Δy ^j )/Δt
^ ^
vavg = vx i + vyj

Instantaneous velocity

Instantaneous velocity is given by,

V = lim
Δt-0
Δv/Δt = dr→/dt

^ ^
v= vx i + vyj

Here

vx = dx/dt and vy =dy/dt

 v = (v2x +vy2)

Also,

tan θ=(vx /vy)

-1
θ=tan (vx /vy )

Average acceleration

-1
θ=tan (vx /vy ) Average acceleration is given by,

^ ^
a avg= ax i +ay j

Instantaneous acceleration

Instantaneous acceleration is given by,

^ ^
a = dv/dt = (dvx /dt) i + (dvy /dt)j
^ ^
a = a xi +ayj

Projectile Motion

Projectile motion refers to the motion of an object that is launched into the
air and then moves under the influence of gravity. The object, known as a
projectile, follows a curved path called a parabola.
 The motion of the projectile is affected by various factors, including its initial
velocity, the angle at which it is launched, and the force of gravity.

Equation of Trajectory

If x and y are the coordinates of particle after time t,

x=(u.cosθ).t .....(i)

y=(u.sinθ)t−1/2g.t 2.....(ii)

From the equation (i) by putting the value of t, as a function of x, in equation

(ii), we get
2
y=(u.sinθ).x/(u.cosθ)−1/2g(xu.cosθ)

y=x.tanθ−(g/u2 .cos 2θ)x2

 This is why this acceleration is called centripetal acceleration.

2
a = v2/ R = ω r

Time Of Flight
Time of flight is the total time it takes for a
projectile to complete its motion, from launch to
its destination.

Horizontal Range
The horizontal range of a projectile is the distance
it travels horizontally before reaching the same
vertical position as its starting point.

Maximum Height
The horizontal range of a projectile is the distance
it travels horizontally before reaching the same
vertical position as its starting point.

Equation of Trajectory in terms of range

y=xtan𝜃(1-x/R)
Show that for two complementary angles of projection of a projectile
with the same velocity, the horizontal ranges are equal.
For what angle of projectile is the rangle maximum?

For what angle of projection of a projectile are the horizontal range and
height attained by the projectile equal?

Angular Position

At an instant the angle θ made by the position vector r of the particle with
the positive direction of x-axis is called the angular position of particle.

Angular Velocity

The angular velocity of particle at any instant is defined → → →

ω = dθ / dt
as the rate of change of angular position θ. That is,
This means that the angular velocity is a vector in the direction of dθ.
Angular Acceleration
Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity
α = dω / dt
with respect to time.

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”
 Equations Of Motion
Our 3 equations of motion are
v = u + at
s = ut + 1/2at 2
v2 - u2 = 2as
Let's suppose an object with initial velocity u to final
velocity v in time t. Let's derive all 3 equations
Here,
Initial velocity = u = OA = CD
Final velocity = v = BD
Time taken = t = OD = AC

Graphical Derivation of First Equation

Graphical Derivation of Second Equation

Graphical Derivation of Third Equation

 Laws of Motion

Force

Force can be defined as an influence or action that changes the motion of an

object or particle.
It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude (size or strength) and
direction.
Force can cause an object to accelerate, decelerate, change direction, or deform.
-2
Its SI unit is newton (N) and its dimensional formula is [MLT ].

Forces can be categorized into two types:

Contact Forces Frictional force, tensional force, spring force, normal force, etc are
the contact forces

Non-Contact Force Electrostatic force, gravitational force, magnetic force, etc are
action at a distance forces.

Inertia

The property of an object by virtue of which it cannot change its state of rest or of
uniform motion along a straight line its own, is called inertia.

Inertia is a measure of mass of a body. Greater the mass of a body greater will be its
inertia or vice-versa.
 Newton’s First Law

If a body is at rest or in motion in a straight line, it will remain at rest or in

motion unless it is acted by any external force.

This law is also called law of inertia

Examples

When a carpet or a blanket is beaten with a stick then the dust particles separate
out from it.
If a moving vehicle suddenly stops then the passengers inside the vehicle bend
outward.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The rate of change of linear momentum is proportional to the applied force and
change in momentum takes place in the direction of applied force.

F dp/dt

F ma

F = k (d / dt) (mv)

where, k is a constant of proportionality and its value is one in SI and CGS system.

F= mdv / dt = ma

Examples

It is easier for a strong adult to push a full shopping cart than it is for a baby to
push the same cart. (This is depending on the net force acting on the object).

It is easier for a person to push an empty shopping cart than a full one (This is
depending on the mass of the object).
Newton’s Third Law of Motion

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction and both acts on two
different bodies

when two bodies A and B exerts a force on each

other i.e. FA & FB . Then the force exerted by any
of the body will be same as the force exerted by
another body, but in opposite direction.

FAB = -FBA

Examples

Swimming becomes possible because of third law of motion.

Jumping of a man from a boat onto the bank of a river

Note
The two forces involved in any interaction between two bodies are called action
and reaction.

Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum

Newton’s third law states that for a force applied by an object A on object
B, object B exerts back an equal force in magnitude, but opposite in
direction.

This idea was used by Newton to derive the law of conservation of momentum.

Let us consider two moving balls A and B of masses m1 and m2 and having

initial velocities u1 and u2 such that u2<u1.

Suppose the balls collide at some point and there is no external force acting
on this system.
 Let their final velocities be v1 and v2 respectively.

According to Newton’s third law of motion,

Force on ball B due to A = -Force on ball A due to B.

Or, FAB =−FBA ……………….(i)

Total initial momentum before collision (pi)=m₁u₁+m₂u₂.

Total final momentum after collision (pf)=m₁v₁+m2v2.

According to Newton’s second law,

FBA = (pA′−pA)/t
=(m₁v₁−m₁u₁)/t ..........(ii)

F =(pB′−pB)/t

=(m₂v₂−m₂u₂)/t ...........(iii)

From (i),(ii) and (iii),

(m₁v₁−m₁u₁)/t = -(m₂v₂−m₂u₂)/t

m₁v₁−m₁u₁=−(m₂v₂−m₂u₂)
m₁v₁+m₂v₂=m₁u₁+m₂u₂
Final momentum (pf) = Initial momentum (pi).
Applications of Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum
(i) Recoil Velocity
Recoil velocity is the velocity of a gun in the opposite direction to the velocity of a bullet
fired from it. For example, if a 5 kg gun fires a 25 g bullet at 500 m/s, the gun's recoil
velocity is 2.5 m/s in the opposite direction.
(ii) Rocket propulsion
In a rocket engine , fuel and a source of oxygen, called an oxidizer, are mixed and exploded
in a combustion chamber. The combustion produces hot exhaust which is passed through a
nozzle to accelerate the flow and produce thrust.
 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE

Equilibrium of a particle in mechanics refers to the situation when the net external force
on the particle is zero*. According to the first law, this means that, the particle is either
at rest or in uniform motion.
If two forces F1 and F2 , act on a particle, equilibrium requires
F1 = − F2 ----- Eq.1
i.e. the two forces on the particle must be equal and opposite. Equilibrium under three
concurrent forces F1 , F 2 and F 3 requires that the vector sum of the three forces is zero.
F1 + F2 + F3 = 0 ----- Eq.2
A particle is said to be in
equilibrium if the forces along the x y and
z axes cancel each other vectorially

A particle is said to be in
equilibrium when the resultant of
all the forces on the particle or
the body is 0.

In other words, the resultant of any two forces say F1 and F2 , obtained by the
parallelogram law of forces must be equal and opposite to the third force, F 3 . As seen in
Fig. 4.7, the three forces in equilibrium can be represented by the sides of a triangle with
the vector arrows taken in the same sense. The result can be generalised to any number
of forces. A particle is in equilibrium under the action of forces F 1 , F2 ,... Fn if they can be
represented by the sides of a closed n-sided polygon with arrows directed in the same
sense.
Equation 2 implies that
F1x + F 2x + F3x = 0
F1y + F 2y+ F3y= 0
F1z + F 2z + F3z = 0
Where F1x , F 1y and F1z are the components of F1 along x, y and z directions respectively.

See Fig. 4.8. A mass of 6 kg is suspended by a rope

of length 2 m from the ceiling. A force of 50 N in
the horizontal direction is applied at the midpoint
P of the rope, as shown. What is the angle the rope
makes with the vertical in
equilibrium? (Take g = 10 m s²). Neglect
the mass of the rope.

Practice it yourself & refer NCERT Example 4.6 for its solution...
Weight (w)

It is a field force, the force with which a body is pulled towards the centre
of the earth due to gravity.

It has the magnitude mg, where m is the mass of the body and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.

w = mg

Apparent Weight in a Lift

Case 1:

When a lift is at rest or moving with a constant speed, then

R = mg
The weighing machine will read the actual weight.

Case 2:

When a lift is accelerating downward, then apparent weight

R2 = m (g – a)

The weighing machine will read the apparent weight, which is less than
the actual weight.

Case 3:

When lift is falling freely under gravity, then

R2 = m(g – g)= 0

The apparent weight of the body becomes zero.

Case 4:
Apparent weight of the body in a lift accelerating upward
with acceleration a is m (g + a) therefore the weight feels
more than what it is in side a lift accelerating upwards.

What is Pulley?

It is a simple wooden or metallic machine that uses a wheel and rope to lift
heavy loads.
Let a be the common acceleration of the system of two bodies, which is
given by

(m1−m2)g
__________
a = moving with
m1+m2 acceleration a
Fixed Pulley

When the block of the pulley is fixed on a high platform, it is

known as fixed.

An extensible string passes over the groove where its one end is attached to
the body to be lifted while the other end is free.

Movable Pulley

When the block of the pulley is not fixed but carries the load, it is known as
Movable.

An inextensible string is tied around the groove where its one end is fixed to
fixed support while the other end is kept free to apply the effort.

Friction

It is a general observation that when you try to slide a heavy box across the
floor, the box does not move at all unless you push it with a certain minimum
force.
This means that there exists a certain opposition to the motion of box on the
ground. This opposing force acts between the surface of box and ground and is
called force of friction.
Factors Affecting Friction

Nature of the medium of contact between two bodies

Normal reaction
Area of contact

Kinetic Friction

The kind of friction that acts when a body slides over a surface is called
a kinetic friction force.

The magnitude of the kinetic friction force usually increases when the
normal force increases.

This is why it takes more force to slide a box full of books across the floor than
to slide the same box when it is empty.

The magnitude of the kinetic friction force fk is found experimentally to be

approximately proportional to the magnitude N of the normal force.

In such cases, we represent the relationship by the equation

fk = μ k N

where μ k is a constant called the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Static Friction

The frictional forces between two surfaces in contact before a relative motion
has started, are referred to as static friction.

Static friction is always a little more than dynamic friction

The magnitude of static frictional force is also proportional to normal force.

fs = μs N
 Limiting Frictional Force

Limiting friction is defined as the maximum value of static friction that comes
into play when the body is just at the point of sliding over the surface of another
body.

This frictional force acts when body is about to move. This is the maximum
frictional force that can exist at the contact surface.

Laws of Friction

The magnitude of limiting frictional force is proportional to the normal force at

the contact surface.

The magnitude of limiting frictional force is independent of area of contact

between the surfaces

Angle of Repose (θ)

It is the maximum angle of inclination (θ) of a rough inclined plane with

horizontal such that the block kept on it remains at rest.

At angle of repose,

Driving force = Limiting friction

mg sin θ = μ s N

mg sin θ = μs mg cos θ
tan θ = μss

Angle of friction = Angle of repose

Rolling Friction

When a spherical body or a circular ring rolls over a horizontal plane without
slipping then applied friction by the surface on body is called rolling friction.

Rolling friction is much smaller than static or sliding friction. That is why,
discovery of the wheel was a major milestone in the history.

Methods to reduce friction

Following are the different methods that are used for reducing the friction:

For objects that move in fluids such as boats, planes, cars, etc, the shape of
their body is streamlined in order to reduce the friction between the body of
the objects as the fluid.

By polishing the surface, as polishing makes the surface smooth and friction
can be reduced.

Using lubricants such as oil or grease can reduce the friction between the
surfaces.

When objects are rolled over the surface, the friction between the rolled object
and surface can be reduced by using ball bearings.
 DYNAMICS OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR
MOTION CONCETP OF CENTRIPETAL FORCE

The force required to move a body uniformly in a circle is known as centripetal

force. This force acts along the circle's radius and towards the centre.

When a body moves in a circle, the direction of motion at any given time is along
the tangent to the circle.

According to Newton’s first law of motion, a body cannot change its direction
of motion by itself an external force is needed.

This external force is called the centripetal force

An expression for centripetal force is:

a = v 2 /r
we know that ,
F = ma
F = mv 2 /r

In this manner, the centrifugal force remains constant and opposes the
centripetal pressure.

Centrifugal force = mv2 /r and it acts along the radius, no matter how far out
from the circle’s centre.

The centripetal and centrifugal forces, respectively, are motion and response forces

Assume a stone is tethered to at least one end of the rope, with the alternate end
looped in a circle.
When the stone is subjected to centripetal pressure F1 with the aid of the hand. It is
pushed outward by centrifugal force, with F2 acting on it since it has a tendency to
revert to its natural linear motion.
Banking OF Road

The phenomenon of raising outer edge of the curved road above the inner
edge is called banking of roads.

Case1; The formula for Banking of Road (Without Friction)

If there is no friction, the vertical component of the road’s normal force

balances the weight of a vehicle. The horizontal component is in charge of
producing centripetal force toward the road’s centre of curvature.

The normal force N (normal to the road) splits into two components on a curved
roadway with a banking angle.

This is the formula for an object’s maximum velocity in order to stay on a curved
path.

v= grtanθ
here r =centre of curvature
g = acceleration due to gravity = angle of inclination

Case2:The formula for the Banking of Roads (with Friction)

On an inclined plane the friction force “f” is applied.The friction force works
in two directions: vertically downward and horizontally along the centre. The
friction force is connected to the normal force as follows if the coefficient of
friction is is given as:

F= μ N
Velocity is given by:
𝑣= (𝑟𝑔(𝑡𝑎𝑛θ+𝜇 ))1−𝜇
s 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ
s

Case 3 : Zero Banking Angle

 If the banking angle is zero, a vehicle must turn on a horizontal surface. The
normal force cannot connect to the centripetal force because of its vertical
orientation. When we consider a frictionless surface, turning is impossible. . Hence,
if a surface having coefficient of friction and force in the vertical direction are
balanced, the net force will be given as:

N=mg
And velocity is:
v= μ*g*r

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”

~KHTM HO GAYA MAUJ KARO~

 Work

Work is a physical quantity that represents the amount of energy transferred

to or from an object by means of a force acting on it

It is defined as the product of the magnitude of the force applied on an

object and the displacement of the object in the direction of the force.

Mathematically, work (W) is calculated using the equation:

W = F * d * cos(θ)
F is the magnitude of the force applied on the object
d is the magnitude of the displacement of the object
θ is the angle between the force vector and the displacement
vector.

The unit of work is joule (J)

NATURE OF WORK DONE

The nature of work done depends on various factors, such as the direction
and magnitude of the force applied and the displacement of the object. Here
are some key aspects of the nature of work done:

Positive Work:

Positive work is done when the force applied on an object and the displacement
of the object are in the same direction.

This means that the force and displacement vectors have the same orientation.

Positive work represents the transfer of energy to the object or the increase in
the object's kinetic energy.

Negative Work:

Negative work is done when the force applied on an object and the displacement
of the object are in opposite directions.

This means that the force and displacement vectors have opposite orientations.

Negative work represents the transfer of energy from the object or the decrease
in the object's kinetic energy.

Negative work can also occur when the force opposes the motion of the
object, such as in the case of friction.
Zero Work:

Zero work is done when either the force applied on the object is perpendicular to
the displacement or when no displacement occurs.

n both cases, the dot product of the force and displacement vectors is zero.

Zero work means that no energy is transferred to or from the object, and there is
no change in the object's kinetic energy.

WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE

When a force acting on an object varies with respect to its displacement,

the work done can be determined by integrating the force over the
displacement.

In other words, the work done by a variable force is the area under
the force-displacement curve.

The work done by a constant force of magnitude F, as we know, that displaces

an object by Δx can be given asL:

W = F.Δx
In the case of a variable force, work is calculated with the help of integration.
For example, in the case of a spring, the force acting upon any object attached
to a horizontal spring can be given as:

Fs = -kx
Where,
k is the spring constant
x is the displacement of the object attached

We can see that this force is proportional to the displacement of the object
from the equilibrium position, hence the force acting at each instant during
the compression and extension of the spring will be different.

Thus, the infinitesimally small contributions of work done during each

instant are to be counted in order to calculate the total work done.

The integral is evaluated as:

W= F · dx,

Force-Displacement Plot

The area enclosed by the rectangle of length equal to the magnitude of force F(x)
and width equal to the displacement Δx, gives the work done by the force during
that duration.

Mathematically, ΔW =F (x) Δx
Adding successive rectangles, the total work done can be written as,

We assume the displacements to approach zero, the following equation gives the
total work done by the force

Thus, for a variable force, the work done can be expressed as a definite
integral of force over displacement for any system.

Energy

Energy is a fundamental concept in physics that represents the ability of

a system to do work or cause a change.

It is a scalar quantity that comes in various forms and can be transferred,

transformed, or stored.

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion. It is a

form of energy associated with the movement of an object's mass.

The kinetic energy of an object depends on its mass and velocity.

Mathematically, the kinetic energy (KE) of an object is calculated using the
following formula:

Mathematically, the kinetic energy (KE) of an object is calculated using the

following formula:

K.E = 1/2 mv2

2 -2
The SI unit of kinetic energy is Joule which is equal to 1 kg.m .s .

Kinetic Energy Examples

A truck travelling down the road has more kinetic energy than a car travelling at
the same speed because the truck’s mass is much more than the car’s.

A river flowing at a certain speed comprises kinetic energy as water has a certain
velocity and mass.

The kinetic energy of an asteroid falling towards earth is very large.

The kinetic energy of the aeroplane is more during the flight due to its large
mass and speedy velocity

Deriving Kinetic Energy Equation

If the body of mass m was pushed for a distance of d on a surface by applying a

force that’s parallel to it, then the work done would be:
 W = F.d
=m.a.d
The acceleration in this equation can be substituted by the initial (vi ) and final (vf )
velocity and the distance. This we get from the kinematic equations of motion.

W = m.a.d

= m.d (vf2 - vi2 )/2d

= m. (vf2 - vi2 )/2

Simplifying the equation further, we get

K.E =1/2(mv2 )

Ques:What happens to the kinetic energy when the speed decreases?

relation between Linear momentum and kinetic energy

Since v=p/m and the kinetic energy K= 1/2(mv 2)

2
K= 1/2.m(p/m)

=p2/2m

Note that if a massive particle and a light particle have the same momentum,
the light one will have a lot more kinetic energy if a light particle and a heavy
one have the same velocity the heavy one has more kinetic energy.

work Energy Theorem

According to this principle, work done by net force in displacing a body is the
same as the change in kinetic energy of the body

Thus, when a force does some work on a body, the kinetic energy of the body
increases by the same amount.
Conversely, when an opposing (retarding) force is applied on a body, its kinetic
energy decreases. The decrease in kinetic energy of the body is equal to the work
done by the body against the retarding force.

Thus, according to work energy principle, work and kinetic energy are equivalent
quantities.

Work-Energy Theorem Derivation

Suppose that m = mass of a body, u = initial velocity of the body, F = force applied
on the body along it direction of motion, a = acceleration produced in the body, v
= final velocity of the body after t second.

Small amount of work done by the applied force on the body is given by dW F(ds)
= , when ds is the small distance moved by the body in the direction of the force
applied

Now,

F = ma = m(dv/dt)ds
=m(ds/dt)dt = mvdv

Total work done by the applied force on the body in increasing its velocity from
u to v is given by

v
v
W= u
mvdv = m[v2/2]u

=> W = 1/2m(v-u) = 1/2mv = 1/2mu

=> W = K f - Ki increases in KE of body

i.e., work done on the body is equal to the increase in KE of the body.

Ques: Explain the concept of work-energy theorem and how it relates to the transfer
of energy.
 Potential energy

Potential energy is a form of energy that is associated with the position or

configuration of an object or system.

It represents the stored energy that an object possesses due to its position relative
to other objects or due to the internal forces within the object.

There are different types of potential energy depending on the specific

circumstances:

Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy of a body refers to the energy possessed by the

body by virtue of its position above the surface of the earth.

To calculate gravitational potential energy, suppose

m = mass of a body
g = acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth

h = height through which the body is raised

If we assume that height ‘h’ is not too large and the value of ‘g’ is practically
constant over this height, then the force applied just to overcome gravitational
attraction is given by,

F = mg

As the distance moved is in the direction of the force applied, work can be expressed
as:

Work done = force × distance

=> W = F x h = mgh

Notice that we have taken the upward direction to be positive. Therefore, work done
by applied force = +mgh . However, work done by gravitational force = −mgh

Potential Energy of a spring

The potential energy of a spring is known as elastic potential energy. It arises due
to the deformation or stretching of a spring from its equilibrium position.

This potential energy is directly proportional to the amount of displacement or

stretch of the spring from its equilibrium position.
To derive the potential energy of a spring, we can start by considering Hooke's
Law, which describes the relationship between the force exerted by a spring
and its displacement.

According to Hooke's Law, the force exerted by a spring is proportional to the

displacement from its equilibrium position. Mathematically, this can be
expressed as:

F = -kx

Where:

F is the force exerted by the spring,

k is the spring constant,
x is the displacement from the equilibrium position.

Now, let's consider an infinitesimally small displacement dx of the spring. The

work done by the spring to move this small displacement is given by:

dW = F * dx

Substituting the force equation from Hooke's Law, we have:

dW = (-kx) * dx

Integrating both sides of the equation, we can find the total work done by
the spring as it moves from its equilibrium position (x = 0) to a displacement
x:
W = - kx * dx

Integrating the right side of the equation, we get:

W = -k * x * dx
Hence, the potential energy of the spring at a displacement x is given by:

PE = (1/2) k X2
Ques: To simulate car accidents, auto manufacturers study the collisions of moving
cars with mounted springs of different spring constants. Consider a typical
simulation with a car of mass 1000 kg moving with a speed 18.0 km/h on a smooth
road and colliding with a horizontally mounted spring of spring constant
5.25 × 10³ N m⁻¹. What is the maximum compression of the spring?

At maximum compression the kinetic energy of the car is converted entirely into the
potential energy of the spring.
The kinetic energy of the moving car is

where we have converted 18 km h⁻¹ to 5 m s⁻¹ [It isuseful to remember that

36 km h⁻¹ = 10 m s⁻¹].
At maximum compression Xm the potential energy of the spring is equal to
the kinetic energy K of the moving car from the principle of conservation
of mechanical energy.

We note that we have idealised the situation.

The spring is considered to be massless. The surface has been considered to
possess negligible friction.
 Ques: Consider Example taking the coefficient of friction, x, to be 0.5 and calculate
the maximum compression of the spring.

In presence of friction, both the spring force and the frictional force act so as to oppose
the compression of the spring as shown in
Fig.
We invoke the work-energy theorem, rather than the conservation of mechanical energy.
The change in kinetic energy is

After rearranging the above equation we obtain the following quadratic equation in the
unknown x𝗆.
 where we take the positive square root since Xm is positive. Putting in
numerical values we obtain
Xm = 1.35 m

If the two forces on the body consist of a conservative force F and a non-conservative
force Enc, the conservation of mechanical energy formula will have to be modified. By
the WE theorem

where E is the total mechanical energy. Over the path this assumes the form

where Wnc is the total work done by the non-conservative forces over the path. Note
that

conservation of mechanical energy

The law of conservation of mechanical energy states that the energy can
neither be created nor be destroyed; it can only be internally converted from
one form to another.

The only condition under which mechanical energy is conserved is that all the
forces acting on it should be conservative forces.

Example: A simple example of the conservation of mechanical energy is a rock

allowed to fall due to Earth's gravity from a height h above the ground.
Let ‘m’ be the mass of the body held at A, at a height h above the ground, as
shown in the following figure

h
B
(h-x)

As the body is at rest at A, therefore, i

At A;
KE of the body is zero.
PE of the body is equal to mg, where g is acceleration due to gravity at A.

TE of the body = KE + PE = 0 + mgh

EA = mgh ….(1)

Now, let the body be allowed to fall freely under gravity, when it strikes the ground at
C with a velocity ‘v’
 from v2 - u2 =2as

=> v2 - 0 = 2(g)h
=> v 2 = 2(g)h

Therefore, at C;

KE of the body = 1/2mv2 = 1/2m(2gh) = mgh

PE of the body = mgh = mg (0) = 0

Total energy of the body is given by

TE = Ec = mgh + 0 = mgh .... (3)

Now, in free fall, let the body crosses any point B with a velocity v1 , where, AB is
equal to ‘x’. Thus, from v2 - u2 =2as

=> v21 - 0 = 2(g)x

=> v21= 2(g)x

Clearly, at B;

KE of the body = 1/2mv12 = 1/2m(2gx) = mgx

Height of the body at B above the ground = = CB (h – x)

PE of the body at B = mg (h – x)

Total energy of the body at B = KE + PE

EB= mgx + mg(h- x) = mgx + mgh - mgx

E B= mgh .... (5)

Clearly, from (1), (3), and (5); we find that

EA = E B = EC = mgh
 Different forms of Energy:

Heat Energy

This is the energy associated with the internal motion of particles in a substance.

The more heat energy an object has, the higher its temperature. Thermal energy is
transferred from hot objects to colder ones through conduction, convection, or
radiation.

Electrical Energy

This energy is associated with the movement of electric charges. It is generated by

the flow of electrons through conductive materials and is used to power various
devices and systems.

Light (Radiant) Energy

Light energy is a form of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the

human eye.

It is emitted by sources such as the Sun or artificial light sources, and it carries
energy that can be used for illumination, vision, and even energy generation (e.g.,
solar panels).
Sound Energy
Sound energy is produced by vibrations and propagates through a medium
as waves of compression and rarefaction.
It is detected by our ears and is used for communication, entertainment, and
various applications like sonar and ultrasound.

Nuclear Energy

This is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. It is released through

nuclear reactions, such as nuclear fission (splitting of an atom's nucleus) or
nuclear fusion (combining of atomic nuclei). Nuclear energy is the source of
power in nuclear power plants.

Chemical Energy

Chemical energy is stored in the bonds between atoms and molecules. It is

released or absorbed during chemical reactions.

Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, contain chemical energy that
can be released through combustion.

Ques:Can energy be created or destroyed, or is it always conserved?

CONSERVATIVE & NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES

Conservative Forces:

Conservative forces are those that do work on an object that is independent of

the path taken. The total mechanical energy (the sum of kinetic and potential
energy) of an object remains constant when only conservative forces are acting
on it.
Agar ek h height ki building k top se tum neeche aae toh work done my gravity
mgh hi hoga. Fir chahe tum kood ke neeche aae lift se neeche aae Ya second floor
pe dost k Ghar chai peeke neeche aae Coz conservative forces are path independent

Non-Conservative Forces

Those forces which do not satisfy the above-mentioned criteria are termed
nonconservative forces.

Friction and viscous forces are the most common examples of non-conservative
forces

Conservative Forces and Potential Energy

For every conservative force FX , that depends only on the

position ‘x’, there is an associated potential energy
function U(x).

Work done by conservative force is given as:

F(x)Δ x = -Δ U

=> F(x) = -dU/dx

Integrating both sides for a displacement from x= a to x =b ,

we have

Ua - U b = - f(x)dx
 Power

Power refers to the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is
transferred or converted.

It measures how quickly or efficiently energy is used or transformed.

Power (P) = Work done (W) / Time taken (t)

The average power of a force is defined as the ratio of the work, W, to the total
time t taken

The instantaneous power is defined as the limiting value of the average power as
time interval approaches zero,

The work dW done by a force F for a displacement dr is dW = F.dr. The

instantaneous power can also be expressed as

Units of power

The standard unit of power is the watt (W), which is defined as one joule of
energy per second.

power of a body is said to be one watt, when it can do one joule of work in one
second. A bigger unit if power is horsepower (hp), given by

1hp = 746W
 Motion in a Vertical Circle

It is a type of motion in which the distance of the body remains

constant from a fixed plane. It is further classified as a uniform and
non-uniform circular motion.
Some examples of circular motion are a ball tied to a string and swung
in a circle, a car taking a curve on a track etc. Here we will be discussing
a special type of motion known as vertical circular motion.

Suppose a body is tied to a string and rotated in a vertical circle as

shown
Between X and Y, tension will balance out weight and hence the string will always be
taut. So the velocity required to reach Y can be found out by conserving mechanical
energy,

E x = 1/2mu2
Since the particle just reaches point Y, hence Velocity at Y is zero.

EY = mgR

Equating both we get,

u= (2gR)

at Z, velocity should be such that the weight is equal to the centripetal force,
making tension just to be zero.

(mv 2 )/R = mg ......1

E = mg(2R) + mv 2/2

Substituting the value of v we get

Equating Ex and Ez we get,

u = (5gR)
Ques: A cyclist comes to a skidding stop in 10 m. During this process, the force on the
cycle due to the road is 200 N and is directly opposed to the motion.
(a) How much work does the road do on the cycle ?
(b) How much work does the cycle do on the road ?

Work done on the cycle by the road is the work done by the stopping (frictional)

force on the cycle due to the road.

(a) The stopping force and the displacement make an angle of 180° (n rad) with

each other.

Thus, work done by the road,

Wr= Fd cose

= 200 × 10 x cos⊼

=- 2000J

It is this negative work that brings the cycle to a halt in accordance with WE

theorem.

(b) From Newton's Third Law an equal and opposite force acts on the road due to

the cycle. Its magnitude is 200 N. However, the road undergoes no displacement.

Thus, work done by cycle on the road is zero.

The lesson of Example 5.3 is that though the force on a body A exerted by the

body B is always equal and opposite to that on B by A (Newton's Third Law); the

work done on A by B is not necessarily equal and opposite to the work done on B

by A.
 Elastic Collisions

One Dimension

In a one-dimensional elastic collision, objects collide along a straight line.

Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

The equations for conservation of momentum and kinetic energy in a one-

dimensional elastic collision are:

Assume that two particles with masses m1 and m2 collide with velocities u1 and
u2, and their velocities after the collision are v1 and v2, respectively.

The collision of these two particles is a head-on elastic collision. As per the law
of conservation of momentum equation,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 .......(1)

We also have the law of kinetic energy conservation for elastic collisions

1/2(m 1 u21 ) + 1/2(m2 u22 ) = 1/2(m 1 v12 ) + 1/2(m2 v 22 )

We get,
2
(m 1 u21 ) + (m2 u 22 ) = (m 1 v 1 ) + (m2 v22 )

Now,
m1 (u21 − v12 ) = m2 (v22 − u22 )

If we elaborate the above equation, it will now become,

m1(u1 + v1 ) (u1 − v1 ) = m2 (v2 + u2 ) (v2 − u2 )

Applying the conservation of momentum equation,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1+ m2v2

Regroup the equation with the same masses,

 m1u1 − m1v1 = m2v2 − m2u2
Therefore,

m1 (u1 − v1 ) = m2(v2 − u2 )

On dividing equation (6) by (8), we get,

m1(u1 + v1 ) (u1 − v1 ) = m2(v2+u2)(v2−u2)

= m2(v2−u2)
m1(u1−v1)

u1 + v1 = v2 + u2 ...........(10)
Now,

v1= v2 + u2 − u1 ...........(11)

Use the values of v1 from equation (11) in law of conservation of momentum

equation, we get,

v2 = [2 m1u1 + u2(m2 − m1 ) ] / (m1+ m2 ) ..........(12)

Now, use the value of v2 in equation (11) v1= v2 + u2 − u1

[2m1u1+u2(m2−m1)] ......(13)
v1=
(m1+m2)+u2−u1

[2m1u1+u2(m2−m1)+u2(m1+m2−u1(m1+m2)]
v1= ......(14)
(m1+m2)

As a result, we get,
[2m2u2+u1(m1−m2)]
v1=
(m1+m2)

When the masses of both bodies are equal, their velocities are generally
exchanged after collision.
v1= u2 and v2= u1
This means that if two objects of the same mass collide, if the second mass is at
rest and the first mass collides with it, the first mass comes to rest and the second
mass moves at the same speed as the first mass.
In this case, v1= 0 and v2= u1

And, If m1 < m2
Then,
v1= − u1 and v2= 0

This means that the lighter body will use its own velocity to bombard the
heavier mass, while the heavier mass will remain static.

But if, m1 > m2

Then,

v1= u1 and v2= 2u1

Elastic Collision in Two Dimension

Assume that m1 and m2 are two mass particles in a laboratory frame of reference
and that m1 collides with m2 that is initially at rest. Let the velocity of mass m1
before the collision be u1, and after the collision, it moves with a velocity v1 and is
deflected by an angle θ1 with its incident direction, while m2 moves with a velocity
v2 and is deflected by an angle θ2 with its incident direction.

According to the law of conservation of linear momentum, for components along

the x-axis
m1u1=m1v1cosθ1 +m2v2cosθ2 ---(1)

For components along the y-axis,

0=m1v1sinθ1 − m2v2sinθ2 --(2)

As per the law of conservation of Kinetic energy,

1/2(m 1 u21 ) + 1/2(m2 u22 ) = 1/2(m 1 v12 ) + 1/2(m2 v 22 )

Analyzing the above equations reveals that finding values for four unknown
quantities v1, v2, θ1, θ2 using the above three equations is not possible.

As a result, it cannot predict the variable because there are four of them.
Elastic Collision Examples

When you hit the basketball on the ground, it bounces back to your hand.
Here, the kinetic energy remains conserved, which means the collision is elastic.

The collision between the billiards ball, between the atoms, is elastic.

Inelastic Collision

An inelastic collision is a type of collision in which kinetic energy is not conserved.

In an inelastic collision, two objects collide and stick together, or deform, so that
some or all of the kinetic energy is lost.

Inelastic Collision in One Dimension

Consider the masses m1 and m2 of two particles. Let u1 and u2 represent the
respective velocities before the collision.

Assume that both particles stick together after colliding and move at the
same velocity v. As per the law of linear momentum conservation,

m1u1 + m2u2=(m1+ m2) v

On considering the second particle to be stationary or at rest, u2=0

then
m1u1 = v(m1+m2)

Hence, |v| < |u1|The Kinetic energy before the collision is as follows:

KE1= 1/2m 1 u21

 The Kinetic Energy of the system after the collision is as follows:

KE2 = 1/2(m1+m2) v 2

2
m1u1
KE2= 1/2(m1+m2)( )
m1+m2

Hence,
K.E.2 m1 < 1
=
K.E.1 m1+m2

As a result, K2 < K1; hence, energy loss would be there after the particles collide.

Collision in Two Dimension

Let the velocity of mass m1 before the collision be u1, and after the collision, it
moves with a velocity v1 and is deflected by an angle θ1 with its incident
direction, while m2 moves with a velocity v2 and is deflected by an angle θ2
with its incident direction

According to the law of conservation of linear momentum, for components

along the x-axis

m1u1=m1v1cosθ1 +m2v2cosθ2 ---(1)

And, for components along the y-axis,

0=m1v1sinθ1 − m2v2sinθ2 --(2)

Analyzing the above equations reveals that we must find the values of four unknown
quantities v1, v2, θ1, θ2 with the help of the above three equations, which is
impossible because we need at least four equations to find the values of four
unknown quantities.

As a result, we cannot predict the variables because there are four of them.

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”
Ques: A woman pushes a trunk on a railway platform which has a rough surface. She
applies a force of 100 N over a distance of 10 m. Thereafter, she gets progressively tired
and her applied force reduces linearly with distance to 50 N. The total distance through
which the trunk has been moved is 20 m. Plot the force applied by the woman and the
frictional force, which is 50 N versus displacement. Calculate the work done by the two
forces over 20 m.

The work done by the woman is

W→ area of the rectangle ABCD + area of the trapezium CEID

The work done by the frictional force is

Ques: A bob of mass m is suspended by a light string of length L. It is imparted a
horizontal velocity v at the lowest point A such that it completes a semi-circular
trajectory in the vertical plane with the string becoming slack only on reaching the
topmost point, C. This is shown in Fig. 5.6. Obtain an expression for (i) v; (ii) the speeds
at points Band C; (iii) the ratio of the kinetic energies
(Kb/Kc) at B and C. Comment on the nature of the trajectory of the bob after it
reaches the point C.

Answer
(i) There are two external forces on the bob: gravity and the tension (1) in the string.
The latter does no work since the displacement of the bob is always normal to the
string. The potential energy of the bob is thus associated with the gravitational force
only. The total mechanical energy E of the system is conserved. We take the potential
energy of the system to be zero at the lowest point A. Thus, at A :

where Ta is the tension in the string at A. At the highest point C, the

string slackens, as the tension in the string (Tc) becomes zero.
Thus, at C
The ratio of the kinetic energies at B and C is :
~KHTM HO GAYA MAUJ KARO~
 Centre of Mass

Centre of mass is a very special point. The concept of centre of mass of a system
enables us, in describing the overall motion of the system by replacing the system by
an equivalent single point, where the entire mass of the body or system is supposed
to be concentrated.

Now, suppose we have a system of n particles of masses m1, m2, m3 ...mn respectively
along a straight line at distances x1, x2, x3 ...xn from the origin respectively. Then the
centre of mass of the system is given by

where M is the total mass of the system.

 Centre of Gravity

The centre of gravity is that point of the body, where the whole weight of the body
is supposed to be concentrated. We may define the centre of gravity of a body as
that point where the total gravitational torque acting on the body is zero.

Now, suppose we have a system of n particles of masses w1, w2, w3 ...wn respectively
along a straight line at distances x1, x2, x3 ...xn from the origin respectively. Then the
centre of gravity of the system is given by

Motion of centre of mass

We can write equation of Centre of Mass for a system of particles as follow.

Differentiating the two sides of the equation with respect to time, we get

The rate of change of position is velocity. So we can replace dR/dt with vcm where
vcm is the velocity of the centre of mass.

Change in velocity is acceleration, so we get

where a1, a2, .....an are the acceleration of first, second, and ....nth particle
respectively and acm is the acceleration of the centre of mass of the system of
particles.
 Linear Momentum of a System of Particles

The linear momentum of a particle is defined as

According to Newton's second law,

i.e. the rate of change of linear momentum of a particle is equal to the net force
acting on the object. Using equation of motion of center of mass we can write

L.H.S. is the summation of linear momentum of n particles of the system, which is

equal to product of the total mass of the system and velocity of the center of mass
of the system.

Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. time, we get

Now, if the net external force on the system is zero, the linear momentum of the
system, is conserved and the centre of mass will move with constant velocity.
 Rigid Body

A rigid body is a collection of large number of particles, moving in a constrained

manner. The constraint is that separation between any two particles of the
system does not change.

Motion of Rigid Body

(i) Translation

If any line drawn on the rigid body remains parallel to itself throughout the
motion, then the body is said to be in pure translation.

In pure translation, all the particles of the body have equal velocity and
acceleration at all instants and they cover equal distance and displacement in
equal time.

(ii) Rotation

If any line drawn on the rigid body does not remain parallel to itself
throughout its motion, then the body is said to be rotating.

For example, the ceiling fan, bicycle wheel or a football rolling on ground.

(iii) Axis of Rotation

An imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the plane of motion of different

points of the body and passing through the stationary point is called the axis
of rotation.
(iv) Angle of Rotation (θ)

When the object rotates, its configuration changes, the angle by which any line
drawn on the object rotates during the change in configuration is the angle of
rotation.

While the body rotates, every point of the body moves in a circle, whose centre lies
on axis of rotation, and every point experiences the same angular displacement
during a particular time interval.

(iv) Angular Velocity (ω)

The rate of rotation is measured by angular velocity. The angular velocity is

defined as

The unit of the angular velocity is rad/s.

(v) Angular Acceleration (α)

The angular acceleration is defined as

The unit of the angular acceleration is rad/s2

 Dot Product and Cross Product

(i) The Dot Product of Two Vector

The scalar product or dot product of any two vectors A and B vector denoted as A.B
vector(read as A dot B) is defined as

Where A & B are magnitudes of vectors A and B vector respectively and θ is the
smaller angle between them. Dot product is called scalar product as A, B and cosθ
are scalars. Both vectors have a direction but their scalar product does not have a
direction.

Properties

Dot product is commutative

A.B=B.A

Dot product is distributive

A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C

Dot product of a vector with itself gives square of its magnitude

A . A = AA cosθ = A
A . (B) = λλ(A . B)

where λ is a real number

(ii) The Cross Product of Two Vectors
The vector product or cross product of any two vectors vectors A and B denoted as
vectors A * B (read as A cross B vectors )is defined as

Where A & B are magnitudes of vectors A and B respectively and θ is the smaller angle
between them. Cross product is called vector product as A, B and sinθ are scalars. Both
vectors have a direction and their vector product has a same direction.
Properties
The vector product is do not have Commutative Property.
A×B = – (B×A)
The following property holds true in case of vector multiplication
(kA)×B= k(A×B) =A×(kB)
If the given vectors are collinear then
A×B= 0
Following the above property, We can say that the vector multiplication of a vector
with itself would be
A×A= |A||A|sin0 n^ = 0
Also in terms of unit vector notation

From the above discussion it also follows that

Relation between Angular & Linear Acceleration

Relation between Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity

Torque
The tendency of a force to rotate the body to which it is applied is called torque. The
torque, specified with regard to the axis of rotation, is equal to the magnitude of the
component of the force vector lying in the plane perpendicular to the axis, multiplied by
the shortest distance between the axis and the direction of the force component.
τ=r×F
Relation between Torque and Angular Velocity

Remember,

Moment of Inertia
When any object rotate about any axis then it has tendency to resist its motion, this
tendency of resistance is called moment of inertia. It is denoted by I and it's SI unit is
kg/m2.
Moment of Inertia of any object is defined as product of mass of that object and
square of perpendicular distance of rotational axis.

I = MR2
Relation between Angular & Linear Acceleration

Relation between Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity

Rolling Motion

Rolling Motion of a body is a combination of both translational and rotational motion

of a round shaped body placed on a surface. When a body is set in rolling motion, every
particle of body has two velocities – one due to its rotational motion and the other due
to its translational motion, and the resulting effect is the vector sum of both velocities
at all particles.
Rolling Motion is classified in two categories – Pure Rolling and Rolling with Sliding.
Pure rolling is a case when there is no relative motion at point of contact of rolling
body and the surface; and body is considered to be rotating about this point of contact
frame.
Rotational Kinetic Energy

If the mass of i th particle is mi and its speed is vi, its kinetic energy is

~KHTM HO GAYA MAUJ KARO~

 Introduction

The constitutents of the universe are galaxy, stars, planets, comets, asteriods,
meteroids. The force which keeps them bound together is called gravitational force.
Gravitation is a nature phenomenon by which material objects attract towards one
another.

In 1687 A.D. English Physicist, Sir Isaac Netwon published principia Mathematica,
which explains the inverse-square law of gravitation.

Kepler's Laws Of planetary Motion

Law of Orbit Law of Periods

Law of Area

In astronomy, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, proposed by Johannes Kepler

during the period of 1609 to 1619, describe the orbits of planets around the Sun.
The motion of planets has been a subject of much interest for astronomers from
very early times.

*Kepler uncle ki theory ache se

padhna exam me ata h
 Kepler's first law

Law of Orbit

Each Planet move surround the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of
the foci as shown in figure.

*ye topic se theory me

aa jaye VSAQ me

Kepler's Second Law

The Law of Areas

Kepler's second law states that "The line joining the sun and planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal time or the rate of sweeping area by the position vector of the planet
with respect to sun remains constant."
 KEPLER’S LAWS Third law

Law of periods
The square of the period of revolution of a planet
around the sun is proportional to the cube of the semi
major axis of its elliptical orbit.
If T is the period of revolution of a planet and R is the
length of semi major axis of its elliptical orbit, then

T² R³ *Bus itna yaad Rakhna

or numericals ayenge tho isi
T² =KR³ formula pe ayenge

where K is a proportionality constant

T² R³

-19
The constant K, is same for all planets. Its value is 2.97 x 10
s²m3. For an elliptical orbit, r gets replaced by semi-major axis a.
 UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION

is LAW ke anushaar

Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force
that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.

Mathematically,

From eq. (1) & (2), we get

where G is the universal gravitational constant.

 Acceleration Due to Gravity
of the Earth

The force by which the earth attracts any object towards its centre is
known as gravity.

The acceleration produced on an object due to the effect of gravity is called

acceleration due to gravity (g).

Above the surface of the Earth

Now, as we know that the mass of earth is concentrated at its centre. The
magnitude of force on the point mass m will be

F= GMm
(Re + h)²

The acceleration experienced by that point mass will be

GMe
g=
(Re + h)²

From the above equation it is clear that as we move above the surface of earth
the value of g reduces.
Below the surface of the Earth

Suppose we consider a body of mass m is at a point B where B is at a depth of

h from the earth’s surface, and its distance from the center is R – h.

Now, we have,

g d = g (R – d)/R

The acceleration due to gravity (gd ), at this depth, is given by,

g(d) = F(d) is
m

g(d) = F(d) = GME (RE - d)

m R3E

= g R -d =g(1-d/R )
R
 And this acceleration, (gd ), decreases as we move towards the center of the earth,
which is experienced only when we move very deep towards the center of the earth.
Hence, the value of g changes with height and depth.

Thus, as we go down below the earth's surface, the acceleration due to gravity
decreases.

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

Gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is the amount of work

done per unit mass to bring a small test mass from infinity to that point.

For a point at a distance r from a mass M , the gravitational potential Φ is given

by:

Units: Joules (J).

Gravitational Potential: Joules per kilogram (J/kg).

It is also a scalar quantity but represents the total energy due to gravitational forces
acting on the mass.

The gravitational potential energy at infinity is considered to be zero.

PTR*
Gravitational potential or Gravtitational potential energy in dono me bahut
difference hai tho conguse mat hona

Gravitational potential energy

The work obtained in bringing a body from infinity to a point in gravitational

field is called gravitational potential energy.

Force of attraction between the earth and the object when an

object is at the distance a from the center of the earth.

GmM
F =
x²

Consider the dW is the small amount of work done in bringing the body without
acceleration through the very small distance dx

dW=Fdx
 And total work done to bring the body from infinity to point p which is at
distance r from the center of the earth.

Hence, the gravitational potential energy = −GMm/r

Escape velocity

Escape velocity is the minimum velocity an object needs to escape the gravitational
influence of a massive body, without any further propulsion. For example, if you
launch a projectile with a velocity greater than the escape velocity from the Earth's
surface, it will eventually move away from the Earth and never return.

Total mechanical energy on earth = Total mechanical energy at infinity

Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
v esc = 2GMr
Where G is the gravitational constant, M is
the mass of the attracting mass, and r is the
distance from the centre of that mass.
 Orbital Velocity of a Satellite

It basically refers to the amount of velocity required by a satellite to be launched

into the orbit of a planetary system.

We have also cleared the concept of the orbital speed of a satellite. To put it in
simple terms, the amount of speed required by a satellite to orbit around a
planetary system without losing its momentum is known as orbital speed.

The orbital velocity of a satellite is the velocity required by the satellite to balance
the gravitational pull and the inertia of the satellite’s motion. This concept can be
further explained with the following example:

~KHTM HO GAYA MAUJ KARO~

 Properties of Solids

A rigid body generally means a hard solid object having a definite shape and size. But
in reality, bodies can be stretched, compressed and bent. Even the appreciably rigid
steel bar can be deformed when a sufficiently large external force is applied on it. This
means that solid bodies are not perfectly rigid. A solid has definite shape and size. In
order to change (or deform) the shape or size of a body, a force is required.

Deforming Force

A force which produces a change in configuration (size or shape) of the object on

applying it, is called a deforming force.

Elasticity

Elasticity is that property of the object by virtue of which it regains its original
configuration after the removal of the deforming force.
For example, if we stretch a rubber band and release it, it snaps back to its original
length.

Perfectly Elastic Body

Those bodies which regain its original configuration immediately and completely after
the removal of deforming force are called perfectly elastic bodies. The nearest
approach to a perfectly elastic body is quartz fibre.
Plasticity

If a body does not regains its original size and shape completely and
immediately after the removal of deforming force, it is said to be a plastic
body and this property is called plasticity.

Perfectly plastic body

That body which does not regain its original configuration at all on the
removal of deforming force are called perfectly plastic bodies .Putty and
paraffin wax are nearly perfectly plastic bodies.
Inhe Yaad Rakhna !!

Stress

If a body gets deformed under the action of an external force, then at

each section of the body an internal force of reaction is set up which
tends to restore the body into its original state.

The internal restoring force set up per unit area of cross section of the
deformed body is called stress.

Its unit is N/m2or Pascal.

Its dimensional formula is

Types of stress

There are three different types of stress

Longitudinal Stress

If deforming force is applied normal to the area of cross section, then the
stress is called longitudinal stress. It is further categorized in two types

(a) Tensile stress If there is an increase in length of the object under the
effect of applied force, then stress is called tensile stress.

(b) Compressional stress If there is a decrease in length of the object under

the effect of applied force, then stress is called compression stress.

Tangential or Shearing Stress

If deforming force acts tangentially to the surface of a body, it produces a

change in the shape of the body. The tangential force applied per unit area is
called tangential stress.

Normal Stress

If a body is subjected to a uniform force from all sides, then the

corresponding stress is called hydrostatic stress.
 Strain

When a deforming force acts on a body ,the body undergoes a change in

its shape and size. The fractional change in configuration is called strain.

It has no unit

It is a dimensionless quantity.

According to the change in configuration, the strain is of three types

longitudinal strain = ;

Volumetric strain = ;

Shearing strain = ;

Hooke’s Law

Robert Hook found that within the elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to
strain. Thus we have

stress strain
or
stress = K. strain

where K is the constant of proportionality called “Elastic Modulus” of the material.

There are some materials that do not obey Hooke’s law lik rubber, human’s muscle.
Types of Modulus of rigidity

Young’s Modulus of rigidity (Y)

It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain
within the elastic limit.

It has same units as stress because strain does not have any unit. Y is
measured in N/m2 or Pa.
Metals generally have large values of Young’s modulus compare to other
materials. In scientific terms, the higher the Young’s modulus of the
material the more elastic it is.

Bulk Modulus of Rigidity

The SI unit of bulk modulus is N/m2

Compressibility
Compressibility of a material is the reciprocal of its bulk modulus of
elasticity Compressibility (C) = 1 / k

Its SI unit is N-1m2

Modulus of rigidity or shear Modulus (η)

The shear modulus of a material is always considerably smaller than the

Young’s modulus for it.
The SI unit of shear modulus is N/m2

Limit of elasticity
The maximum value of deforming force for which elasticity is present the
body is called its limit of elasticity.

Stress- strain Curve

stress strain curve fo elastic tissue

The different regions in the stress-strain diagram are:

(i) Proportional Limit

It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the
stress-strain ratio gives us a proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus.

The point OA in the graph represents the proportional limit.

(ii) Elastic Limit

It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position
when the load acting on it is completely removed.

Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its original position, and a plastic
deformation starts to appear in it.

(iii) Yield Point

The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform
plastically. After the yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs.

There are two yield points (i) upper yield point (ii) lower yield point.

(iv) Ultimate Stress Point

It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before
failure. Beyond this point, failure occurs.

(v) Fracture or Breaking Point

It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes
place.
Elastic after Effect

The bodies return to their original state on the removal of the deforming force.
Some bodies return to their original state immediately after the removal of the
deforming force while some bodies take longer time to do so.

The delay in regaining the original state by a body on the removal of the
deforming force is called elastic after effect.

Elastic Fatigue

The property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behavior becomes less
elastic under the action of repeated alternating deforming force is called elastic
fatigue.

Ductile Materials

The materials which have large plastic range of extension are called ductile
materials. Such materials undergo an irreversible increase in
length before snapping. So they can be drawn into thin wires.

For e.g. copper, silver, iron, aluminium etc.

Brittle Materials

The materials which have very small range of plastic extension are called brittle
materials. Such materials break as soon as the stress is increased beyond the
elastic limit.

For e.g. cast iron, glass, ceramics etc.

Elastomers

The materials for which strain produced is much larger than the stress applied,
with in the limit of elasticity are called elastomers, e.g., rubber, the elastic tissue
of aorta, the large vessel carrying blood from heart. etc. Elastomers have no
plastic range.
Elastic Potential Energy of stretched wire

When a wire is stretched, interatomic forces come into play which opposes the
change. Work has to done against these restoring forces. The work done in
stretching the wire is stored in it as its elastic potential energy.

Poisson’s Ratio

When a deforming force is applied at the free end of a suspended wire of length
1 and diameter D, then its length increases by l but its diameter decreases by
D. Now two types of strains are produced by a single force.

The negative sign shows that longitudinal and lateral strains are in opposite
sense.

As Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of two strains, it has no units and dimensions.

The theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio lies between – 1 and 0.5. Its practical value
lies between 0 and 0.5
 Applications of elasticity

Metallic part of machinery is never subjected to a stress beyond the elastic limit
of the material.

Metallic rope used in cranes to lift heavy weight is decided on the elastic limit of
the material.

In designing beam to support load (in construction of roofs and bridges).

Preference of hollow shaft than the solid shaft.

Calculating the maximum height of a mountain.

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”

~KHTM HO GAYA MAUJ KARO~

 Basic Concepts

The liquids and gases together are termed as fluids, in other words, we can say that
the substances which can flow are termed as fluids.

We assume fluid to be incompressible (i.e., the density of liquid is independent of

variation in pressure and remains constant) and non-viscous (i.e. the two liquid
surfaces in contact are not exerting any tangential force on each other).

Fluid Statics

Fluid Pressure
Pressure p at every point is defined as the normal force per unit area.

The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal and 1 Pascal = 1 N/m2

Fluid force acts perpendicular to any surface in the fluid, no matter how that
surface is oriented. Hence pressure, has no intrinsic direction of its own, it is a
scalar.

a) Pressure at two points in a horizontal plane or at same level when the fluid is at rest
or moving with constant velocity is same.

p1
b) Pressure at two points which are at a depth separation of h when fluid is
at rest of moving with constant velocity is related by the expression
ρ– ρ = ρgh , where is the density of liquid.
1 2

c) Pressure at two points in a horizontal plane when fluid container is having some
constant horizontal acceleration are related by the expression and tan = a/g, where
is the angle which the liquid’s free surface is making with horizontal.

d) Pressure at two points within a liquid at vertical separation of h when the

liquid container is accelerating up are related by expression

p– p = (g + a) h
1 2

If container is accelerating down, then

Atmospheric Pressure

It is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere. Normal atmospheric pressure at

5
sea level (an average value) is 1 atmosphere (atm) that is equal to 1.01× 10Pa.

The excess pressure above atmospheric pressure is called gauge pressure, and
total pressure is called absolute pressure.

Barometer is a device used to measure atmospheric pressure while U–tube

manometer or simply manometer is a device used to measure the gauge
pressure.
 Pascal’s Law

The French scientist Blaise Pascal observed that the pressure in a fluid at
rest is the same at all points if they are at the same height. This fact
may be demonstrated in a simple way.

There are a lot of practical applications of Pascal’s law one such

application is hydraulic lift.

Archimedes Principle

When a body is partially or fully dipped into a fluid, the fluid exerts contact force
on the body. The resultant of all these contact forces is called buoyant force
(upthrust).

F = weight of fluid displaced by the body.

This force is called buoyant force and acts vertically upwards (opposite to the
weight of the body) through the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid.

volume of liquid submerged

Apparent decrease in weight of body = upthrust = weight

of liquid displaced by the body.
Floation
A body floats in a liquid if the average density of the body is less than that of the
liquid.

The weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of body must be equal to
the weight of the body.

The centre of gravity of the body and centre of buoyancy must be along the same.
vertical line.
 Fluid Dynamics

Steady Flow (Stream Line Flow)

The flow in which the velocity of fluid particles crossing a particular

point is the same at all the times. Thus, each particle takes the same path
as taken by a previous particle through that point.

Line of flow

It is the path taken by a particle in flowing liquid. In case of a steady

flow, it is called streamline. Two streamlines can never intersect.

Equation of Continuity

In a time t, the volume of liquid entering the tube of flow in a steady flow is A1V1t.
The same volume must flow out as the liquid is incompressible. The volume flowing out
in t is A2V2t.

Bernoulli’s Theorem

In a stream line flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of pressure energy per unit volume,
potential energy per unit volume and kinetic energy per unit volume is always
constant at all cross section of the liquid.
 Bernoulli’s equation is valid only for incompressible steady flow of a fluid
with no viscosity.

Application of Bernoulli’s Theorem

Velocity of Efflux

Let us find the velocity with which liquid comes out of a hole at a depth h
below the liquid surface.

Using Bernoulli’s theorem,

Venturi Meter
This is an instrument for measuring the rate of flow of fluids.

This is an instrument for measuring the rate of flow of fluids.

Viscosity
The property of a fluid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between its
different layers is known viscosity and the force that is into play is called the viscous
force.
Viscous force is given by :

where η is a constant depending upon the nature of the liquid and is called the
coefficient of viscosity and velocity gradient = dv/dx
S.I. unit of coefficient of viscosity is Pa.s or Nsm-2
CGS unit of viscosity is poise. (1 Pa.s = 10 Poise)
 Stoke’s Law

When a solid moves through a viscous medium, its motion is opposed by a viscous force
depending on the velocity and shape and size of the body.
The viscous drag on a spherical body of radius r, moving with velocity v, in a viscous
medium of viscosity is given by

Importance of Stoke’s law

(a) This law is used in the determination of electronic charge with the help of milikan’s
experiment.

(b) This law accounts the formation of clouds.

(c) This law accounts why the speed of rain drops is less then that of a body falling
freely with a constant velocity from the height of clouds.

(d) This law helps a man coming down with the help of a parachute.

Terminal Velocity

It is maximum constant velocity acquired by the body while

falling freely in a viscous medium.

Poiseuille’s Formula
Poiseuille studied the stream-line flow of liquid in capillary tubes.

Volume of liquid coming out of tube per second in given by

 Reynold Number

The stability of laminar flow is maintained by viscous forces. It is observed,

however that laminar or steady flow is disrupted it the rate of flow is large.
Irregular, unsteady motion, turbulence, sets in at high flow rates.

Reynolds defined a dimensionless number whose value gives one an approximate

idea, whether the flow rate would be turbulent.

This number, called the Reynolds number Re is defined as,

It is found that flow is streamline or laminar for Re less than 1000. The flow is
turbulent for Re > 2000. The flow becomes unsteady for Re between 1000 and
2000.

Surface Tension

The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force per unit length in the
plane of the liquid surface at right angles to either side of an imaginary line
drawn on that surface.

So, S = F/L where S surface tension of liquid.

Unit of surface tension in MKS system : N/m, J/m2

CGS system Dyne/cm, erg/cm2

 Surface Energy

In order to increase the surface area, the work has to be done over the surface of
the liquid. This work done is stored in the liquid surface as its potential energy.
Hence the surface energy of a liquid can be defined as the excess potential
energy per unit area of the liquid surface.

Excess Pressure

Excess pressure in a liquid drop or bubble in a liquid is

Excess pressure in a soap bubble is

(because it has two free surfaces)

Angle of Contact

The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and the
solid surface inside the liquid is called the angle of contact.

If the glass plate is immersed in mercury, the surface is curved and the mercury is
depressed below. Angle of contact is obtuse for mercury.

If the plate is dipped in water with its side vertical, the water is drawn-up along the
plane and assumes the curved shape as shown. Angle of contact is acute for water.
 Capillary Tube and Capillarity Action

A very narrow glass tube with fine bore and open at both ends is known as
capillary tube. When a capillary tube in dipped in a liquid, then liquid will rise or
fall in the tube, this action is termed as capillarity.
A very narrow glass tube with fine bore and open at both ends is known as
capillary tube. When a capillary tube in dipped in a liquid, then liquid will rise or
fall in the tube, this action is termed as capillarity.

Capillary rise in a tube of insufficient length :

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”

~KHTM HO GAYA MAUJ KARO~

 Temperature and Heat

Temperature

Temperature is a relative measure, or indication of hotness or coldness. A hot

cooker is said to have a high temperature, and ice cube to have a lower
temperature.

An object at a higher temperature is said to be hotter than the one at a lower

temperature.

The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K), whereas degree celsius (°C) is a commonly
used unit of temperature.

Heat

When you put a cold spoon into a cup of hot coffee, the spoon warms up and the
coffee cools down as they were trying to equalise the temperature.

Energy transfer that takes place solely because of a temperature difference is

called heat flow or heat transfer and energy transferred in this way is called
heat.

The SI unit of heat energy transferred is expressed in joule (J).

 Measurement of Temperature

A physical property that changes with temperature is called a thermometric

property. When a thermometer is put in contact with a hot body, the mercury
expands, increasing the length of the mercury column.

(i) Celsius Scale

It defines ice-point temperature as 0°C and the steam point temperature as

100°C.

The space between 0°C and 100°C marks is equally divided into 100 intervals.

(ii) Fahrenheit Scale

It defines the ice-point temperature as 32°F and the steam point temperature
as 212°F.

The space between 32°F and 212°F is divided into 180 equal intervals.

(iii) Kelvin Scale

Kelvin Scale is a scale of measuring of temperature, the melting point of ice is

taken as 273 K

The boiling point of water as 373 K the space between these two points is divided
into 100 equal intervals.

(iv). Relation between Different Scales of Temperatures

To convert a temperature from one scale to the other, we must take into
account the fact that zero temperatures of the two scales are not the same.
 The normal temperature of the human body measured on the Celsius
scale is 37°C which is 98.6°F.

Ideal Gas Equation and Absolute Temperature

(i) Ideal Gas Equation

An equation which follows the law of Boyle’s law of Charl’s and law of
Avogadro is called ideal gas equation.

At constant temperature,
Boyles Law – states that for a given mass of gas held at a constant temperature
the gas pressure is inversely proportional to the gas volume.

At constant pressure,
Charles Law – states that for a given fixed mass of gas held at a constant pressure
the gas volume is directly proportional to the gas temperature

At constant T and P,

Avogadro’s law - When p & T are constant, then the volume of a gas bears a direct
relation with the number of moles of gas.
 By combining all above equation, we get

where, n = Number of moles of gas

-1 -1
R = Universal gas constant (R = 8.31 J mol K )

P = Pressure of gas

V = Volume of gas

(ii) Absolute Temperature

The absolute minimum temperature is equal to –273.15ºC. This is also known as

absolute zero. Absolute zero is the foundation of the kelvin temperature scale or
absolute scale temperature.

Thermal Expansion

Increase in size of any matter on heating is called thermal expansion. There are three
types of thermal expansion.

(i) Linear Expansion

The expansion in length is called linear expansion and the fractional change in
length, ΔL/L is given by ΔL/L = αΔT where α is called coefficient of linear expansion.

(ii) Area Expansion

The expansion in area is called area expansion or superficial expansion and the
fractional change in area, ΔA/A is given by ΔA/A = βΔT where β is called coefficient of
area expansion.

(iii) Volume Expansion

The expansion in volume is called volume expansion and the fractional change in
area, ΔV/V is given by ΔV/V = γΔT where γ is called coefficient of volume expansion.
(iv) Relation Between

Specific Heat Capacity

If an amount of heat Q, when given to a body of mass m, increases its

temperature by an amount ΔT, then

Q = mcΔT
where c is a constant and is called the specific heat capacity or simply specific
heat of the material of the body.

If m = 1 kg and ΔT = 1C° then c = Q

Specific heat of the material of a substance is the amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance through 1C°.

In SI, the unit of c is J/kg K.

Calorimetry

Calorimetry deals with the measurement of heat. The vessel which is largely used in
such a measurement is called a calorimeter.

When two bodies at different temperatures are allowed to share heat, they attain a
common temperature. If it is assumed that no heat is received from or given to any
body outside the system and if there is no chemical action involved in the process of
sharing, then
 Heat gained = Heat lost

This simple statement based on the law of conservation of energy is called

the principle of calorimetry.

Change of State

Depending on temperature and pressure, all matter can exist in a solid, liquid or
gaseous state.

These states or forms of matter are also called the phases of matter.

The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting and from liquid to solid is
called fusion.

It is observed that the temperature remains constant until the entire amount of the
solid substance melts. That is, both the solid and the liquid states of the substance
coexist in thermal equilibrium during the change of states from solid to liquid.

The temperature at which the solid and the liquid states of the substance is in
thermal equilibrium with each other is called its melting point.

The change of state from liquid to vapour (or gas) is called vaporisation.

It is observed that the temperature remains constant until the entire amount of the
liquid is converted into vapour.

The temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of the substance coexist is
called its boiling point.

The change from solid state to vapour state without passing through the liquid state
is called sublimation, and the substance is said to sublime.
 Latent Heat

Latent heat is defined as the heat or energy that is absorbed or released during a
phase change of a substance. It could either be from a gas to a liquid or liquid to
solid and vice versa.

Latent heat is related to a heat property called enthalpy.

It is denoted by L and its SI unit is J/kg.

L=Q/m

There are two types of latent heat.

(i) Latent Heat of melting

It is a amount of heat which is required to change of phase from solid to liquid for unit
mass at constant temperature. Ex- Latent heat of melting of ice is 334 J/kg.

(ii) Latent Heat of Vaporization

It is a amount of heat which is required to change of phase from liquid to vapor for
unit mass at constant temperature. Ex- Latent heat of vaporization of water is
5
22.6 x 10 J/kg.

Heat Transfer

There are three mechanisms of heat transfer which name is given as- conduction,
convection and radiation. Conduction occurs within a body or between two bodies
in contact.

Convection depends on motion of mass from one region of space to another.

Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation, such as sunshine, with no

need for matter to be present in the space between bodies.
(i) Conduction

Conduction is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two adjacent parts

of a body because of their temperature difference. Suppose, one end of a
metallic rod is put in a flame, the other end of the rod will soon be so hot that
you cannot hold it by your bare hands.

Here, heat transfer takes place by conduction from the hot end of the rod
through its different parts to the other end. Gases are poor thermal
conductors, while liquids have conductivities intermediate between solids and
gases.

(ii) Convection

Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual motion of matter. It is possible

only in fluids. Convection can be natural or forced. In natural convection,
gravity plays an important part. When a fluid is heated from below, the hot
part expands and, therefore, becomes less dense.

Because of buoyancy, it rises and the upper colder part replaces it. This again
gets heated, rises up and is replaced by the relatively colder part of the fluid.
The process goes on.

In forced convection, material is forced to move by a pump or by some other

physical means. The common examples of forced convection systems are forced-
air heating systems in home.

(iii) Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves such as visible light,

infrared, and ultraviolet rays. Everyone has felt the warmth of the sun’s radiation
and intense heat from a charcoal grill or the glowing coals in a fireplace. Most of
the heat from these bodies reaches you not by conduction or convection in the
intervening air but by radiation.

This heat transfer would occur even if there were nothing but vacuum between you
and the source of heat.
 Black Body Radiation

(i) Emissive Power

The amount of heat energy rediated per unit area of the surface of a body, per unit
time and per unit wavelength range is constant which is called as the ’emissive power’
(eλ) of the given surface, given temperature and wavelength.

Its S.I. unit is W/m2

(ii) Absorptive Power

The ‘absorptive power’ of a surface at a given temperature and for a given

wavelength is the ratio of the heat energy absorbed by a surface to the total energy
incident on it at a certain time. It is represented by (aλ).

It has no unit as it is a ratio.

(iii) Perfect Black Body

A body is said to be a perfect black body, if its absorptivity is 1. It neither reflects

nor transmits but absorbs all the thermal radiations incident on it irrespective of
their wavelengths.

(iv) Wein’s Displacement Law

This law states that as the temperature increases, the

maximum value of the radiant energy emitted by the
black body, move towards shorter wavelengths. Wein
found that “The product of the peak wavelength (λm)
and the Kelvin temperature (T) of the black body should
remain constant.”
 -3
Where b is constant known as Wein’s constant. Its value is 2.898 x 10 mk.

(v) Stefan’s Law

This law states that the thermal radiations energy emitted per second from the
surface of a black body is directly proportional to its surface area A and to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature T.

Emission coefficient or degree of blackness of a body is represented by a

dimensionless quantity ε, 0 < ε < 1. If ε = 1 then the body is perfectly black body.
Hence

-8 -2 -4
Where σ is a Stefan's constant and its value is 5.67 x 10 W m K

Here, η is the coefficient of viscosity and all symbols have standard meaning.

Newton’s Law of Cooling

According to Newton’s law of cooling, "The rate of loss of heat of a body is

directly proportional to the excess of the temperature (T–T0) of the body with
respect to the surroundings".

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”

~KHTM HO GAYA MAUJ KARO~

Thermodynamics is concerned with the work done by the system and the heat it

exchanges with its surroundings. We are concerned only with work done by a system on

its surrounding or on the system by the surroundings. We are not concerned with

internal work done by one part of a system or another.

Equilibrium in mechanics means that the net external force and torque on a system are

zero. The term ‘equilibrium’ in thermodynamics appears in a different context : we say

the state of a system is an equilibrium state if the macroscopic variables that

characterise the system do not change in time.

For example: A gas inside a closed rigid container, completely insulated from its

surroundings, with fixed values of pressure, volume, temperature, mass and composition

that do not change with time, is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium.

Conditions for a system to in thermodynamic equilibrium:

Mechanical Equilibrium: No unbalanced force between the system and its

surroundings.

Thermal Equilibrium: Uniform temperature in all parts of the system and the

surroundings.
Chemical Equilibrium: Uniform chemical composition throughout the system and

surroundings.
 Temperature is a macroscopic physical quantity related to our sense of hot and

cold.

The natural flow of heat is from higher temperature to lower temperature, i.e.

temperature determines the thermal state of a body whether it can give or receive

heat.

Temperature Scales:
The Kelvin temperature scale is also known as thermodynamic scale. The SI unit of

temperature is the kelvin and is defined as (1/273.16) of the temperature of the

triple point of water. The triple point of water is that point on a P–T diagram

where the three phase of water, the solid, the liquid and the gas, can coexist in

equilibrium.
In addition to Kelvin temperature scale, there are other temperature scales also like

Celsius, Fahrenheit etc. Temperature on one scale can be converted into other scale

by using the following identity:

On the basis of the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, which states that ‘two systems in

thermal equilibrium with a third system separately are in thermal equilibrium with each

other’.

The Zeroth Law clearly suggests that when two systems A and B, are in thermal

equilibrium, there must be a physical quantity that has the same value for both. This

thermodynamic variable whose value is equal for two systems in thermal equilibrium is

called temperature (T ).
It is the energy that is transferred between a system and its environment because of

the temperature difference between them.

Heat is a path dependent quantity e.g. Heat required to change the temperature of

a given gas at a constant pressure is different from that required to change the

temperature of same gas through same amount at constant pressure.

For gases when heat is absorbed and temperature changes ∆Q = nC∆T

At constant pressure (∆Q) P= nC P∆T

At constant volume (∆Q)V = nC V∆T

Internal energy of a system is the energy possessed by the system due to molecular

motion and molecular configuration.

The energy due to molecular motion is called internal kinetic energy

The energy due to molecular configuration is called internal potential energy

Total internal energy is given by :

Suppose a gas is confined in a cylinder that has a movable piston at one end. If P be

the pressure of the gas in the cylinder, then force exerted by the gas on the piston of

the cylinder.

When the piston is pushed outward an infinitesimal distance dx, the work done by the

gas

For a finite change in volume from

Total amount of work done

The system which can be represented in of pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature

(T), is known thermodynamic system. A specified portion of matter consisting of one

or more substances on which the effects of variables such as temperature, volume and

pressure are to be studied, is called a system.

e.g. A gas enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a piston is a system.

Types of systems:
Open System: An open system allows both mass and energy to transfer across its

boundaries. This means that substances can enter or exit the system, and heat

and work can be exchanged with the surroundings. Examples of open systems

include a pot of boiling water with steam escaping or an engine taking in fuel

and expelling exhaust gases.

Closed System: A closed system permits the exchange of energy (in the form of

heat and work) with the surroundings, but there is no transfer of mass across its

boundaries. The total mass within a closed system remains constant. A piston-

cylinder assembly containing a gas that expands against a piston, while the

cylinder remains closed, is an example of a closed system.

Isolated System: An isolated system does not allow the transfer of either mass or

energy across its boundaries. This means that neither heat nor work can be

exchanged with the surroundings, and the total energy and mass within the

system remain constant. The universe, considered as a whole, is often treated as

an isolated system for many thermodynamic analyses.

Surrounding:
Anything outside the system, which exchanges energy with the system and which

tends to change the properties of the system is called its surroundings.

Universe:
In thermodynamics, the term "universe" refers to the entirety of everything that is

under consideration. It encompasses all matter and energy, including all systems and

surroundings. From a thermodynamic perspective, the universe is often regarded as an

isolated system, meaning that it does not exchange energy or matter with anything

external to it. This assumption simplifies many thermodynamic analyses and allows

for the application of fundamental principles such as conservation of energy and

mass.

Extensive Properties:
Extensive properties are those that depend on the size or extent of the system. In

other words, they are additive and scale with the size of the system. The value of an

extensive property for a system is proportional to the amount of matter it contains.

Examples of extensive properties include: mass, volume, energy, total energy, entropy.
Intensive Properties:
In thermodynamics, intensive properties are physical quantities whose values do not

depend on the size or extent of the system. These properties are characteristic of the

material or the conditions, rather than the amount of material present. Intensive

properties are contrasted with extensive properties, which do depend on the size or

extent of the system.

Examples of Intensive Properties Include: temperature, pressure, density, specific heat

capacity, refractive index, viscosity, melting point, boiling point.

If some quantity of heat is supplied to a system capable of doing external work, then

the quantity of heat absorbed by the system is equal to the sum of the increase in the

internal energy of the system and the external work done by the system.

Q= W+ U or
Points to remember:

It is a statement of conservation of energy in thermodynamical process.

It makes no distinction between work and heat as according to it the internal

energy (and hence temperature) of a system may be increased either by adding

heat to it or doing work or both.

Q and W are the path functions but U is the point function.

This law is applicable to every process in nature.

This law introduces the concept of internal energy.

Case 1:
System undergoes a process such that U=0 which means internal energy is

constant

Q= W

This means that the heat supplied by the surrounding is equal to the work done by

the system on the surroundings.

Case 2:
System is a gas in a cylinder with movable piston, by moving the piston we can

change the volume of the gas.

If we move the piston downwards some work is done and it can be given as:

Work done = W = Force x Displacement

= P x Area x Displacement
W=P V ( V = Area x Displacement)

Therefore by first law of thermodynamics Q= U + P V, where V is change in

volume.
Heat capacity (s):

Heat capacity (C) is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a

given quantity of a substance by one degree Celsius (or one Kelvin).

∆Q is the amount of heat added or removed.

∆T is the change temperature.

Specific heat capacity (S):

Specific heat capacity (S) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of

one unit mass of a substance by one degree Celsius (or one Kelvin).

Where,

Q is the heat added or removed.

m is the mass of the substance.

∆T is the change in the temperature.

Molar Specific heat capacity (C):

Molar specific heat capacity (C) is the amount of heat required to raise the

temperature of one mole of a substance by one degree Celsius (or one Kelvin).

Where,

Q is the heat added or removed.

n is the no of moles.

∆T is the change in the temperature.

Specific heat capacity of water (C):
The specific heat capacity of water is .

Water has a high specific heat capacity, which means it can absorb or release large

amounts of heat with little change in temperature. This property makes water an

excellent coolant and a temperature stabilizer in various natural and industrial

processes.

Molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp ):

The molar heat capacity at constant pressure is the amount of heat required to raise

the temperature of one mole of a substance by one degree Celsius at constant pressure.

Q is infinitesimal amount of heat added.

T is infinitesimal change in temperature.

Molar specific heat capacity at constant volume (Cv ):

The molar specific heat capacity at constant volume is the amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of one mole of a substance by one degree Celsius at constant

volume.
The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system

always increases over time. Entropy is a measure of disorder of randomness in a system.

This law introduces the concept of irreversibility in natural process, especially when

energy transformation occur.

1. Clausius Statement:

"It is impossible for a self-acting machine, unaided by any external agency, to

transfer heat from a colder body to a hotter body."

This implies that heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder region to a hotter

region without external work being performed.

2. Kelvin-Planck Statement:
"It is impossible to construct a heat engine that operates on a cyclic process and

converts all the heat energy into work."

This means that no heat engine can be 100% efficient, as some energy will always

be lost as waste heat.

3. Reversible Processes:

A thermodynamic process is reversible if the process can be turned back such that

the system and surroundings return to their original states, with no other change

anywhere else in the universe.

Irreversible process take place at a very fast pace.

4. Irreversible Process:

A process that cannot be reversed without leaving changes in the system and its

surroundings.

This means that no heat engine can be 100% efficient, as some energy will always

be lost as waste heat.

5. Quasi Static Process: A quasi-static process is a thermodynamic process that occurs

infinitely slowly, ensuring that the system remains in a state of thermal and

mechanical equilibrium with its surroundings at every stage.

Characteristics:

Infinitely Slow Change: The process occurs so slowly that the system can adjust to

any changes in pressure, volume, or temperature instantaneously, maintaining

equilibrium.

Near-Equilibrium States: Throughout the process, the system is very close to

equilibrium states, meaning any deviation from equilibrium is infinitesimally small.

Infinitesimal Differences: The differences in pressure, volume, and temperature

between the system and its surroundings are extremely small.

Hypothetical Construct: While a truly quasi-static process is an idealization and

cannot be achieved in practice, real processes that occur sufficiently slowly can

approximate a quasi-static process.

6. Isothermal Process:

An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process in which the temperature of the

system remains constant throughout the process. This means that as the system

undergoes changes in pressure and volume, its temperature does not change (ΔT=0).

7. Adiabatic Process:

In an adiabatic process, the system is insulated from its surroundings, meaning no heat

flows between the system and its environment. This insulation prevents any exchange of

thermal energy, resulting in a change in the system's variables (such as pressure,

temperature, and volume) without any heat being added or removed from the system.

When undergoing an adiabatic process, the system's temperature may change due

to the work done on or by the system, but this change occurs solely due to the

compression or expansion of the system rather than any heat exchange with the

surroundings.

For example, if a gas undergoes adiabatic compression (or expansion), its

temperature will increase (or decrease) solely due to the compression (or expansion)

process itself, without any heat exchange with the surroundings. This makes

adiabatic processes distinct from isothermal processes, where the temperature

remains constant due to continuous heat exchange with a heat reservoir.

P-V curves for isothermal and adiabatic

processes of an ideal gas.
8. Isochoric Process:

In an isochoric process, the volume V of the gas remains constant. This means that

no work is done on or by the gas, as there is no change in volume to exert pressure

against or to receive pressure from the surroundings. Therefore, any heat absorbed

by the gas goes entirely toward changing its internal energy and consequently its

temperature.

9. Isobaric Process:

In an isobaric process, P is fixed. Work done by the gas is:

Since temperature changes, so does internal energy. The heat absorbed goes partly to

increase internal energy and partly to do work. The change in temperature for a given

amount of heat is determined by the specific heat of the gas at constant pressure.
10. Cyclic Process:

In a cyclic process, the system returns to its initial state. Since internal energy is a

state variable, U = 0 for a cyclic process. The total heat absorbed equals the work

done by the system.

Q. A cylinder with a movable piston contains 3 moles of hydrogen at standard

temperature and pressure. The walls of the cylinder are made of a heat insulator, and

the piston is insulated by having a pile of sand on it. By what factor does the pressure

of the gas increase if the gas is compressed to half its original volume ?

Ans: The cylinder is completely insulated from its surroundings. As a result, no heat is

exchanged between the system (cylinder) and its surroundings. Thus, the process is

adiabatic.

Initial pressure inside the cylinder =

Final pressure inside the cylinder =

Initial volume inside the cylinder =

Final volume inside the cylinder =

Ratio of specific heats :

For an adiabatic process, we have:

The final volume is compressed to half of its initial volume.

Hence, the pressure increases by a factor of 2.639.

Q. Explain why

(a) Two bodies at different temperatures T1 and T2 if brought in thermal contact do

not necessarily settle to the mean temperature (T1 + T2 )/2.

(b) The coolant in a chemical or a nuclear plant (i.e., the liquid used to prevent the

different parts of a plant from getting too hot) should have high specific heat.

(c) Air pressure in a car tyre increases during driving.

(d) The climate of a harbour town is more temperate than that of a town in a desert

at the same latitude. cylinder with a movable piston contains 3 moles of hydrogen at

standard temperature and pressure. The walls of the cylinder are made of a heat

insulator, and the piston is insulated by having a pile of sand on it.

Ans: (a). When two bodies at different temperatures are brought into thermal contact,

heat will flow from the hotter body to the cooler body until thermal equilibrium is

reached. However, the final equilibrium temperature is not necessarily the arithmetic

mean (T1+T2)/2.

The final temperature depends on the masses and specific heats of the two bodies. If

the two bodies have different thermal capacities (mass × specific heat), the body with

the larger thermal capacity will influence the final temperature more than the body

with the smaller thermal capacity.

(b). The coolant in a chemical or nuclear plant is used to absorb and remove heat

generated during processes. A coolant with a high specific heat can absorb more heat

without undergoing a significant increase in temperature. This is crucial because it

allows the coolant to effectively manage and dissipate large amounts of thermal

energy, preventing the equipment from overheating.

High specific heat means that the coolant can stabilize the temperature within the

system more efficiently, ensuring the system operates safely and effectively.
(c). When a car is driven, the tyres undergo deformation and friction with the road

surface, generating heat. According to the ideal gas law (PV=nRT), when the

temperature of the air inside the tyre increases, assuming the volume of the tyre

remains relatively constant, the pressure must increase. This is because the temperature

and pressure of a gas are directly proportional when volume is constant.

Thus, the increase in temperature due to the heat generated from driving causes the air

pressure inside the tyres to rise.

(d). A harbour town, located near a large body of water, experiences a more temperate

climate because water has a high specific heat capacity. This means it can absorb and

store large amounts of heat energy with only a slight change in temperature.

During the day, the water absorbs heat, preventing the land from getting too hot. At

night, the stored heat is gradually released, keeping the air temperature from dropping

too quickly. This moderating effect of water leads to smaller temperature fluctuations

and a more temperate climate.

In contrast, a desert town lacks this moderating influence of water. The land has a

much lower specific heat capacity compared to water, so it heats up and cools down

much more rapidly, leading to extreme temperature variations between day and night.

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”

~KHTM HO GAYA MAUJ KARO~

 Molecular Theory of Matter

According to the law of definite proportions, a given compound always contains

same element in the same proportion, irrespective of the source.

According to the laws of multiple proportions if two elements can combine to form
more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass
of other element, are in the same ratio.

John Dalton, about 200 years ago, proposed the atomic theory. According to this
theory

The smallest constituents of an element are atoms.

Atoms of one element are identical but differ from those of other elements.
A small number of atoms of each element combine to form a molecule of a
compound.
Behaviour of Gases

In gases molecules are far from each other and due to this the interatomic forces
between the molecules is negligible except, when two molecules collide. Hence, the
properties of gases are easier to understand than those of solids and liquids.

Gases satisfy a simple relation between pressure, temperature and volume at low
pressure and high temperature, this relation is given by equation

PV = nRT

Where all symbols have their usual meaning.

(i) Avogadro’s Hypothesis

According to this hypothesis, "At a fixed temperature and pressure the number of
molecules per unit volume is same for all gases".

23
The number of molecules in 22.4 litres of any gas is 6.02 × 10 This is known as
Avogadro number and is denoted by NA.

The mass of 22.4 litres of any gas at S.T.P. (standard temperature 273 K and pressure
1 atm) is equal to its molecular weight which is equal to one mole.

(ii) Boyle’s law

According to this law, keeping temperature constant, the pressure of a given mass of a
gas varies inversely with volume. If n and T are fixed in ideal gas equation then, PV is
constant.

(iii) Charles’ law

According to this law, the volume (V) of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional
to the temperature of the gas, provided pressure of the gas remains constant.

(iv) Gay Lussac’s Law

According to this law, the pressure P of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature T, provided the volume V of the gas remains constant.
(v) Dalton’s law of partial pressure

According to this law, the total pressure of a mixture of non-interacting ideal gases is
the sum of partial pressures.

P = P1 + P2+ P3+ .....

(vi) Graham’s Law of Diffusion

It states that rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root
of the density of the gas.

Hence, denser the gas, the slower is the rate of diffusion.

Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas

Kinetic theory of gases is based on the molecules picture of matter.

According to which

A given amount of gas is a mixture of very large number of identical molecules of

the order of Avogadro’s number.

The molecules are moving randomly in all directions.

At ordinary temperature and pressure, the size of the molecules is very small as
compared to the distances between them. Thus, the interaction between them is
negligible.

The molecules do not exert any force of attraction or repulsion on each other,
except during collisions.
The collisions of molecules against each other or with the walls of the container are
perfectly elastic. Such that the momentum and the kinetic energy of the molecules
are conserved during collisions, though their velocities change.

Law of Equipartition of Energy

For a dynamic system in thermal equilibrium, the energy of the system is equally
distributed amongst the various degrees of freedom and the energy associated with
each degree of freedom per molecule is 1/2 kT, where k is Boltzman constant.

Degrees of Freedom

Degrees of freedom of a system is defined as the total number of co-ordinates or

independent quantities required to describe the position and configuration of the
system completely.

Mono-, di-, and polyatomic (N) molecules have, 3,5 or (3N-K) number of degrees of
freedom where K is the number of constraints
 Specific Heat Capacity

(i) Monoatomic Gas

The molecule of a monatomic gas has only three translational degrees of

freedom. Thus, the average energy of a molecule at temperature T is (3/2)kB T .
The total internal energy of a mole of such a gas is

The molar specific heat at constant volume, Cv, is

Molar specific heat for ideal gas at constant pressure CP is given by .

(ii)Diatomic Gas

A diatomic molecule treated as a rigid rotator, like a dumbbell, has 5 degrees

of freedom: 3 translational and 2 rotational. Using the law of equipartition of
energy, the total internal energy of a mole of such a gas is
 The molar specific heats are then given by

Molar specific heat for ideal gas at constant pressure CP is given by

(iii) Polyatomic Gas

In general, a polyatomic molecule has 3 translational, 3 rotational degrees of

freedom and f vibrational modes. According to the law of equipartition of energy,
the total internal energy for one mole of polyatomic gas can be calculated as
 Molar specific heat for ideal gas at constant pressure CP is given by .

Mean Free Path

Mean free path of a molecule in a gas is the average distance travelled by the
molecule between two successive collisions.

If λ1, λ2, λ3,.... λN be the free paths travelled by the molecule in N successive
collision, then mean free path is given by

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”

~KHTM HO GAYA MAUJ KARO~

 pendulum wala motion

Periodic and Oscillatory motions

Oscillations are defined as to and fro motion which repeat itself after regular
intervals of time. In oscillations, the frequency of vibrations is comparatively less.
For example: The to and fro motion of a pendulum clock
Every oscillatory motion is periodic motion that is every oscillatory motion repeats
itself after the fixed interval of time. But every periodic motion is not oscillatory.
For e.g.:- Motion of planets around the sun is periodic but is not oscillatory motion.

Period
The time taken by an oscillating body to complete one cycle of oscillation.
It is denoted by T.
Its SI unit is second.
Frequency

It is defined as number of cycles per second.

It is denoted by ν.
Its SI unit is sec-1
Special Unit is Hertz(Hz)
Relation between Period and Frequency
ν = 1/T
where ν = number of cycles in 1 second ; T = 1 cycle
 Displacement

Displacement in periodic motion can be represented by a function which is periodic

which repeats after fixed interval of time.
f (t) = A cos ωt
As cosine function repeats after 2π so it can be written as
cos (ωt) = cos (ωt + 2π) ...Equation (1)
Let Time Period = T
f (T) = f(t+T) where displacement keeps on repeating after (t+T)
Acos(ωt) = cosω(t+T) = Acos(ωt+ wT)
Acosωt = A cos (ωt+ωT) ...Equation (2)
From Equation (1) and Equation (2)
T=2π /ω
Displacement as a combination of sin and cos functions
f (t) = A sin ωt + Bcos ωt
Let, A = D cosΦ B = D sinΦ
f (t) = DcosΦ sinωT + DsinΦ cos ωt
=D (cosΦ sinωT + sinΦ cos ωt)
f (t) = D sin (ωt + Φ) (Using sinAcosB + sinBcosA = sin (A+B))
Φ in terms of A and B:-
tan Φ = B/A
Or Φ= tan-1B/A SHM imp h padh lena...

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Simple harmonic motion

-1 is a special type of periodic oscillatory motion in which
The particle oscillates on a straight line.
The acceleration of the particle is always directed towards a fixed point on the line.
The magnitude of acceleration is proportional to the displacement of the particle.
Velocity & Acceleration in Simple Harmonic Motion
The speed v of a particle in uniform circular motion is, its angular speed ω times
the radius of the circle A.
The direction of velocity v at a time t is along the tangent to the circle at the
point where the particle is located at that instant. From the geometry of the given
figure, it is clear that the velocity, of the projection particle P' at time t is

Where the –ve sign shows that direction of v(t) is opposite to the +ve direction of x-
axis.
The instantaneous acceleration of the projection of particle P' is then

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

KE and PE of a particle in SHM vary between zero and their maximum values. The
velocity of a particle executing SHM is zero at the extreme positions. So, the kinetic
energy (K) of such a particle is

This is also a periodic function of time, being zero when the displacement is maximum
and minimum when the particle is at the mean position.
The spring force, F = –kx is a conservative force, with associated potential energy.
So, the P.E. of a particle executing SHM is,
 So, PE of a particle executing SHM is also periodic, with period T/2, being zero at the
mean position and maximum at the extreme displacements.
The total energy, E, of the system is

The total mechanical energy of a harmonic oscillator is thus independent of time as

expected for motion under any conservative force.

Some System Executing S.H.M.

(i) Oscillations due to a Spring

The simplest example of SHM is the small oscillations of a block of mass m fixed to a
spring, which is fixed to a rigid wall as shown in figure.
In the figure A linear SHM consisting of a block of mass m is attached to a
spring.The block moves over a frictionless surface. The block, when pulled or pushed
and released, executes SHM.
At any time t, the displacement from the mean position is x, and the restoring force
F acting on the block is

F(x) = –kx
k ---> spring constant. Its value is governed by the elastic properties of the spring. A
soft spring has small value of k and a stiff spring has large value of k. Angular
frequency of the oscillator is given by,

ω= k/m
Time period of the oscillator is given by
(ii) The Simple Pendulum
Consider a simple pendulum. A small bob of mass m is tied to an inextensible massless
string of length L. The other end of the string is fixed to a support on the ceiling. The
bob oscillates in a plane about the vertical line through the support. Let θ be the angle
which the string makes with the vertical. Here θ = 0 when the bob is at the mean
position. The two forces acting on the bob are
The tension T along the string and
The vertical force due to gravity (mg).
The formula for time period of a simple pendulum is given by,
T=2π L/g

Let θ be the angle made by the string with the vertical. When the bob is at the
mean position, θ = 0

The radial acceleration is provided by the net radial force

T -mg cos0, while the tangential acceleration is provided by mg sint. It is
more convenient to work with torque about the support since the radial force
gives zero torque. Torque + about the support is entirely provided by the
tangental component of force
𝓣= -L (mg sin𝞡)
if we assume that the displacement θ is small. We know that sin e can be
expressed as,

where θ is in radians.

Now if θ is small, sinθ can be approximated by 0 and can then be written as,

Ques: What is the length of a simple pendulum, which ticks seconds ?

the time period of a simple pendulum is given by,

From this relation one gets,

 The time period of a simple pendulum, which ticks seconds, is 2 s.
Therefore, for g = 9.8 ms–2 andT =2s,
L is

Forced Oscillations and Resonance

When a system like a pendulum is displaced and released, it undergoes free

oscillations at its natural frequency ω. These oscillations naturally die out due to
damping forces. However, external agencies can sustain them, leading to forced or
driven oscillations.
Resonance is a phenomenon where the amplitude of oscillations increases
significantly if the driving force frequency is close to the natural frequency of the
system. For example, in a swing, pushing at the natural frequency results in higher
amplitudes.

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”

~KHTM HO GAYA MAUJ KARO~

 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
Leharein..

(i) Transverse waves

Transverse waves are the waves in which the constituents of the medium oscillate
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

If we give an upward jerk to one end of a long rope that has its opposite end fixed,
a single wave pulse is formed and travels along the rope with a fixed speed.

(ii) Longitudinal waves

Longitudinal waves are the waves in which the constituents of the medium oscillate
along the direction of wave propagation.
 Displacement Relation in a Progressive Wave

A traveling wave is also referred as a progressive wave.

It may be transverse or longitudinal. We consider a transverse wave so that if

it travels along positive x-axis, the constituent particles of the medium vibrate
along y-axis, about their mean positions.

In general, sinusoidal shape can be described by sine function or cosine

function.

At time t, the displacement y of the element located at position x is given by

where y(x, t) → Displacement of the medium particles from their mean

positions
a → Amplitude of a wave
ω → Angular frequency of the wave
k → Angular wave number
φ → Initial phase angle

Some Important Terms

Inhe padh lo , imp h

(i) Amplitude

The maximum displacement of the constituents of the medium from their equilibrium
position is called amplitude of the wave.
(ii) Phase

Phase of a wave is the argument of the sine function. Phase determines the
displacement of the wave at any position and at any instant.

(iii) Crest
It is the point of maximum positive displacement on a wave. The peak of a
sinusoidal wave represents a crest.

(iv) Trough

It is the point of maximum negative displacement on a wave.

(v) Time period

Time period of oscillation of the wave is the time it takes for an element of the
medium to complete one full oscillation.

(vi) Wavelength

Wavelength is the minimum distance between two points having the same phase at
a given time. It is usually denoted by λ.

(vii) Frequency

The frequency 'ν' of the wave is the number of oscillations per second. It is denoted
by the symbol ‘ν’. The SI unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).
 The Speed of a Traveling Wave

Speed of the wave is :

Also We Know,
ω=2π/T k=2π/λ
v=λ/T v=fλ

(i) Speed of a transverse wave on stretched string

(ii) Speed of a longitudinal wave

In case of a linear medium like a solid rod the relevant modulus of elasticity is Young’s
modulus (Y). Therefore, in case of solids, velocity of longitudinal wave is given by :

(iii) Speed of sound in gases

The speed of longitudinal waves in an ideal gas is Competitor asking akshay bhaiya itne
acche notes kaise bana lete ho ?
*Le Padhleakshay

This relation is known as Newton’s formula.

Newton assumed that the pressure variations in a medium during propagation of
sound are isothermal. Laplace pointed out that the pressure variations in the gases
when sound propagates are so fast that the heat does get enough time to flow to
surroundings or from surroundings to keep the temperature constant. Therefore, the
variations are adiabatic and not isothermal.

The speed of sound in a gas is

This value of the speed of sound matches with the speed of sound measured
experimentally.

The Principle of Superposition of Waves

Whenever two wave pulses traveling in opposite directions cross each other, they
retain their individual identities. However at the instant, they overlap each other,
the wave pattern is different from the individual pulses.

The resultant displacement, at the instant they overlap, is the algebraic sum of
the displacement due to each pulse.

Thus we can say that each pulse moves as if others are not present.

The net displacement of the constituents of the medium is an algebraic sum of

the two interfering pulses. This is called the principle of superposition of waves.

Reflection and Transmission of Waves

When a progressive wave, like a transverse wave travelling along a stretched string
arrives at a rigid boundary, the wave gets reflected.

The reflected wave suffers a phase change of 180° on reflection. At the rigid
boundary, disturbance must have zero displacement all the time.
By the principle of superposition, this could be possible only when the two waves
(the incident and the reflected waves) have a phase difference of 180° or π
radian.

If we apply Newton’s 3rd law, the arriving wave exerts a force on the rigid
boundary. The reaction to this force, exerted by the rigid boundary on the string
‘Kicks back’ on the string and sets up a reflected pulse with a phase difference of
π radian. Thus, a crest is reflected as a trough.

The phenomenon of echo is an example of reflection of sound by a rigid

boundary.

Standing or Stationary Waves

When a travelling wave in one direction will get reflected at one end, which in turn
will travel and get reflected from the other end. This will go on until there is a
steady wave pattern set up on the string. Such wave patterns are called standing
waves or stationary waves.

The points, where the oscillation amplitude is zero are called displacement nodes and
the points where the displacement amplitude is maximum are called displacement
antinodes.

Thus, the particles at nodes do not move at all, hence prohibiting any flow of energy
through them.
 Beats
Gaane wale beats ki science

When two harmonic sound waves of equal amplitude but slightly different
frequencies superpose, the resultant wave looks like a single sinusoidal wave with a
varying amplitude that goes from maximum to zero and back.

The amplitude variation causes the variation of intensity called beats.

The frequency with which the amplitude rises and falls is called the beat frequency
and is equal to the difference in frequencies of the two waves.

The rise and fall of the intensity of sound is called waxing and waning.

Doppler Effect

Whenever there is a relative motion between the source of sound and an observer,
the frequency of sound received or heard by the observer is different from the
frequency of sound produced by the source. This is called Doppler effect.

Doppler effect can be observed when

The source is moving but the observer is stationary.
The observer is moving but the source is stationary.
Both the source and observer are moving.

(i) Source Moving : Observer Stationary

Let us consider a source of sound producing a wave of angular frequency ω, velocity

v and time period T0, moving with velocity vs. As a convention we have taken the
direction from the observer to the source as positive.
 For a source approaching the observer

(ii) Observer Moving : Source Stationary

Let us consider a source of sound producing a wave of angular frequency ω,

velocity v and time period T0, to be at rest. While an observer initially at O1 is
moving with velocity vs towards the source.

If the observer moves away from the source,

(iii) Both Source and Observer Moving

Let us consider that both the source and observer are moving with velocity vs and
v0 respectively. The source emits a wave of angular frequency ω, velocity v and
time period T0.

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”
Ques: Given below are some examples of wave motion. State in each case if the wave
motion is transverse, longitudinal or a combination of both:
(a) Motion of a kink in a longitudinal spring produced by displacing one end of
the spring sideways.
(b) Waves produced in a cylinder containing a liquid by moving its piston back
and forth.
(c) Waves produced by a motorboat sailing in water.
(d) Ultrasonic waves in air produced by a vibrating quartz crystal.

Answer
(a):Transverse and longitudinal
(b):Longitudinal
(c):Transverse and longitudinal
(d):Longitudinal

Ques: A wave travelling along a string is described by, y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x-
3.0 t), in which the numerical constants are in SI units (0.005 m, 80.0 rad m', and
3.0 rad s-'). Calculate (a) the amplitude,
(b) the wavelength, and
(c) the period and frequency of the wave. Also, calculate the displacement y of the
wave at a distance x = 30.0 cm and time t = 20 s ?

On comparing this displacement equation with ,

y (x, t) = a sin (kx- ot),
we find
(a) the amplitude of the wave is 0.005 m = 5 mm.
(b)the angular wave number k and angular frequency a are
k = 80.0 m⁻¹ and w = 3.0 s⁻¹
We, then, relate the wavelength ⋋ to k through
 The displacement y at x = 30.0 cm and

time t = 20 s is given by

y = (0.005 m) sin (80.0 × 0.3 - 3.0 × 20)

= (0.005 m) sin (-36 + 12л)

= (0.005 m) sin (1.699)

= (0.005 m) sin (97⁰) = 5 mm

“NCERT IN TEXT QUESTIONS AND BACK

QUESTIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT”

~KHTM HO GAYA MAUJ KARO~

Self Notes