Research Methodology QB

Q1.What is Research? Explain different types of Research?

Ans. What is Research: Definition, Methods, Types & Examples

The search for knowledge is closely linked to the object of study; that is,
to the reconstruction of the facts that will provide an explanation to an
observed event and that at first sight can be considered as a problem. It
is very human to seek answers and satisfy our curiosity. Let’s talk about
research.

What is Research?

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular

concern or research problem using scientific methods. According to the
American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry
to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It
involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods

verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated
with qualitative research, and deductive methods are more commonly
associated with quantitative analysis.

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

• Identify potential and new customers

• Understand existing customers
• Set pragmatic goals
• Develop productive market strategies
• Address business challenges
• Put together a business expansion plan
• Identify new business opportunities

What are the characteristics of research?

1. Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate

data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct
while making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both
inductive and deductive methods.
3. Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations
in natural settings.
 4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are
no anomalies associated with it.
5. It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data
helps create more research opportunities.
6. It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The
information must be accurate and correct. For example,
laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data.
Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

What is the purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:

1. Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers

conduct exploratory studies to explore a group of questions. The
answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived
problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that
haven’t been explored before. This exploratory data
analysis process lays the foundation for more conclusive data
collection and analysis.

1. Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current

issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive
research describe the behavior of a sample population. Only one
variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary
purposes of descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and
validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if
top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess the
moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the
company profit.

1. Explanatory: Causal research or explanatory research is

conducted to understand the impact of specific changes in existing
standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular
form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the
effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

Here is a comparative analysis chart for a better understanding:

Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Explanatory Rese

Approach used Unstructured Structured Highly structured

Conducted
Asking questions Asking questions By using hypothese
through

Early stages of decision Later stages of decision Later stages of deci

Time
making making making

It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate

method to investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your
questions, you can analyze the findings or observations to draw
reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your
questions, the better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand
perception and product needs by thoroughly collecting customer data
through surveys and questionnaires. You can use this data to make smart
decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business
effectively.

To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a
research repository as a single source of truth in your organization and
manage your research data in one centralized data repository.

Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified

as Qualitative and Quantitative.

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.

Qualitative methods

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational

methods, usually open-ended questions. The responses collected are
essentially non-numerical. This method helps a researcher understand
what participants think and why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

1. One-to-one Interview
2. Focus Groups
3. Ethnographic studies
4. Text Analysis
5. Case Study

Quantitative methods
Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a
systematic way of investigating events or data. It answers questions to
justify relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict,
or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

1. Survey research
2. Descriptive research
3. Correlational research

Remember, it is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and

reliable. Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in
sales.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

• Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.

• Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
• Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can
produce similar results.
• Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
• Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business
decisions.

8 tips for conducting accurate research

Review your goals before making any conclusions about your study.
Remember how the process you have completed and the data you have
gathered help answer your questions. Ask yourself if what your analysis
revealed facilitates the identification of your conclusions and
recommendations.

Q2. What is Research Problem? What are the sources of Research

problem?

Ans. What is a research problem? A research problem is, at the simplest

level, the core issue that a study will try to solve or (at least)
examine. In other words, it’s an explicit declaration about the problem
that your dissertation, thesis or research paper will address. More
technically, it identifies the research gap that the study will attempt to
fill (more on that later).

Let’s look at an example to make the research problem a little more

tangible.
To justify a hypothetical study, you might argue that there’s currently a
lack of research regarding the challenges experienced by first-generation
college students when writing their dissertations [PROBLEM]. As a result,
these students struggle to successfully complete their dissertations,
leading to higher-than-average dropout rates [CONSEQUENCE].
Therefore, your study will aim to address this lack of research – i.e., this
research problem [SOLUTION].
A research problem can be theoretical in nature, focusing on an area of
academic research that is lacking in some way. Alternatively, a research
problem can be more applied in nature, focused on finding a practical
solution to an established problem within an industry or an organisation.
In other words, theoretical research problems are motivated by the desire
to grow the overall body of knowledge, while applied research
problems are motivated by the need to find practical solutions to
current real-world problems (such as the one in the example above).
As you can probably see, the research problem acts as the driving force
behind any study, as it directly shapes the research aims, objectives
and research questions, as well as the research approach. Therefore, it’s
really important to develop a very clearly articulated research
problem before you even start your research proposal. A vague
research problem will lead to unfocused, potentially conflicting research
aims, objectives and research questions.

What is a research problem statement?

As the name suggests, a problem statement (within a research context,
at least) is an explicit statement that clearly and concisely articulates
the specific research problem your study will address. While your
research problem can span over multiple paragraphs, your problem
statement should be brief, ideally no longer than one paragraph.
Importantly, it must clearly state what the problem is (whether
theoretical or practical in nature) and how the study will address it.
Here’s an example of a statement of the problem in a research context:
Rural communities across Ghana lack access to clean water, leading to
high rates of waterborne illnesses and infant mortality. Despite this, there
is little research investigating the effectiveness of community-led water
supply projects within the Ghanaian context. Therefore, this study aims to
investigate the effectiveness of such projects in improving access to clean
water and reducing rates of waterborne illnesses in these communities.
As you can see, this problem statement clearly and concisely identifies
the issue that needs to be addressed (i.e., a lack of research regarding
the effectiveness of community-led water supply projects) and
the research question that the study aims to answer (i.e., are
community-led water supply projects effective in reducing waterborne
illnesses?), all within one short paragraph.

Where do research problems come from?

Wherever there is a lack of well-established and agreed-upon
academic literature, there is an opportunity for research problems to
arise, since there is a paucity of (credible) knowledge. In other
words, research problems are derived from research gaps. These
gaps can arise from various sources, including the emergence of new
frontiers or new contexts, as well as disagreements within the existing
research.
Let’s look at each of these scenarios:
New frontiers – new technologies, discoveries or breakthroughs can
open up entirely new frontiers where there is very little existing research,
thereby creating fresh research gaps. For example, as generative AI
technology became accessible to the general public in 2023, the full
implications and knock-on effects of this were (or perhaps, still are)
largely unknown and therefore present multiple avenues for researchers
to explore.
New contexts – very often, existing research tends to be concentrated
on specific contexts and geographies. Therefore, even within well-studied
fields, there is often a lack of research within niche contexts. For
example, just because a study finds certain results within a western
context doesn’t mean that it would necessarily find the same within an
eastern context. If there’s reason to believe that results may vary across
these geographies, a potential research gap emerges.
Disagreements – within many areas of existing research, there are
(quite naturally) conflicting views between researchers, where each side
presents strong points that pull in opposing directions. In such cases, it’s
still somewhat uncertain as to which viewpoint (if any) is more accurate.
As a result, there is room for further research in an attempt to “settle” the
debate.
Of course, many other potential scenarios can give rise to research gaps,
and consequently, research problems, but these common ones are a
useful starting point. If you’re interested in research gaps, you can learn
more here.

How to find a research problem

Given that research problems flow from research gaps, finding a
strong research problem for your research project means that you’ll need
to first identify a clear research gap. Below, we’ll present a four-step
process to help you find and evaluate potential research problems.
If you’ve read our other articles about finding a research topic, you’ll find
the process below very familiar as the research problem is the
foundation of any study. In other words, finding a research problem is
much the same as finding a research topic.
Step 1 – Identify your area of interest
Naturally, the starting point is to first identify a general area of
interest. Chances are you already have something in mind, but if not,
have a look at past dissertations and theses within your institution to
get some inspiration. These present a goldmine of information as they’ll
not only give you ideas for your own research, but they’ll also help you
see exactly what the norms and expectations are for these types of
projects.
At this stage, you don’t need to get super specific. The objective is simply
to identify a couple of potential research areas that interest you. For
example, if you’re undertaking research as part of a business degree, you
may be interested in social media marketing strategies for small
businesses, leadership strategies for multinational companies, etc.
Depending on the type of project you’re undertaking, there may also
be restrictions or requirements regarding what topic areas you’re
allowed to investigate, what type of methodology you can utilise, etc. So,
be sure to first familiarise yourself with your institution’s specific
requirements and keep these front of mind as you explore potential
research ideas.
Step 2 – Review the literature and develop a shortlist
Once you’ve decided on an area that interests you, it’s time to sink your
teeth into the literature. In other words, you’ll need to familiarise
yourself with the existing research regarding your interest area. Google
Scholar is a good starting point for this, as you can simply enter a few
keywords and quickly get a feel for what’s out there. Keep an eye out for
recent literature reviews and systematic review-type journal articles, as
these will provide a good overview of the current state of research.
At this stage, you don’t need to read every journal article from start to
finish. A good strategy is to pay attention to the abstract, intro and
conclusion, as together these provide a snapshot of the key takeaways.
As you work your way through the literature, keep an eye out for what’s
missing – in other words, what questions does the current research not
answer adequately (or at all)? Importantly, pay attention to the section
titled “further research is needed”, typically found towards the very
end of each journal article. This section will specifically outline potential
research gaps that you can explore, based on the current state of
knowledge (provided the article you’re looking at is recent).
Take the time to engage with the literature and develop a big-picture
understanding of the current state of knowledge. Reviewing the literature
takes time and is an iterative process, but it’s an essential part of the
research process, so don’t cut corners at this stage.
As you work through the review process, take note of any potential
research gaps that are of interest to you. From there, develop a
shortlist of potential research gaps (and resultant research problems)
– ideally 3 – 5 options that interest you.

Step 3 – Evaluate your potential options

Once you’ve developed your shortlist, you’ll need to evaluate your
options to identify a winner. There are many potential evaluation criteria
that you can use, but we’ll outline three common ones here: value,
practicality and personal appeal.
Value – a good research problem needs to create value when
successfully addressed. Ask yourself:
• Who will this study benefit (e.g., practitioners, researchers,
academia)?
• How will it benefit them specifically?
• How much will it benefit them?
Practicality – a good research problem needs to be manageable in light
of your resources. Ask yourself:
• What data will I need access to?
• What knowledge and skills will I need to undertake the analysis?
• What equipment or software will I need to process and/or analyse
the data?
• How much time will I need?
• What costs might I incur?
Personal appeal – a research project is a commitment, so the research
problem that you choose needs to be
genuinely attractive and interesting to you. Ask yourself:
• How appealing is the prospect of solving this research problem (on
a scale of 1 – 10)?
• Why, specifically, is it attractive (or unattractive) to me?
• Does the research align with my longer-term goals (e.g., career
goals, educational path, etc)?
Depending on how many potential options you have, you may want
to consider creating a spreadsheet where you numerically rate each of
the options in terms of these criteria. Remember to also include
any criteria specified by your institution. From there, tally up the
numbers and pick a winner.
Step 4 – Craft your problem statement
Once you’ve selected your research problem, the final step is to craft a
problem statement. Remember, your problem statement needs to be
a concise outline of what the core issue is and how your study will
address it. Aim to fit this within one paragraph – don’t waffle on. Have a
look at the problem statement example we mentioned earlier if you need
some inspiration.

Key Takeaways
We’ve covered a lot of ground. Let’s do a quick recap of the key
takeaways:
• A research problem is an explanation of the issue that your study
will try to solve. This explanation needs to highlight the problem,
the consequence and the solution or response.
• A problem statement is a clear and concise summary of the
research problem, typically contained within one paragraph.
• Research problems emerge from research gaps, which
themselves can emerge from multiple potential sources, including
new frontiers, new contexts or disagreements within the existing
literature.
• To find a research problem, you need to first identify your area
of interest, then review the literature and develop a shortlist,
after which you’ll evaluate your options, select a winner and craft
a problem statement.
Q3. Define Research? Explain its significance?
Ans. Above:
Q4. What is hypothesis? Explain the role of Hypothesis
Ans. Hypothesis is a testable statement that explains what is
happening or observed. It proposes the relation between the various
participating variables. Hypothesis is also called Theory, Thesis, Guess,
Assumption, or Suggestion. Hypothesis creates a structure that guides
the search for knowledge.
In this article, we will learn what is hypothesis, its characteristics,
types, and examples. We will also learn how hypothesis helps in
scientific research.
What is Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a suggested idea or plan that has little proof, meant to
lead to more study. It’s mainly a smart guess or suggested answer to a
problem that can be checked through study and trial. In science work,
we make guesses called hypotheses to try and figure out what will
happen in tests or watching. These are not sure things but rather ideas
that can be proved or disproved based on real-life proofs. A good theory
is clear and can be tested and found wrong if the proof doesn’t support
it.
Hypothesis Meaning
A hypothesis is a proposed statement that is testable and is given for
something that happens or observed.
 • It is made using what we already know and have seen, and it’s
the basis for scientific research.
• A clear guess tells us what we think will happen in an
experiment or study.
• It’s a testable clue that can be proven true or wrong with real-
life facts and checking it out carefully.
• It usually looks like a “if-then” rule, showing the expected cause
and effect relationship between what’s being studied.
Characteristics of Hypothesis
Here are some key characteristics of a hypothesis:
• Testable: An idea (hypothesis) should be made so it can be
tested and proven true through doing experiments or watching.
It should show a clear connection between things.
• Specific: It needs to be easy and on target, talking about a
certain part or connection between things in a study.
• Falsifiable: A good guess should be able to show it’s wrong.
This means there must be a chance for proof or seeing
something that goes against the guess.
• Logical and Rational: It should be based on things we know
now or have seen, giving a reasonable reason that fits with
what we already know.
• Predictive: A guess often tells what to expect from an
experiment or observation. It gives a guide for what someone
might see if the guess is right.
• Concise: It should be short and clear, showing the suggested
link or explanation simply without extra confusion.
• Grounded in Research: A guess is usually made from before
studies, ideas or watching things. It comes from a deep
understanding of what is already known in that area.
• Flexible: A guess helps in the research but it needs to change
or fix when new information comes up.
• Relevant: It should be related to the question or problem being
studied, helping to direct what the research is about.
• Empirical: Hypotheses come from observations and can be
tested using methods based on real-world experiences.
Sources of Hypothesis
Hypotheses can come from different places based on what you’re
studying and the kind of research. Here are some common sources from
which hypotheses may originate:
• Existing Theories: Often, guesses come from well-known
science ideas. These ideas may show connections between
things or occurrences that scientists can look into more.
• Observation and Experience: Watching something happen or
having personal experiences can lead to guesses. We notice odd
things or repeat events in everyday life and experiments. This
can make us think of guesses called hypotheses.
 • Previous Research: Using old studies or discoveries can help
come up with new ideas. Scientists might try to expand or
question current findings, making guesses that further study old
results.
• Literature Review: Looking at books and research in a subject
can help make guesses. Noticing missing parts or mismatches in
previous studies might make researchers think up guesses to
deal with these spots.
• Problem Statement or Research Question: Often, ideas
come from questions or problems in the study. Making clear
what needs to be looked into can help create ideas that tackle
certain parts of the issue.
• Analogies or Comparisons: Making comparisons between
similar things or finding connections from related areas can lead
to theories. Understanding from other fields could create new
guesses in a different situation.
• Hunches and Speculation: Sometimes, scientists might get a
gut feeling or make guesses that help create ideas to test.
Though these may not have proof at first, they can be a
beginning for looking deeper.
• Technology and Innovations: New technology or tools might
make guesses by letting us look at things that were hard to
study before.
• Personal Interest and Curiosity: People’s curiosity and
personal interests in a topic can help create guesses. Scientists
could make guesses based on their own likes or love for a
subject.
Types of Hypothesis
Here are some common types of hypotheses:
• Simple Hypothesis
• Complex Hypothesis
• Directional Hypothesis
• Non-directional Hypothesis
• Null Hypothesis (H0)
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha)
• Statistical Hypothesis
• Research Hypothesis
• Associative Hypothesis
• Causal Hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis guesses a connection between two things. It says
that there is a connection or difference between variables, but it doesn’t
tell us which way the relationship goes.
Complex Hypothesis
Complex Hypothesis tells us what will happen when more than two
things are connected. It looks at how different things interact and may
be linked together.
Directional Hypothesis
Directional Hypothesis says how one thing is related to another. For
example, it guesses that one thing will help or hurt another thing.
Non-Directional Hypothesis
Non-Directional Hypothesis are the one that don’t say how the
relationship between things will be. They just say that there is a
connection, without telling which way it goes.
Null Hypothesis (H0)
Null hypothesis is a statement that says there’s no connection or
difference between different things. It implies that any seen impacts are
because of luck or random changes in the information.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha)
Alternative Hypothesis is different from the null hypothesis and shows
that there’s a big connection or gap between variables. Scientists want
to say no to the null hypothesis and choose the alternative one.
Statistical Hypothesis
Statistical Hypotheis are used in math testing and include making ideas
about what groups or bits of them look like. You aim to get information
or test certain things using these top-level, common words only.
Research Hypothesis
Research Hypothesis comes from the research question and tells what
link is expected between things or factors. It leads the study and
chooses where to look more closely.
Associative Hypothesis
Associative Hypotheis guesses that there is a link or connection between
things without really saying it caused them. It means that when one
thing changes, it is connected to another thing changing.
Causal Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis are different from other ideas because they say that
one thing causes another. This means there’s a cause and effect
relationship between variables involved in the situation. They say that
when one thing changes, it directly makes another thing change.
Hypothesis Examples
Following are the examples of hypotheses based on their types:
Simple Hypothesis Example
• Studying more can help you do better on tests.
• Getting more sun makes people have higher amounts of vitamin
D.
Complex Hypothesis Example
• How rich you are, how easy it is to get education and healthcare
greatly affects the number of years people live.
• A new medicine’s success relies on the amount used, how old a
person is who takes it and their genes.
Directional Hypothesis Example
• Drinking more sweet drinks is linked to a higher body weight
score.
• Too much stress makes people less productive at work.
Non-directional Hypothesis Example
• Drinking caffeine can affect how well you sleep.
• People often like different kinds of music based on their gender.
Null Hypothesis (H0)
• The average test scores of Group A and Group B are not much
different.
• There is no connection between using a certain fertilizer and
how much it helps crops grow.
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)
• Patients on Diet A have much different cholesterol levels than
those following Diet B.
• Exposure to a certain type of light can change how plants grow
compared to normal sunlight.
Statistical Hypothesis
• The average smarts score of kids in a certain school area is
100.
• The usual time it takes to finish a job using Method A is the
same as with Method B.
Research Hypothesis
• Having more kids go to early learning classes helps them do
better in school when they get older.
• Using specific ways of talking affects how much customers get
involved in marketing activities.
Associative Hypothesis
• Regular exercise helps to lower the chances of heart disease.
• Going to school more can help people make more money.
Causal Hypothesis
• Playing violent video games makes teens more likely to act
aggressively.
• Less clean air directly impacts breathing health in city
populations.
Functions of Hypothesis
Hypotheses have many important jobs in the process of scientific
research. Here are the key functions of hypotheses:
• Guiding Research: Hypotheses give a clear and exact way for
research. They act like guides, showing the predicted
connections or results that scientists want to study.
• Formulating Research Questions: Research questions often
create guesses. They assist in changing big questions into
particular, checkable things. They guide what the study should
be focused on.
• Setting Clear Objectives: Hypotheses set the goals of a study
by saying what connections between variables should be found.
 They set the targets that scientists try to reach with their
studies.
• Testing Predictions: Theories guess what will happen in
experiments or observations. By doing tests in a planned way,
scientists can check if what they see matches the guesses made
by their ideas.
• Providing Structure: Theories give structure to the study
process by arranging thoughts and ideas. They aid scientists in
thinking about connections between things and plan
experiments to match.
• Focusing Investigations: Hypotheses help scientists focus on
certain parts of their study question by clearly saying what they
expect links or results to be. This focus makes the study work
better.
• Facilitating Communication: Theories help scientists talk to
each other effectively. Clearly made guesses help scientists to
tell others what they plan, how they will do it and the results
expected. This explains things well with colleagues in a wide
range of audiences.
• Generating Testable Statements: A good guess can be
checked, which means it can be looked at carefully or tested by
doing experiments. This feature makes sure that guesses add to
the real information used in science knowledge.
• Promoting Objectivity: Guesses give a clear reason for study
that helps guide the process while reducing personal bias. They
motivate scientists to use facts and data as proofs or disprovals
for their proposed answers.
• Driving Scientific Progress: Making, trying out and adjusting
ideas is a cycle. Even if a guess is proven right or wrong, the
information learned helps to grow knowledge in one specific
area.
How Hypothesis help in Scientific Research?
Researchers use hypotheses to put down their thoughts directing how
the experiment would take place. Following are the steps that are
involved in the scientific method:
• Initiating Investigations: Hypotheses are the beginning of
science research. They come from watching, knowing what’s
already known or asking questions. This makes scientists make
certain explanations that need to be checked with tests.
• Formulating Research Questions: Ideas usually come from
bigger questions in study. They help scientists make these
questions more exact and testable, guiding the study’s main
point.
• Setting Clear Objectives: Hypotheses set the goals of a study
by stating what we think will happen between different things.
They set the goals that scientists want to reach by doing their
studies.
 • Designing Experiments and Studies: Assumptions help plan
experiments and watchful studies. They assist scientists in
knowing what factors to measure, the techniques they will use
and gather data for a proposed reason.
• Testing Predictions: Ideas guess what will happen in
experiments or observations. By checking these guesses
carefully, scientists can see if the seen results match up with
what was predicted in each hypothesis.
• Analysis and Interpretation of Data: Hypotheses give us a
way to study and make sense of information. Researchers look
at what they found and see if it matches the guesses made in
their theories. They decide if the proof backs up or disagrees
with these suggested reasons why things are happening as
expected.
• Encouraging Objectivity: Hypotheses help make things fair
by making sure scientists use facts and information to either
agree or disagree with their suggested reasons. They lessen
personal preferences by needing proof from experience.
• Iterative Process: People either agree or disagree with
guesses, but they still help the ongoing process of science.
Findings from testing ideas make us ask new questions,
improve those ideas and do more tests. It keeps going on in the
work of science to keep learning things.
Q5. What do you mean by research methodology? Explain the process of
Research?
Ans. Research methodology1,2 is a structured and scientific approach used
to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer
research questions or test hypotheses. A research methodology is like a
plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track by
limiting the scope of the research. Several aspects must be considered
before selecting an appropriate research methodology, such as research
limitations and ethical concerns that may affect your research.
The research methodology section in a scientific paper describes the
different methodological choices made, such as the data collection and
analysis methods, and why these choices were selected. The reasons
should explain why the methods chosen are the most appropriate to
answer the research question. A good research methodology also helps
ensure the reliability and validity of the research findings. There are three
types of research methodology—quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-
method, which can be chosen based on the research objectives.

What is research methodology?

A research methodology describes the techniques and procedures used to
identify and analyze information regarding a specific research topic. It is a
process by which researchers design their study so that they can achieve
their objectives using the selected research instruments. It includes all
the important aspects of research, including research design, data
collection methods, data analysis methods, and the overall framework
within which the research is conducted. While these points can help you
understand what is research methodology, you also need to know why it
is important to pick the right methodology.

Why is research methodology important?

Having a good research methodology in place has the following
advantages:3
▪ Helps other researchers who may want to replicate your research;
the explanations will be of benefit to them.
▪ You can easily answer any questions about your research if they
arise at a later stage.
▪ A research methodology provides a framework and guidelines for
researchers to clearly define research questions, hypotheses, and
objectives.
▪ It helps researchers identify the most appropriate research design,
sampling technique, and data collection and analysis methods.
▪ A sound research methodology helps researchers ensure that their
findings are valid and reliable and free from biases and errors.
▪ It also helps ensure that ethical guidelines are followed while
conducting research.
▪ A good research methodology helps researchers in planning their
research efficiently, by ensuring optimum usage of their time and
resources.
Above Q1 ans.
Q5. Write a short note on the different tools used for data collection?
Ans. Definition:
Data collection is the process of gathering and collecting information from
various sources to analyze and make informed decisions based on the
data collected. This can involve various methods, such as surveys,
interviews, experiments, and observation.

In order for data collection to be effective, it is important to have a clear

understanding of what data is needed and what the purpose of the data
collection is. This can involve identifying the population or sample being
studied, determining the variables to be measured, and selecting
appropriate methods for collecting and recording data.

Types of Data Collection

Types of Data Collection are as follows:

Primary Data Collection
Primary data collection is the process of gathering original and firsthand
information directly from the source or target population. This type of
data collection involves collecting data that has not been previously
gathered, recorded, or published. Primary data can be collected through
various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, experiments,
and focus groups. The data collected is usually specific to the research
question or objective and can provide valuable insights that cannot be
obtained from secondary data sources. Primary data collection is often
used in market research, social research, and scientific research.

Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data collection is the process of gathering information from
existing sources that have already been collected and analyzed by
someone else, rather than conducting new research to collect primary
data. Secondary data can be collected from various sources, such as
published reports, books, journals, newspapers, websites, government
publications, and other documents.

Qualitative Data Collection

Qualitative data collection is used to gather non-numerical data such as
opinions, experiences, perceptions, and feelings, through techniques such
as interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis. It
seeks to understand the deeper meaning and context of a phenomenon or
situation and is often used in social sciences, psychology, and humanities.
Qualitative data collection methods allow for a more in-depth and holistic
exploration of research questions and can provide rich and nuanced
insights into human behavior and experiences.

Quantitative Data Collection

Quantitative data collection is a used to gather numerical data that can be
analyzed using statistical methods. This data is typically collected through
surveys, experiments, and other structured data collection methods.
Quantitative data collection seeks to quantify and measure variables, such
as behaviors, attitudes, and opinions, in a systematic and objective way.
This data is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and establish
correlations between variables. Quantitative data collection methods allow
for precise measurement and generalization of findings to a larger
population. It is commonly used in fields such as economics, psychology,
and natural sciences.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:
Surveys
Surveys involve asking questions to a sample of individuals or
organizations to collect data. Surveys can be conducted in person, over
the phone, or online.

Interviews
Interviews involve a one-on-one conversation between the interviewer
and the respondent. Interviews can be structured or unstructured and can
be conducted in person or over the phone.

Focus Groups
Focus groups are group discussions that are moderated by a facilitator.
Focus groups are used to collect qualitative data on a specific topic.

Observation
Observation involves watching and recording the behavior of people,
objects, or events in their natural setting. Observation can be done
overtly or covertly, depending on the research question.

Experiments
Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables and observing
the effect on another variable. Experiments are commonly used in
scientific research.

Case Studies
Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a single individual, organization,
or event. Case studies are used to gain detailed information about a
specific phenomenon.

Secondary Data Analysis

Secondary data analysis involves using existing data that was collected
for another purpose. Secondary data can come from various sources,
such as government agencies, academic institutions, or private
companies.

How to Collect Data

The following are some steps to consider when collecting data:

• Define the objective: Before you start collecting data, you

need to define the objective of the study. This will help you
determine what data you need to collect and how to collect it.
• Identify the data sources: Identify the sources of data that
will help you achieve your objective. These sources can be
primary sources, such as surveys, interviews, and observations,
or secondary sources, such as books, articles, and databases.
• Determine the data collection method: Once you have
identified the data sources, you need to determine the data
collection method. This could be through online surveys, phone
interviews, or face-to-face meetings.
• Develop a data collection plan: Develop a plan that outlines
the steps you will take to collect the data. This plan should
include the timeline, the tools and equipment needed, and the
personnel involved.
• Test the data collection process: Before you start collecting
data, test the data collection process to ensure that it is
effective and efficient.
• Collect the data: Collect the data according to the plan you
developed in step 4. Make sure you record the data accurately
and consistently.
• Analyze the data: Once you have collected the data, analyze it
to draw conclusions and make recommendations.
• Report the findings: Report the findings of your data analysis
to the relevant stakeholders. This could be in the form of a
report, a presentation, or a publication.
• Monitor and evaluate the data collection process: After the
data collection process is complete, monitor and evaluate the
process to identify areas for improvement in future data
collection efforts.
• Ensure data quality: Ensure that the collected data is of high
quality and free from errors. This can be achieved by validating
the data for accuracy, completeness, and consistency.
• Maintain data security: Ensure that the collected data is
secure and protected from unauthorized access or disclosure.
This can be achieved by implementing data security protocols
and using secure storage and transmission methods.
• Follow ethical considerations: Follow ethical considerations
when collecting data, such as obtaining informed consent from
participants, protecting their privacy and confidentiality, and
ensuring that the research does not cause harm to participants.
• Use appropriate data analysis methods: Use appropriate
data analysis methods based on the type of data collected and
the research objectives. This could include statistical analysis,
qualitative analysis, or a combination of both.
• Record and store data properly: Record and store the
collected data properly, in a structured and organized format.
This will make it easier to retrieve and use the data in future
research or analysis.
 • Collaborate with other stakeholders: Collaborate with other
stakeholders, such as colleagues, experts, or community
members, to ensure that the data collected is relevant and
useful for the intended purpose.
Applications of Data Collection
Data collection methods are widely used in different fields, including social
sciences, healthcare, business, education, and more. Here are some
examples of how data collection methods are used in different fields:

• Social sciences: Social scientists often use surveys,

questionnaires, and interviews to collect data from individuals or
groups. They may also use observation to collect data on social
behaviors and interactions. This data is often used to study
topics such as human behavior, attitudes, and beliefs.
• Healthcare: Data collection methods are used in healthcare to
monitor patient health and track treatment outcomes. Electronic
health records and medical charts are commonly used to collect
data on patients’ medical history, diagnoses, and treatments.
Researchers may also use clinical trials and surveys to collect
data on the effectiveness of different treatments.
• Business: Businesses use data collection methods to gather
information on consumer behavior, market trends, and
competitor activity. They may collect data through customer
surveys, sales reports, and market research studies. This data is
used to inform business decisions, develop marketing strategies,
and improve products and services.
• Education: In education, data collection methods are used to
assess student performance and measure the effectiveness of
teaching methods. Standardized tests, quizzes, and exams are
commonly used to collect data on student learning outcomes.
Teachers may also use classroom observation and student
feedback to gather data on teaching effectiveness.
• Agriculture: Farmers use data collection methods to monitor
crop growth and health. Sensors and remote sensing technology
can be used to collect data on soil moisture, temperature, and
nutrient levels. This data is used to optimize crop yields and
minimize waste.
• Environmental sciences: Environmental scientists use data
collection methods to monitor air and water quality, track
climate patterns, and measure the impact of human activity on
the environment. They may use sensors, satellite imagery, and
laboratory analysis to collect data on environmental factors.
• Transportation: Transportation companies use data collection
methods to track vehicle performance, optimize routes, and
improve safety. GPS systems, on-board sensors, and other
tracking technologies are used to collect data on vehicle speed,
fuel consumption, and driver behavior.
Examples of Data Collection
Examples of Data Collection are as follows:

• Traffic Monitoring: Cities collect real-time data on traffic

patterns and congestion through sensors on roads and cameras
at intersections. This information can be used to optimize traffic
flow and improve safety.
• Social Media Monitoring: Companies can collect real-time
data on social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook to
monitor their brand reputation, track customer sentiment, and
respond to customer inquiries and complaints in real-time.
• Weather Monitoring: Weather agencies collect real-time data
on temperature, humidity, air pressure, and precipitation
through weather stations and satellites. This information is used
to provide accurate weather forecasts and warnings.
• Stock Market Monitoring: Financial institutions collect real-
time data on stock prices, trading volumes, and other market
indicators to make informed investment decisions and respond
to market fluctuations in real-time.
• Health Monitoring: Medical devices such as wearable fitness
trackers and smartwatches can collect real-time data on a
person’s heart rate, blood pressure, and other vital signs. This
information can be used to monitor health conditions and detect
early warning signs of health issues.
Purpose of Data Collection
The purpose of data collection can vary depending on the context and
goals of the study, but generally, it serves to:

• Provide information: Data collection provides information

about a particular phenomenon or behavior that can be used to
better understand it.
• Measure progress: Data collection can be used to measure the
effectiveness of interventions or programs designed to address a
particular issue or problem.
• Support decision-making: Data collection provides decision-
makers with evidence-based information that can be used to
inform policies, strategies, and actions.
• Identify trends: Data collection can help identify trends and
patterns over time that may indicate changes in behaviors or
outcomes.
• Monitor and evaluate: Data collection can be used to monitor
and evaluate the implementation and impact of policies,
programs, and initiatives.
When to use Data Collection
Data collection is used when there is a need to gather information or data
on a specific topic or phenomenon. It is typically used in research,
evaluation, and monitoring and is important for making informed
decisions and improving outcomes.

Data collection is particularly useful in the following scenarios:

• Research: When conducting research, data collection is used to

gather information on variables of interest to answer research
questions and test hypotheses.
• Evaluation: Data collection is used in program evaluation to
assess the effectiveness of programs or interventions, and to
identify areas for improvement.
• Monitoring: Data collection is used in monitoring to track
progress towards achieving goals or targets, and to identify any
areas that require attention.
• Decision-making: Data collection is used to provide decision-
makers with information that can be used to inform policies,
strategies, and actions.
• Quality improvement: Data collection is used in quality
improvement efforts to identify areas where improvements can
be made and to measure progress towards achieving goals.
Characteristics of Data Collection
Data collection can be characterized by several important characteristics
that help to ensure the quality and accuracy of the data gathered. These
characteristics include:

•Validity: Validity refers to the accuracy and relevance of the

data collected in relation to the research question or objective.
• Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of
the data collection process, ensuring that the results obtained
are consistent over time and across different contexts.
• Objectivity: Objectivity refers to the impartiality of the data
collection process, ensuring that the data collected is not
influenced by the biases or personal opinions of the data
collector.
• Precision: Precision refers to the degree of accuracy and detail
in the data collected, ensuring that the data is specific and
accurate enough to answer the research question or objective.
• Timeliness: Timeliness refers to the efficiency and speed with
which the data is collected, ensuring that the data is collected in
a timely manner to meet the needs of the research or
evaluation.
• Ethical considerations: Ethical considerations refer to the
ethical principles that must be followed when collecting data,
such as ensuring confidentiality and obtaining informed consent
from participants.
Advantages of Data Collection
There are several advantages of data collection that make it an important
process in research, evaluation, and monitoring. These advantages
include:

• Better decision-making: Data collection provides decision-

makers with evidence-based information that can be used to
inform policies, strategies, and actions, leading to better
decision-making.
• Improved understanding: Data collection helps to improve
our understanding of a particular phenomenon or behavior by
providing empirical evidence that can be analyzed and
interpreted.
• Evaluation of interventions: Data collection is essential in
evaluating the effectiveness of interventions or programs
designed to address a particular issue or problem.
• Identifying trends and patterns: Data collection can help
identify trends and patterns over time that may indicate
changes in behaviors or outcomes.
• Increased accountability: Data collection increases
accountability by providing evidence that can be used to monitor
and evaluate the implementation and impact of policies,
programs, and initiatives.
• Validation of theories: Data collection can be used to test
hypotheses and validate theories, leading to a better
understanding of the phenomenon being studied.
• Improved quality: Data collection is used in quality
improvement efforts to identify areas where improvements can
be made and to measure progress towards achieving goals.
Limitations of Data Collection
While data collection has several advantages, it also has some limitations
that must be considered. These limitations include:

• Bias: Data collection can be influenced by the biases and

personal opinions of the data collector, which can lead to
inaccurate or misleading results.
• Sampling bias: Data collection may not be representative of
the entire population, resulting in sampling bias and inaccurate
results.
• Cost: Data collection can be expensive and time-consuming,
particularly for large-scale studies.
• Limited scope: Data collection is limited to the variables being
measured, which may not capture the entire picture or context
of the phenomenon being studied.
• Ethical considerations: Data collection must follow ethical
principles to protect the rights and confidentiality of the
 participants, which can limit the type of data that can be
collected.
• Data quality issues: Data collection may result in data quality
issues such as missing or incomplete data, measurement errors,
and inconsistencies.
• Limited generalizability: Data collection may not be
generalizable to other contexts or populations, limiting the
generalizability of the findings.
Q. Discuss different measurement scales in Research
Ans. Certain research data are qualitative in nature. Data on attitude,
opinion or behavior of employees, customers, and sales persons etc., are
qualitative. The terms “attitude” and “opinion” have frequently been
differentiated in psychological and sociological investigations. A commonly
drawn distinction has been to view an attitude as a predisposition to act in
a certain way and an opinion as a verbalization of the attitude. Thus, a
statement by a respondent that he prefers viewing color to black-and-white
television programs would be an opinion expressing one aspect of the
respondent’s attitude toward color television. Motivation, commitment,
satisfaction, leadership effectiveness, etc involve attitude measurement
based on revealed opinions. These qualitative data require measurement
scales for being measured.

Types of Measurement Scales used in Research

There are four different scales of measurement used in research;

nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. The rules used to assign numerals
objects define the kind of scale and level of measurement. A brief account
of each scaling type is given below;

1. Nominal Scales: Nominal scale is the simplest form of

measurement. A variable measured on a nominal is one which is
divided into two or more categories, for example, gender is
categorized as male or female, a question as to whether a family
owns a iPhone can be answered ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. It is simply a sorting
operation in which all individuals or units or answers can be placed in
one category or another (i.e. the categories are exhaustive). The
essential characteristic of a nominal scale is that in terms of a given
variable, one individual is different from another and the categories
are discriminate (i.e. the categories are mutually exclusive). This
characteristic of classification if fundamental to all scales of
measurement. Nominal scales that consist only two categories such
as female-male, agree-disagree,aware-unaware, yes-no, are unique
and are called dichotomous scales. Such dichotomous nominal scales
are important to researchers because the numerical labels for the two
scale categories can be treated as though they are of interval scale
value.
 2. Ordinal Scales: Ordinal scales have all the properties of a nominal
scale, but, in addition, categories can be ordered along a continuum,
in terms of a given criterion. Given three categories A, B and C, on
an ordinal scale, one might be able to say, for e.g., that A is greater
than B and B is greater than C. If numerals are assigned to ordinal
scale categories, the numerals serve only as ranks for ordering
observations from least to most in terms of the characteristic
measured and they do not indicate the distance between scale that
organizes observations in terms of categories such as high, medium
and low or strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, and strong
disagree.
3. Interval Scales: Interval scales incorporate all the properties of
nominal and ordinal scales and in addition, indicate the distance or
interval between the categories. In formal terms one can say not only
that A is greater than B and B is greater than C but also that (A-
B)=(B-C) or (A-C)=(A-B)+(B-C). Examples of interval scale include
age, income and investments. However, an interval scale is one
where there is no absolute zero point. It can be placed anywhere
along a continuum e.g., the age can be between 20 to 60 years and
need not necessarily start from 0 years. This makes ratio comparison,
that A is twice that of B or so wrong.
4. Ratio Scales: A special form of interval scale is the ratio scale which
differs in that it has a true zero point or a point at which the
characteristic that is measured is presumed to be absent. Examples
of ratio scales include, weight, length, income, expenditure and
others. In each there is a concept of zero income, zero weight, etc.
Since ratio scales represent a refinement of interval scales, generally
these scales are not distinguished and both the terms are used inter-
changeably.

Each of the above four types of scales have a unique method of

measurement. Both nominal and ordinal scales consist of discrete number
of categories to which numbers are assigned. Thus, a variable such as
number of families owning a BMW or iPhone can only take values of 0, 1, 2
3 4 etc. It cannot have values such as 1.5 or 2.5 as the units are integers
and indivisible. But interval and ratio scales take any value between two
integers, as the variables are continuous. For example, given any ages
however close, it is possible to find a third which lies in between. Interval
and ratio scales are superior to normal and ordinal scales and a wealth of
statistical tools can be employed in their analysis. The different statistical
tools are related to these different measurement scales in research, in
that there is usually a correspondence between mathematical assumptions
of the statistical tool and the assumptions of the scale of measurement.
Care must be always taken to match the tools used with the scale of
measurement of variables and to use a method which implies a higher
scale measurement than the variable allows.
Q. List the different characteristics and requirements of the research
process
Ans. Research Process is a systematic and structured approach that
involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data or information
to answer a specific research question or solve a particular problem.

Research Process Steps

Research Process Steps are as follows:

Identify the Research Question or Problem

This is the first step in the research process. It involves identifying a
problem or question that needs to be addressed. The research question
should be specific, relevant, and focused on a particular area of interest.

Conduct a Literature Review

Once the research question has been identified, the next step is to
conduct a literature review. This involves reviewing existing research and
literature on the topic to identify any gaps in knowledge or areas where
further research is needed. A literature review helps to provide a
theoretical framework for the research and also ensures that the research
is not duplicating previous work.

Formulate a Hypothesis or Research Objectives

Based on the research question and literature review, the researcher can
formulate a hypothesis or research objectives. A hypothesis is a
statement that can be tested to determine its validity, while research
objectives are specific goals that the researcher aims to achieve through
the research.

Design a Research Plan and Methodology

This step involves designing a research plan and methodology that will
enable the researcher to collect and analyze data to test the hypothesis or
achieve the research objectives. The research plan should include details
on the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques
that will be used.

Collect and Analyze Data

This step involves collecting and analyzing data according to the research
plan and methodology. Data can be collected through various methods,
including surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. The data
analysis process involves cleaning and organizing the data, applying
statistical and analytical techniques to the data, and interpreting the
results.
Interpret the Findings and Draw Conclusions
After analyzing the data, the researcher must interpret the findings and
draw conclusions. This involves assessing the validity and reliability of the
results and determining whether the hypothesis was supported or not.
The researcher must also consider any limitations of the research and
discuss the implications of the findings.

Communicate the Results

Finally, the researcher must communicate the results of the research
through a research report, presentation, or publication. The research
report should provide a detailed account of the research process,
including the research question, literature review, research methodology,
data analysis, findings, and conclusions. The report should also include
recommendations for further research in the area.

Review and Revise

The research process is an iterative one, and it is important to review and
revise the research plan and methodology as necessary. Researchers
should assess the quality of their data and methods, reflect on their
findings, and consider areas for improvement.

Ethical Considerations
Throughout the research process, ethical considerations must be taken
into account. This includes ensuring that the research design protects the
welfare of research participants, obtaining informed consent, maintaining
confidentiality and privacy, and avoiding any potential harm to
participants or their communities.

Dissemination and Application

The final step in the research process is to disseminate the findings and
apply the research to real-world settings. Researchers can share their
findings through academic publications, presentations at conferences, or
media coverage. The research can be used to inform policy decisions,
develop interventions, or improve practice in the relevant field.

Research Process Example

Following is a Research Process Example:

Research Question: What are the effects of a plant-based diet on

athletic performance in high school athletes?
Step 1: Background Research Conduct a literature review to gain a better
understanding of the existing research on the topic. Read academic
articles and research studies related to plant-based diets, athletic
performance, and high school athletes.
Step 2: Develop a Hypothesis Based on the literature review, develop a
hypothesis that a plant-based diet positively affects athletic performance
in high school athletes.
Step 3: Design the Study Design a study to test the hypothesis. Decide
on the study population, sample size, and research methods. For this
study, you could use a survey to collect data on dietary habits and
athletic performance from a sample of high school athletes who follow a
plant-based diet and a sample of high school athletes who do not follow a
plant-based diet.
Step 4: Collect Data Distribute the survey to the selected sample and
collect data on dietary habits and athletic performance.
Step 5: Analyze Data Use statistical analysis to compare the data from
the two samples and determine if there is a significant difference in
athletic performance between those who follow a plant-based diet and
those who do not.
Step 6: Interpret Results Interpret the results of the analysis in the
context of the research question and hypothesis. Discuss any limitations
or potential biases in the study design.
Step 7: Draw Conclusions Based on the results, draw conclusions about
whether a plant-based diet has a significant effect on athletic performance
in high school athletes. If the hypothesis is supported by the data, discuss
potential implications and future research directions.
Step 8: Communicate Findings Communicate the findings of the study in
a clear and concise manner. Use appropriate language, visuals, and
formats to ensure that the findings are understood and valued.
Applications of Research Process
The research process has numerous applications across a wide range of
fields and industries. Some examples of applications of the research
process include:

• Scientific research: The research process is widely used in

scientific research to investigate phenomena in the natural world
and develop new theories or technologies. This includes fields
such as biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental science.
• Social sciences: The research process is commonly used in
social sciences to study human behavior, social structures, and
institutions. This includes fields such as sociology, psychology,
anthropology, and economics.
• Education: The research process is used in education to study
learning processes, curriculum design, and teaching
methodologies. This includes research on student achievement,
teacher effectiveness, and educational policy.
• Healthcare: The research process is used in healthcare to
investigate medical conditions, develop new treatments, and
evaluate healthcare interventions. This includes fields such as
medicine, nursing, and public health.
 • Business and industry: The research process is used in
business and industry to study consumer behavior, market
trends, and develop new products or services. This includes
market research, product development, and customer
satisfaction research.
• Government and policy: The research process is used in
government and policy to evaluate the effectiveness of policies
and programs, and to inform policy decisions. This includes
research on social welfare, crime prevention, and environmental
policy.
Purpose of Research Process
The purpose of the research process is to systematically and scientifically
investigate a problem or question in order to generate new knowledge or
solve a problem. The research process enables researchers to:

• Identify gaps in existing knowledge: By conducting a

thorough literature review, researchers can identify gaps in
existing knowledge and develop research questions that address
these gaps.
• Collect and analyze data: The research process provides a
structured approach to collecting and analyzing data.
Researchers can use a variety of research methods, including
surveys, experiments, and interviews, to collect data that is
valid and reliable.
• Test hypotheses: The research process allows researchers to
test hypotheses and make evidence-based conclusions. Through
the systematic analysis of data, researchers can draw
conclusions about the relationships between variables and
develop new theories or models.
• Solve problems: The research process can be used to solve
practical problems and improve real-world outcomes. For
example, researchers can develop interventions to address
health or social problems, evaluate the effectiveness of policies
or programs, and improve organizational processes.
• Generate new knowledge: The research process is a key way
to generate new knowledge and advance understanding in a
given field. By conducting rigorous and well-designed research,
researchers can make significant contributions to their field and
help to shape future research.
Tips for Research Process
Here are some tips for the research process:

• Start with a clear research question: A well-defined

research question is the foundation of a successful research
project. It should be specific, relevant, and achievable within the
given time frame and resources.
 • Conduct a thorough literature review: A comprehensive
literature review will help you to identify gaps in existing
knowledge, build on previous research, and avoid duplication. It
will also provide a theoretical framework for your research.
• Choose appropriate research methods: Select research
methods that are appropriate for your research question,
objectives, and sample size. Ensure that your methods are valid,
reliable, and ethical.
• Be organized and systematic: Keep detailed notes
throughout the research process, including your research plan,
methodology, data collection, and analysis. This will help you to
stay organized and ensure that you don’t miss any important
details.
• Analyze data rigorously: Use appropriate statistical and
analytical techniques to analyze your data. Ensure that your
analysis is valid, reliable, and transparent.
• Interpret results carefully: Interpret your results in the
context of your research question and objectives. Consider any
limitations or potential biases in your research design, and be
cautious in drawing conclusions.
• Communicate effectively: Communicate your research
findings clearly and effectively to your target audience. Use
appropriate language, visuals, and formats to ensure that your
findings are understood and valued.
• Collaborate and seek feedback: Collaborate with other
researchers, experts, or stakeholders in your field. Seek
feedback on your research design, methods, and findings to
ensure that they are relevant, meaningful, and impactful.
Q. What are the key points to be considered while selecting a sample
Ans. When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely
possible to collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you
select a sample. The sample is the group of individuals who will actually
participate in the research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide
how you will select a sample that is representative of the group as a
whole. This is called a sampling method. There are two primary types of
sampling methods that you can use in your research:

• Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to

make strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
• Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based
on convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in

the methodology section of your paper or thesis, as well as how you
approached minimizing research bias in your work.
Population vs. sample
First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a
sample, and identify the target population of your research.

• The population is the entire group that you want to draw

conclusions about.
• The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect
data from.

The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age,

income, or many other characteristics.

It can be very broad or quite narrow:

maybe you want to make inferences about the whole adult population of
your country; maybe your research focuses on customers of a certain
company, patients with a specific health condition, or students in a single
school.

It is important to carefully define your target population according to the

purpose and practicalities of your project.

If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically

dispersed, it might be difficult to gain access to a representative sample.
A lack of a representative sample affects the validity of your results, and
can lead to several research biases, particularly sampling bias.

Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be
drawn from. Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and
nobody who is not part of that population).

Example: Sampling frameYou are doing research on working conditions at

a social media marketing company. Your population is all 1000 employees
of the company. Your sampling frame is the company’s HR database,
which lists the names and contact details of every employee.

Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on
various factors, including the size and variability of the population and
your research design. There are different sample size calculators and
formulas depending on what you want to achieve with statistical analysis.

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Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a
chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you
want to produce results that are representative of the whole population,
probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole
population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number
generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example: Simple random samplingYou want to select a simple random

sample of 1000 employees of a social media marketing company. You
assign a number to every employee in the company database from 1 to
1000, and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is
usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is
listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers,
individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example: Systematic samplingAll employees of the company are listed in

alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a
starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on
the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a
sample of 100 people.
If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no
hidden pattern in the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the
HR database groups employees by team, and team members are listed in
order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip over people
in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards senior
employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations
that may differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise
conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in
the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups
(called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity,
age range, income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how

many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use
random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

Example: Stratified samplingThe company has 800 female employees and

200 male employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the
gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into two strata
based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group,
selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative
sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but
each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample.
Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select
entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each

sampled cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample
individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques above.
This is called multistage sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but
there is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial
differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled
clusters are really representative of the whole population.

Example: Cluster samplingThe company has offices in 10 cities across the

country (all with roughly the same number of employees in similar roles).
You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data,
so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-
random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher
risk of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make about the
population are weaker than with probability samples, and your
conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample,
you should still aim to make it as representative of the population as
possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used

in exploratory and qualitative research. In these types of research, the
aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop
an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.
1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be
most accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no
way to tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t
produce generalizable results. Convenience samples are at risk for
both sampling bias and selection bias.

Example: Convenience samplingYou are researching opinions about

student support services in your university, so after each of your classes,
you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a
convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking
the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not
representative of all the students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly
based on ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants
and directly contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by
responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as

some people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others,
leading to self-selection bias.

Example: Voluntary response samplingYou send out the survey to all

students at your university and a lot of students decide to complete it.
This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people
who responded are more likely to be those who have strong opinions
about the student support services, so you can’t be sure that their
opinions are representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the
researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to
the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to

gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make
statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and specific.
An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for
inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion
criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your arguments.

Example: Purposive samplingYou want to know more about the opinions

and experiences of disabled students at your university, so you
purposefully select a number of students with different support needs in
order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student
services.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to
recruit participants via other participants. The number of people you have
access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more people. The
downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of knowing
how representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants
recruiting others. This can lead to sampling bias.

Example: Snowball samplingYou are researching experiences of

homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of all homeless people in
the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who
agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with
other homeless people that she knows in the area.

5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined
number or proportion of units. This is called a quota.

You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called
strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These
units share specific characteristics, determined by you prior to forming
your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control what or who makes
up your sample.

Example: Quota samplingYou want to gauge consumer interest in a new

produce delivery service in Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You
divide the population into meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans, drawing
a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater to all
consumers, you set a quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this
way, all dietary preferences are equally represented in your research, and
you can easily compare these groups.You continue recruiting until you
reach the quota of 200 participants for each subgroup.
Q. Explain the process of Sample Survey?

Home Surveys

Survey Sampling: What it is, Types & Tips:

Let’s say you wanted to do some research in Europe. Asking every person
in that region sounds impossible, right? Even if everyone said “yes,”
carrying out a survey across different countries, languages, and time
zones, collecting and processing all the results would take a long time and
be very costly. The data can be collected more quickly and save time a lot
from survey sampling.

Survey sampling is a process where researchers collect data from a

representative sample of their population or study participants.

A representative sample is representative of the population at large – it

includes enough people who represent their target population to provide
reliable information about what they think or believe.

In other words, if you counted up all of the people in your country and
asked them for their opinion on a certain topic, you wouldn’t know if they
were representative of everyone in that country because not everyone
would be able to answer your questions (because they might not have
access to the internet).

What is survey sampling?

Survey sampling is a procedure within the design of an investigation

through which data is collected through tools such as questionnaires or
surveys.

Sampling helps a lot in research. In survey research, sampling refers to

how we select members from the population to be in the study. It
determines the accuracy of research/survey results.

The principle of a sample survey is not to observe the entire population

studied but rather a properly selected subset, called a sample.

Why do researchers need survey sampling?

This sample is usually much smaller than the population considered. This
advantage makes it much easier to operate than in an exhaustive survey.
Survey sampling methods are the ways that a small group of people or
units are chosen from a bigger population so that a survey can be done.

To obtain faster results at a much lower cost and to have better quality
data, it is possible to collect data much more carefully when dealing with
a small number of subjects than when interviewing and/or examining an
entire population.

Q. State and explain the different literature resources

Ans. Literature Review is a comprehensive survey of the works
published in a particular field of study or line of research, usually over a
specific period of time, in the form of an in-depth, critical bibliographic
essay or annotated list in which attention is drawn to the most significant
works.

Also, we can define a literature review as the collected body of scholarly

works related to a topic:

• Summarizes and analyzes previous research relevant to a topic

• Includes scholarly books and articles published in academic journals
• Can be an specific scholarly paper or a section in a research paper

The objective of a Literature Review is to find previous published scholarly

works relevant to an specific topic

• Help gather ideas or information

• Keep up to date in current trends and findings
• Help develop new questions

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.

• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Helps focus your own research questions or problems
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Suggests unexplored ideas or populations
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and
remove unconscious bias.
• Identifies critical gaps, points of disagreement, or potentially flawed
methodology or theoretical approaches.
• Indicates potential directions for future research.

Rest answers search

Q. What are the merits and demerits of Sampling
Ans. What is Sampling?
The terminology “sampling” indicates the selection of a part of a group or
an aggregate with a view to obtaining information about the whole. This
aggregate or the totality of all members is known as Population although
they need not be human beings. The selected part, which is used to
ascertain the characteristics of the population, is called Sample.

While choosing a sample, the population is assumed to be composed of

individual units or members, some of which are included in the sample.
The total number of members of the population is called Population Size
and the number included in the sample is called Sample Size.

Researchers usually cannot make direct observations of every individual

in the population they are studying. Instead, they collect data from a
subset of individuals – a sample – and use those observations to make
inferences about the entire population.

Ideally, the sample corresponds to the larger population on the

characteristic(s) of interest. In that case, the researcher’s conclusions
from the sample are probably applicable to the entire population.

This type of correspondence between the sample and the larger

population is most important when a researcher wants to know what
proportion of the population has a certain characteristic –like a particular
opinion or a demographic feature. Public opinion polls that try to describe
the percentage of the population that plans to vote for a particular
candidate, for example, require a sample that is highly representative of
the population.

Need of Sampling
To draw conclusions about populations from samples, we must use
inferential statistics which enables us to determine a population’s
characteristics by directly observing only a portion (or sample) of the
population. We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a
census) of the population for many reasons.

Obviously, it is cheaper to observe a part rather than the whole, but we

should prepare ourselves to cope with the dangers of using samples. In
this tutorial, we will investigate various kinds of sampling procedures.
Some are better than others but all may yield samples that are inaccurate
and unreliable. We will learn how to minimize these dangers, but some
potential error is the price we must pay for the convenience and savings
the samples provide.

Essentials of Sampling

In order to reach a clear conclusion, the sampling should possess the

following essentials:

• It must be representative
• Homogeneity
• Adequate samples
• Optimization
It must be representative
The sample selected should possess similar characteristics to the original
universe from which it has been drawn.
Homogeneity
Selected samples from the universe should have similar nature and
should not have any difference when compared with the universe.

Adequate samples
In order to have a more reliable and representative result, a good number
of items are to be included in the sample.

Optimization
All efforts should be made to get maximum results both in terms of cost
as well as efficiency. If the size of the sample is larger, there is better
efficiency and at the same time the cost is more. A proper size of sample
is maintained in order to have optimized results in terms of cost and
efficiency.

Advantages of Sampling
The sampling only chooses a part of the units from the population for the
same study. The sampling has a number of advantages as compared to
complete enumeration due to a variety of reasons.

Sampling has the following advantages:

• Cost effective
• Time-saving
• Testing of Accuracy
• Detailed Research is Possible
• Reliability
• Exclusive methods in many circumstances
• Administrative convenience
• More scientific
Cost effective
This method is cheaper than the Census Research because only a fraction
of the population is studied in this method.

Time-saving
There is a saving in time not only in conducting the sampling enquiry but
also in the decision making process.

Testing of Accuracy
Testing of accuracy of samples drawn can be made by comparing two or
more samples.

Detailed Research is Possible

Since the data collected under this method is limited but homogeneous,
so more time could be spend on decision making.

Reliability
If samples are taken in proper size and on proper grounds the results of
sampling will be almost the same which might have been obtained by
Census method.

Exclusive methods in many circumstances

Where the population is infinite, then the sampling method is the only
method of effective research. Also, if the population is perishable or
testing units are destructive, then we have to complete our research only
through sampling. Example: Estimation of expiry dates of medicines.

Administrative convenience
The organization and administration of sample survey are easy for the
reasons which have been discussed earlier.

More scientific
Since the methods used to collect data are based on scientific theory and
results obtained can be tested, sampling is a more scientific method of
collecting data.

Limitations of Sampling
It is not that sampling is free from demerits or shortcomings. There are
certain limitations of this method which are discussed below:

• Biased Conclusion
• Experienced Researcher is required
• Not suited for Heterogeneous Population
• Small Population
• Sample Not Representative
• Lack of Experts
• Conditions of Complete Coverage
Biased Conclusion
If the sample has not been properly taken then the data collected and the
decision on such data will lead to wrong conclusion. Samples are like
medicines. They can be harmful when they are taken carelessly or without
knowledge off their effects.

Experienced Researcher is required

An efficient sampling requires the services of qualified, skilled and
experienced personnel. In the absence of these the results of their search
will be biased.

Not suited for Heterogeneous Population

If the populations are mixed or varied, then this method is not suited for
research.

Small Population
Sampling method is not possible when population size is too small. 5.
Illusory conclusion: If a sample enquiry is not carefully planned and
executed, the conclusions may be inaccurate and misleading.

Sample Not Representative

To make the sample representative is a difficult task. If a representative
sample is taken from the universe, the result is applicable to the whole
population. If the sample is not representative of the universe the result
may be false and misleading.

Lack of Experts
As there are lack of experts to plan and conduct a sample survey, its
execution and analysis, and its results would be unsatisfactory and not
trustworthy.

Conditions of Complete Coverage

If the information is required for each and every item of the universe,
then a complete enumeration survey is better.

Merits:
1. Economical:

It is economical, because we have not to collect all data. Instead of

getting data from 5000 farmers, we get it from 50-100 only.

2. Less Time Consuming:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

As no of units is only a fraction of the total universe, time consumed is

also a fraction of total time. Number of units is considerably small,
hence the time.

3. Reliable:

If sample is taken judiciously, the results are very reliable and

accurate.

4. Organisational Convenience:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

As samples are taken and the number of units is smaller, the better
(Trained) enumerators can be employed by the organisation.

5. More Scientific:
According to Prof R.A. Fisher, “The sample technique has four
important advantages over census technique of data collection. They
are Speed, Economy, Adaptability and Scientific approach.”

It is based on certain laws such as:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(a) Law of Statistical Regularity

(b) Law of Inertia of Large numbers

(c) Law of Persistence

(d) Law of Validity.

6. Detailed Enquiry:

A detailed study can be undertaken in case of the units included in the

sample. Size of sample can be taken according to time and money
available with the investigator.

7. Indispensable Method:

If universe is bigger, there remains no option but to proceed for this

method. It is specially used for infinite, hypothetical and perishable
universes.

Demerits:
1. Absence of Being Representative:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Methods, such as purposive sampling may not provide a sample, that

is representative.

2. Wrong Conclusion:

If the sample is not representative, the results will not be correct.

These will lead to the wrong conclusions.

3. Small Universe:

Sometimes universe is so small that proper samples cannot be taken

not of it. Number of units are so less.

4. Specialised Knowledge:
It is a scientific method. Therefore, to get a good and representative
sample, one should have special knowledge to get good sample and to
perform proper analysis so that reliable result may be achieved.

5. Inherent defects:

The results which are achieved though the analysis of sampling data
may not be accurate as this method have inherent defects. There is
not even a single method of sampling which has no demerit.

6. Sampling Error:

This method of sampling has many errors.

7. Personal Bias:

As in many cases the investigator, chooses samples, such as

convenience method, chances of personal bias creep in.

Q. Explain the steps involved in Research design?

Ans. A research design is defined as the overall plan or structure that

guides the process of conducting research. It is a critical component of
the research process and serves as a blueprint for how a study will be
carried out, including the methods and techniques that will be used to
collect and analyze data. A well-designed research study is essential for
ensuring that the research objectives are met and that the results are
valid and reliable.

Key elements of research design include:

• Research Objectives: Clearly define the goals and objectives of

the research study. What is the research trying to achieve or
investigate?

• Research Questions or Hypotheses: Formulating specific

research questions or hypotheses that address the objectives of
the study. These questions guide the research process.

• Data Collection Methods: Determining how data will be

collected, whether through surveys, experiments, observations,
interviews, archival research, or a combination of these methods.

• Sampling: Deciding on the target population and selecting a

sample that represents that population. Sampling methods can
vary, such as random sampling, stratified sampling, or
convenience sampling.
 • Data Collection Instruments: Developing or selecting the tools
and instruments needed to collect data, such as questionnaires,
surveys, or experimental equipment.

• Data Analysis: Defining the statistical or analytical techniques

that will be used to analyze the collected data. This may
involve qualitative or quantitative methods, depending on
the research goals.

• Time Frame: Establishing a timeline for the research project,

including when data will be collected, analyzed, and reported.

• Ethical Considerations: Addressing ethical issues, including

obtaining informed consent from participants, ensuring the
privacy and confidentiality of data, and adhering to ethical
guidelines.

• Resources: Identifying the resources needed for the research,

including funding, personnel, equipment, and access to data
sources.

• Data Presentation and Reporting: Planning how the research

findings will be presented and reported, whether through written
reports, presentations, or other formats.

There are various research designs, such as experimental,

observational, survey, case study, and longitudinal designs, each suited
to different research questions and objectives. The choice of research
design depends on the nature of the research and the goals of the
study.

A well-constructed research design is crucial because it helps ensure

the validity, reliability, and generalizability of research findings,
allowing researchers to draw meaningful conclusions and contribute to
the body of knowledge in their field.

12 Types of Research Design

Understanding the nuances of research design is pivotal in steering
your investigation towards success. Delving into various research
designs empowers researchers to craft tailored methodologies to
address specific queries and attain precise objectives. Here, we unveil a
spectrum of research designs, meticulously curated to cater to diverse
research pursuits.

1. Experimental Research Design

Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT): Immerse yourself in the realm of

experimentation with RCTs. Randomly assigning individuals to either an
experimental or control group enables meticulous assessment of
interventions or treatments’ efficacy.

2. Quasi-Experimental Research Design

Non-equivalent Group Design: When randomness isn’t viable, non-

equivalent group designs offer a pragmatic alternative. Comparison
across multiple groups without random assignment ensures ethical and
feasible research conduct.

3. Observational Research Design

Cross-Sectional Study: Capture snapshots of data at a single moment

with cross-sectional studies, unraveling intricate relationships and
disparities between variables.

Longitudinal Study: Embark on a journey through time with longitudinal

studies, tracking participants’ trajectories to discern evolving trends
and patterns.

4. Descriptive Research Design

Survey Research: Dive into the depths of data collection through

surveys, extracting insights into attitudes, characteristics, and opinions.

Case Study: Engage in profound exploration through case studies,

dissecting singular individuals, groups, or phenomena to unravel
profound insights.

5. Correlational Research Design

Correlational Study: Traverse the realm of correlations, scrutinizing

interrelationships between variables while refraining from inferring
causality.

6. Ex Post Facto Research Design

Retrospective Exploration: Explore existing conditions and behaviors
retrospectively, shedding light on potential causes where variable
manipulation isn’t feasible.

7. Exploratory Research Design

Pilot Study: Initiate your research odyssey with pilot studies, laying the
groundwork for comprehensive investigations while refining research
procedures.

8. Cohort Study

Chronicle of Evolution: Embark on longitudinal expeditions with cohort

studies, monitoring cohorts to elucidate the evolution of specific
outcomes over time.

9. Action Research

Driving Change: Collaboratively navigate practical challenges with

action research, fostering improvements in educational or
organizational settings.

10. Meta-Analysis

Synthesizing Insights: Merge insights from multiple studies with meta-

analyses, presenting a holistic overview of research findings.

11. Cross-Sequential Design

Bridging the Gap: Seamlessly blend cross-sectional and longitudinal

elements to dissect age-related changes across diverse cohorts.

12. Grounded Theory

Rooted Insights: Plunge into the depths of qualitative research with

grounded theory, crafting theories grounded in meticulously collected
data.

Selecting the optimal research design is akin to sculpting a

masterpiece, contingent on the intricacies of the research query,
resource availability, ethical considerations, and the desired data
intricacies. Researchers adeptly navigate these choices to seamlessly
align their methodologies with their research ambitions, ensuring both
precision and impact.

Top 16 Research Design Methods

Research design methods refer to the systematic approaches and
techniques used to plan, structure, and conduct a research study. The
choice of research design method depends on the research questions,
objectives, and the nature of the study. Here are some key research
design methods commonly used in various fields:

1. Experimental Method

Controlled Experiments: In controlled experiments, researchers

manipulate one or more independent variables and measure their
effects on dependent variables while controlling for confounding factors.

2. Observational Method

Naturalistic Observation: Researchers observe and record behavior in

its natural setting without intervening. This method is often used in
psychology and anthropology.

Structured Observation: Observations are made using a predetermined

set of criteria or a structured observation schedule.

3. Survey Method

Questionnaires: Researchers collect data by administering structured

questionnaires to participants. This method is widely used for
collecting quantitative research data.

Interviews: In interviews, researchers ask questions directly to

participants, allowing for more in-depth responses. Interviews can take
on structured, semi-structured, or unstructured formats.

4. Case Study Method

Single-Case Study: Focuses on a single individual or entity, providing

an in-depth analysis of that case.

Multiple-Case Study: Involves the examination of multiple cases to

identify patterns, commonalities, or differences.

5. Content Analysis

Researchers analyze textual, visual, or audio data to identify patterns,

themes, and trends. This method is commonly used in media studies
and social sciences.

6. Historical Research
Researchers examine historical documents, records, and artifacts to
understand past events, trends, and contexts.

7. Action Research

Researchers work collaboratively with practitioners to address practical

problems or implement interventions in real-world settings.

8. Ethnographic Research

Researchers immerse themselves in a particular cultural or social group

to gain a deep understanding of their behaviors, beliefs, and practices.

9. Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Surveys

Cross-sectional surveys collect data from a sample of participants at a

single point in time.

Longitudinal surveys collect data from the same participants over an

extended period, allowing for the study of changes over time.

10. Meta-Analysis

Researchers conduct a quantitative synthesis of data from multiple

studies to provide a comprehensive overview of research findings on a
particular topic.

11. Mixed-Methods Research

Combines qualitative and quantitative research methods to provide a

more holistic understanding of a research problem.

12. Grounded Theory

A qualitative research method that aims to develop theories or

explanations grounded in the data collected during the research
process.

13. Simulation and Modeling

Researchers use mathematical or computational models to simulate

real-world phenomena and explore various scenarios.

14. Survey Experiments

Combines elements of surveys and experiments, allowing researchers

to manipulate variables within a survey context.
15. Case-Control Studies and Cohort Studies

These epidemiological research methods are used to study the causes

and risk factors associated with diseases and health outcomes.

16. Cross-Sequential Design

Combines elements of cross-sectional and longitudinal research to

examine both age-related changes and cohort differences.

The selection of a specific research design method should align with the
research objectives, the type of data needed, available resources,
ethical considerations, and the overall research approach. Researchers
often choose methods that best suit the nature of their study and
research questions to ensure that they collect relevant and valid data.

Q. State the difference between Qualitative and Quantitative analysis?

Ans. Qualitative Vs Quantitative Research

Qualitative research and quantitative research are two different
approaches used in conducting research. Here’s a brief explanation of the
differences between the two:

Definition
Qualitative Research is exploratory research that seeks to understand a
phenomenon in its natural setting from the perspective of the people
involved. It uses methods like interviews, focus groups, and observation
to gather data.
Quantitative Research is structured research that focuses on measuring
and analyzing numerical data. It uses methods like surveys, experiments,
and statistical analysis to gather and analyze data.
Data Collection
Qualitative Research uses non-numeric data, such as words, images, and
observations, to gather data. This data is often subjective and can be
difficult to analyze.

Quantitative Research, on the other hand, uses numerical data, such as

survey responses or experimental measurements, to gather data. This
data is objective and easier to analyze.

Data Analysis
Qualitative Research uses an interpretive approach to analyze data,
meaning that the researcher is interested in understanding the meaning
behind the data. This often involves identifying patterns, themes, and
relationships in the data.
Quantitative Research, on the other hand, uses statistical analysis to
identify patterns and relationships in the data. This involves using
mathematical formulas and statistical tests to analyze the data.

Purpose
Qualitative Research is often used to gain a deeper understanding of a
phenomenon or to generate hypotheses for further research. It is
commonly used in fields like anthropology, sociology, and psychology.

Quantitative Research is often used to test hypotheses or to make

predictions about a phenomenon. It is commonly used in fields like
economics, engineering, and biology.

Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Aspect Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Numeric (surveys,
Non-numeric (words, experiments,
Data type images, observations) measurements)

Open-ended, flexible, Structured, standardized,

Data interactive (interviews, fixed (surveys,
collection focus groups, observation) experiments)

Sample
size Small and non-random Large and often random

Interpretive, inductive, Statistical, deductive,

exploratory (identifying confirmatory (testing
Data patterns, themes, and hypotheses, making
analysis relationships) predictions)

Gain a deeper
understanding of a
phenomenon, generate Test hypotheses, make
Purpose hypotheses predictions

Natural settings, subjective Controlled settings,

Research experiences, complex objective measurements,
context phenomena simpler phenomena

Anthropology, sociology, Economics, engineering,

Examples psychology biology

Q. List and explain the different steps in Sample Design?

Ans. A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given
population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would
adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design also leads to a
procedure to tell the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the
size of the sample. Hence, sample design is determined before the
collection of data. Among various types of sample design technique, the
researcher should choose that samples which are reliable and appropriate
for his research study.

Steps in Sample Design

There are various steps which the researcher should follow. Those are;

1. Type of universe: In the first step the researcher should clarify and
should be expert in the study of universe. The universe may be finite
(no of items are know) or Infinite (numbers of items are not know).
2. Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling
unit before selecting a sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical
one such as state, district, village etc., or construction unit such as
house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club, school
etc., or it may be an individual.
3. Source list: Source list is known as ‘sampling frame’ from which
sample is to be drawn. It consists the names of all items of a universe.
Such a list would be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate
and the source list should be a representative of the population.
4. Size of sample: Size of sample refers to the number of items to be
selected from the universe to constitute a sample. Selection of
sample size is a headache to the researcher. The size should not be
too large or too small rather it should be optimum. An optimum
sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility. The parameters of
interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the
size of the sample. Cost factor i.e., budgetary conditions should also
be taken into consideration.
5. Sampling procedure: In the final step of the sample design, a
researcher must decide the type of the sample s/he will use i.e., s/he
must decide about the techniques to be used in selecting the items
for the sample.

Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

The characteristics of a good sample as follows;

1. Sample design must result in a truly representative sample,

2. Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error,
 3. Sampling design must be viable in the context of funds available for
the research study,
4. Sample design must be such that systematic bias can be controlled
in a better way, and
5. Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be
applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.

Q. Explain different methods of Data Collections?

Ans.Above.
Q. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Secondary data?
Ans. Secondary data is the data that have been already collected for
another purpose but has some relevance to your current research needs.

In other words, it has already been collected in the past by someone else,
not you. And now, you can use the data.

Secondary data is second-hand information. It is not used for the first

time. That is why it is called secondary.

Typically, secondary data is found in resources like the Internet, libraries,

or reports.

Web information, business reports, mass media products, encyclopedias,

and government statistics are among the most popular examples of
secondary data.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA

Let’s break down the infographic.

Advantages of Secondary Data:

▪ Ease of access
The secondary data sources are very easy to access. The Internet
has changed the way secondary research works. Nowadays, you
have so much information available just by clicking with the mouse.
▪ Low cost or free
The majority of secondary sources are absolutely free for use or at
very low costs. It saves not only your money but your efforts. In
comparison with primary research where you have to design and
conduct a whole primary study process from the beginning,
secondary research allows you to gather data without having to put
any money on the table. (see more on our post: primary vs
secondary data)
▪ Time-saving
As the above advantage suggests, you can perform secondary
research in no time. Sometimes it is a matter of a few Google
searches to find a source of data.
▪ Allow you to generate new insights from previous analysis
Reanalyzing old data can bring unexpected new understandings and
points of view or even new relevant conclusions.
▪ Longitudinal analysis
Secondary data allows you to perform a longitudinal analysis which
means the studies are performed spanning over a large period of
time. This can help you to determine different trends. In addition,
you can find secondary data from many years back up to a couple
of hours ago. It allows you to compare data over time.
▪ Anyone can collect the data
Secondary data research can be performed by people that aren’t
familiar with the different data collection methods. Practically,
anyone can collect it.
▪ A huge amount of secondary data with a wide variety of
sources
It is the richest type of data available to you in a wide variety of
sources and topics.
Disadvantages:
▪ Might be not specific to your needs
Secondary data is not specific to the researcher’s needs due to the
fact that it was collected in the past for another reason. That is why
the secondary data might be unreliable for your current needs.
Secondary data sources can give you a huge amount of information,
but quantity does not always mean appropriateness.
▪ You have no control over data quality
The secondary data might lack quality. The source of the
information may be questionable, especially when you gather the
data via the Internet. As you relying on secondary data for
 your data-driven decision-making, you must evaluate the reliability
of the information by finding out how the information was collected
and analyzed.
▪ Biasness
As the secondary data is collected by someone else than you,
typically the data is biased in favor of the person who gathered it.
This might not cover your requirements as a researcher or
marketer.
▪ Not timely
Secondary data is collected in the past which means it might be
out-of-date. This issue can be crucial in many different situations.
▪ You are not the owner of the information
Generally, secondary data is not collected specifically for your
company. Instead, it is available to many companies and people
either for free or for a little fee. So, this is not exactly a
“competitive advantage” for you. Your current and potential
competitors also have access to the data.
TYPES OF SECONDARY DATA

There are two types of secondary data, based on the data source:

▪ Internal sources of data: information gathered within the

researcher’s company or organization (examples – a database with
customer details, sales reports, marketing analysis, your emails,
your social media profiles, etc).
▪ External sources of data: the data collected outside the
organization (i.e. government statistics, mass media channels,
newspapers, etc.)
Also, secondary data can be 2 types depending on the research strands:
 ▪ Quantitative data – data that can be expressed as a number or
can be quantified. Examples – the weight and height of a person,
the number of working hours, the volume of sales per month, etc.
Quantitative data are easily amenable to statistical manipulation.
▪ Qualitative data – the information that can’t be expressed as a
number and can’t be measured. Qualitative data consist of words,
pictures, observations, and symbols, not numbers. It is about
qualities. Examples – colors of the eyes (brown, blue, green), your
socioeconomic status, customer satisfaction, and etc.
Dive deeper into the topic with our posts:

EXAMPLES AND SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

Internal Sources Of Secondary Data

You might have loads of data in your company or organization that you
aren’t using.

All types of organizations, whatever they are business or non-profit,

collect information during their everyday processes. Orders are
performed, costs and sales are recorded, customer inquiries about
products are submitted, reports are presented, and so on.

Much of this information is of great use in your research. They can have
hidden and unexpected value for you if you are able to incorporate them
into your dashboards allowing data analysts with advanced BI training to
spot new relationships.
Here is a list of some common and hidden sources of internal information:
1. Sales data
Sales are essential to a company’s profitability.

Examples of sales data are revenue, profitability, price, distribution

channels, buyer personas, etc. This information can show you areas of
strength and weakness, which will drive your future decisions.

2. Finance data
Collecting and analyzing your financial data is a way to maximize profits.
Examples of financial data are overheads and production costs, cash flow
reports, amounts spent to manufacture products, etc.

3. General marketing data

Marketing departments are a gold mine when it comes to secondary data
sources.

Examples of marketing data are reports on customer profiles, market

segmentation, level of customer satisfaction, level of brand awareness,
customer engagement through content marketing, customer retention
and loyalty, etc.
4. Human resource data
Human resource departments have information about the costs to recruit
and train an employee, staff retention rate and churn, the productivity of
an individual employee, etc.

Human resource data can help you uncover the areas where a company
needs to improve its HR processes to empower staff skills, talent, and
achievements.

5. Customer relationship management system (CRM software)

Businesses can also collect and analyze data within their own CRM
system.

This system is a great source of secondary data such as clients’ company

affiliations, regional or geographical details for customers, and etc.

6. Emails
The average office employee sends dozens of business emails per day and
receives even more.

Emails as sources of secondary data, provide important information such

as product reviews, opinions, feedback and so on.

7. Your social media profiles

Social Media profiles on networks like Facebook, Tweeter, Linkedin are a
great source of information that you can analyze to learn more about, for
example, how people are talking about your business and how users
share and engage with your content.

Some examples of secondary data that you can collect from social profiles
include: likes, shares, mentions, impressions, new followers, comments,
URL clicks.

8. Your website analytics

There’s a huge amount of valuable secondary data accessible to you
through your website analytics platform.

The most popular platform for insights into your website statistics is
Google Analytics and Google Search Console.

Examples of data that you can gather from your website include: visitor’s
location, patterns of visitor behavior, keywords used by visitors to find
your site and business, visitor’s activities in the site, most popular
content, etc.

External Sources Of Secondary Data

External data are any data generated outside the boundaries of the
company or organization.

There are many advantages of using external sources of secondary data,

especially online ones. They offer endless information which you can
acquire efficiently and quickly.

Today, external secondary data is a foundation for creating executive

decisions wherever it is in business, in medicine, science, or in statistics.

Here are some key examples of external secondary data.

1. Data.gov
Data.gov provides over free 150,000 datasets available through federal,
state, and local governments. They are free, and accessible online.
Here, companies or students can find a ton of data, including information
related to consumers, education, manufacturing, public safety, and much
more.

2. World Bank Open Data

World Bank Open Data offer free and open access to global development
data. Datasets provide population demographics and a vast number of
economic indicators from across the world.
3. IMF Economic Data
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an organization of 189
countries.
It provides data such as international financial statistics, regional
economic reports, foreign exchange rates, debt rates, commodity prices,
and investments.

4. Crayon Intel Free

Crayon Intel Free is one of the best free competitor analysis tools that can
help you track, analyze, and act on many things that happen outside of
your business.
5. Talkwalker’s Free Social Search
Talkwalker’s Free Social Search is a real-time free social media search
engine that can provide you with unlimited searches across all major
social networks.
It allows you to find out what the internet is saying about you or your
competitors in seconds. You can know who’s talking about you with live
audience insights.

6. Feedly
Feedly is a free news aggregator site that allows you to keep up with all
the topics that matter to you. All in one place.
With Feedly, you are able to monitor easily news about your products,
your competitors, important posts, content, Tweets or even YouTube
videos.

7. Mailcharts
Mailcharts is a quite powerful tool for email marketers as well as for those
who want to spy on the competition.
It collects emails from competing campaigns to help you develop your
own. Mailhcharts has an enormous library of emails from countless
brands.

8. Glassdoor
Glassdoor is one of the world’s largest and most popular job and
recruiting sites. It provides a free database with millions of company
reviews, CEO approval ratings, interview reviews and questions, salary
reports, benefits reviews, office photos, and more.
9. Google Alerts
Google Alerts is one of the most popular free alert services that allows
you to follow mentions on the internet about practically anything you
want – company, brand, customers, purchasing patterns, and so on.
10. HubSpot Marketing Statistics
HubSpot offers a large and very valuable free repository of marketing
data.
You could find the latest marketing statistics and trends in areas such as
Organic Search, Conversion Rate Optimization (CRO), Ecomerce, Local
SEO, Mobile Search, and others.

11. Crunchbase
Crunchbase is one of the best and most innovative platforms for finding
business information about private and public companies.
Crunchbase data include investments and funding information, news, and
industry trends, individuals in leadership positions, mergers, and etc.

Q. Explain the factors affecting the selection of research problem.

Ans.The significance of choosing a research problem is sometimes
underrated and the majority of researchers don’t seem to understand that
if you aren’t reading the correct kinds of books, no amount of research will
be fruitful.

To achieve that extra element to captivate the reader of your findings you
need to choose a juicy research challenge or something with meat on the
bone, and strong thesis or essay begins with thorough research, and
thorough research starts with a topic that piques interest and avoids being
boring so it is much simpler to comprehend the value of research in the
creation of an effective and hard-hitting final product when you put it in
such simple, straightforward terms, additionally, you must have an honest
and practical viewpoint when approaching the research problem you’re
attempting to answer.

Can you solve the issue you’re trying to resolve? Are you overly ambitious
and placing too much pressure on yourself? Is this a valid issue, or are you
just trying to get out of something? To determine how strong your research
problem is, you must ask yourself each of these questions and when doubts
start to seep into your thinking, you need to turn around and start thinking
about other options.

undergraduate project topics

The research issue chosen for the examination should be carefully chosen
although the task is difficult, thus assistance in this regard could come from
a research guide. At most, a research guide can help a researcher choose
a topic or issue, but the actual research question and research problem
should originate in the researcher’s mind.

There are some recommendations for graduate students and researchers

that are taken from the various branches of psychology, social sciences,
and education, the choice of topic is influenced by both external and
internal variables, external criteria include how relevant the topic is to the
field and the availability of data and data collection techniques, and whether
or not the administration is cooperative, Personal criteria are the time,
money, and interests of the researcher. The following characteristics
influence the selection criteria for the research problem final year project
topics

• Personal Preference; The primary driving force behind the

researcher’s choice of study question is their personal preference, a
researcher will choose a problem for his or her research if he or she
has a personal interest in it.

• Resources readily available; A researcher will take care of the

accessible resources during the selection process and the choice of
the problem is simple if the resources of money, time, lodging, and
transportation are available at the location of choice.

• Relative significance; The choice of a research problem is

significantly influenced by both importance and the problem; the
 researcher is more likely to choose the problem if it is reasonably
important.
• Researcher expertise; The choice of the study problem should be
heavily influenced by the researcher’s knowledge and to collect
research data effectively an investigator must have wisdom and
expertise, the researcher can choose a problem with resentment.

• Practicality: This factor also played a role in the decision, the

primary driving force behind a researcher’s attention to an issue is
its practical applicability.

• Timelines for the Issue; While some problems can be solved quickly,
others require longer. Therefore, it depends on how much time a
researcher has to do the research.

• Data accessibility; The researcher would choose the issue if the

desired data were available.

• Urgency; A defining factor in the choice of a research problem is

urgency, priority must be given to urgent issues because they may
benefit from quick solutions.
• Feasibility; A key consideration in choosing the research problem is
feasibility, the researcher’s background, education, and experience
should be appropriate for the issue.
• Regional Culture; The choice of study problem is also influenced by
the culture of the region for which a researcher performs his
research.

Features of the Research Problem

Every research project is challenging to complete and demands a lot of

work so choosing a successful research topic is the first step.

1. The research topic needs to be very obvious and simple to

comprehend. People shouldn’t be diverted by it.
 2. The only way to conduct successful research is if the topic is clearly
defined as topics that shouldn’t raise questions or leave a bad
impression.
3. Success requires the use of simple language, if necessary, use
technical language or a preferred language that will be easily
understood.
4. The research title must follow the regulations for titles and before
developing a study title, a researcher should be informed of the
various rules of titling.
5. A researcher’s present prominence should be taken into account
while choosing a study topic, the subject should not be out of date
and should be of paramount importance right now.
6. Before choosing a research problem, a preliminary investigation
should be conducted. When the issue calls for the conduct of
research that is nearly identical to earlier work, this isn’t always
necessary. A brief feasibility study should, however, always be
conducted when the subject of investigation is relatively new and
does not yet have a collection of well-developed procedures
available.
7. In the majority of cases, it is best to avoid choosing an overdone
topic because it will be difficult to shed any new light on it.
8. Problems that are too specific or too illogical must be avoided.
9. Other factors that should be taken into account when choosing an
issue include the importance of the topic, the credentials and
expertise of a researcher, the costs involved, and the time factor.

The research topic chosen must be understandable and practical so

that the necessary research materials or sources are available. Even
still, giving clear instructions on how a professional should gather
inspiration for his research is incredibly difficult. A researcher can
achieve this by getting in touch with a lecturer or expert who is already
engaged in research at the university. He can also study blog posts or
articles that have been published in recent literature on the subject
and consider how the principles and approaches discussed there could
be used to solve other challenges.

10. best topic for project

Q. Describe in detail the primary sources of data collection

Ans. Data is a collection of facts, figures, objects, symbols, and events
gathered from different sources. Organizations collect data using
various data collection methods to make better decisions. Without
data, it would be difficult for organizations to make appropriate decisions,
so data is collected from different audiences at various points in time.

For example, an organization must collect data on product demand,

customer preferences, and competitors before launching a new product. If
data is not collected beforehand, the organization’s newly launched
product may fail for many reasons, such as less demand and inability to
meet customer needs.

Although data is a valuable asset for every organization, it does not serve
any purpose until it is analyzed or processed to achieve the desired
results.

What are Data Collection Methods?

Data collection methods are techniques and procedures for gathering

information for research purposes. They can range from simple self-
reported surveys to more complex experiments and can involve either
quantitative or qualitative approaches.

Some common data collection methods include surveys, interviews,

observations, focus groups, experiments, and secondary data analysis.
The data collected through these methods can then be analyzed and used
to support or refute research hypotheses and draw conclusions about the
study’s subject matter.

Understanding Data Collection Methods

Data collection methods encompass a variety of techniques and tools for

gathering both quantitative and qualitative data. These methods are
integral to the data collection process, ensuring accurate and
comprehensive data acquisition.

Quantitative data collection methods involve systematic approaches to

collecting data, like numerical data, such as surveys, polls, and statistical
analysis, aimed at quantifying phenomena and trends.

Conversely, qualitative data collection methods focus on capturing non-

numerical information, such as interviews, focus groups, and
observations, to delve deeper into understanding attitudes, behaviors,
and motivations.

Employing a combination of quantitative and qualitative data collection

techniques can enrich organizations’ datasets and gain comprehensive
insights into complex phenomena.

Effective utilization of accurate data collection tools and techniques

enhances the accuracy and reliability of collected data, facilitating
informed decision-making and strategic planning.
Importance of Data Collection Methods

Data collection methods play a crucial role in the research process as they
determine the quality and accuracy of the data collected. Here are some
major importance of data collection methods.

• Quality and Accuracy: The choice of data collection method

directly impacts the quality and accuracy of the data obtained.
Properly designed methods help ensure that the data collected is
relevant to the research questions and free from errors.
• Relevance, Validity, and Reliability: Effective data collection
methods help ensure that the data collected is relevant to the
research objectives, valid (measuring what it intends to measure),
and reliable (consistent and reproducible).
• Bias Reduction and Representativeness: Carefully chosen data
collection methods can help minimize biases inherent in the
research process, such as sampling bias or response bias. They
also aid in achieving a representative sample, enhancing the
findings’ generalizability.
• Informed Decision Making: Accurate and reliable data collected
through appropriate methods provide a solid foundation for
making informed decisions based on research findings. This is
crucial for both academic research and practical applications in
various fields.
• Achievement of Research Objectives: Data collection methods
should align with the research objectives to ensure that the
collected data effectively addresses the research questions or
hypotheses. Properly collected data facilitates the attainment of
these objectives.
• Support for Validity and Reliability: Validity and reliability are
essential aspects of research validity. The choice of data collection
methods can either enhance or detract from the validity and
reliability of research findings. Therefore, selecting appropriate
methods is critical for ensuring the credibility of the research.

The importance of data collection methods cannot be overstated, as they

play a key role in the research study’s overall success and internal
validity.

Types of Data Collection Methods

The choice of data collection method depends on the research question

being addressed, the type of data needed, and the resources and time
available. Data collection methods can be categorized into primary and
secondary methods.

1. Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data is collected from first-hand experience and is not used in the
past. The data gathered by primary data collection methods are highly
accurate and specific to the research’s motive.

Primary data collection methods can be divided into two

categories: quantitative methods and qualitative methods.

Quantitative Methods:

Quantitative techniques for market research and demand forecasting

usually use statistical tools. In these techniques, demand is forecasted
based on historical data. These methods of primary data collection are
generally used to make long-term forecasts. Statistical analysis methods
are highly reliable as subjectivity is minimal.

• Time Series Analysis: A time series refers to a sequential order of

values of a variable, known as a trend, at equal time intervals.
Using patterns, an organization can predict the demand for its
products and services over a projected time period.
• Smoothing Techniques: Smoothing techniques can be used in
cases where the time series lacks significant trends. They
eliminate random variation from the historical demand, helping
identify patterns and demand levels to estimate future demand.
The most common methods used in smoothing demand
forecasting are the simple moving average and weighted moving
average methods.
• Barometric Method: Also known as the leading indicators
approach, researchers use this method to speculate future trends
based on current developments. When past events are considered
to predict future events, they act as leading indicators.

Qualitative Methods:

Qualitative data collection methods are especially useful when historical

data is unavailable or when numbers or mathematical calculations are
unnecessary.

Qualitative research is closely associated with words, sounds, feelings,

emotions, colors, and non-quantifiable elements. These techniques are
based on experience, judgment, intuition, conjecture, emotion, etc.

Quantitative methods do not provide the motive behind participants’

responses, often don’t reach underrepresented populations, and require
long periods of time to collect the data. Hence, it is best to
combine quantitative methods with qualitative methods.
1. Surveys: Surveys collect data from the target audience and gather
insights into their preferences, opinions, choices, and feedback related to
their products and services. Most survey software offers a wide range of
question types.

You can also use a ready-made survey template to save time and
effort. Online surveys can be customized to match the business’s brand
by changing the theme, logo, etc. They can be distributed through several
channels, such as email, website, offline app, QR code, social media, etc.

You can select the channel based on your audience’s type and source.
Once the data is collected, survey software can generate various reports
and run analytics algorithms to discover hidden insights.

A survey dashboard can give you statistics related to response rate,

completion rate, demographics-based filters, export and sharing options,
etc. Integrating survey builders with third-party apps can maximize the
effort spent on online real-time data collection.

Practical business intelligence relies on the synergy between analytics and

reporting, where analytics uncovers valuable insights, and reporting
communicates these findings to stakeholders.

2. Polls: Polls comprise one single or multiple-choice question. They are

useful when you need to get a quick pulse of the audience’s sentiments.
Because they are short, it is easier to get responses from people.

Like surveys, online polls can be embedded into various platforms. Once
the respondents answer the question, they can also be shown how they
compare to others’ responses.

Interviews: In this method, the interviewer asks the respondents face-to-

face or by telephone.

3. Interviews: In face-to-face interviews, the interviewer asks a series

of questions to the interviewee in person and notes down responses. If it
is not feasible to meet the person, the interviewer can go for a telephone
interview.

This form of data collection is suitable for only a few respondents. It is too
time-consuming and tedious to repeat the same process if there are many
participants.
4. Delphi Technique: In the Delphi method, market experts are
provided with the estimates and assumptions of other industry experts’
forecasts. Experts may reconsider and revise their estimates and
assumptions based on this information. The consensus of all experts on
demand forecasts constitutes the final demand forecast.

5. Focus Groups: Focus groups are one example of qualitative data in

education. In a focus group, a small group of people, around 8-10
members, discuss the common areas of the research problem. Each
individual provides his or her insights on the issue concerned.

A moderator regulates the discussion among the group members. At the

end of the discussion, the group reaches a consensus.

6. Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a printed set of open-ended or

closed-ended questions that respondents must answer based on their
knowledge and experience with the issue. The questionnaire is part of the
survey, whereas the questionnaire’s end goal may or may not be a
survey.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data is data that has been used in the past. The
researcher can obtain data from the data sources, both internal and
external, to the organizational data.

Internal sources of secondary data:

• Organization’s health and safety records

• Mission and vision statements
• Financial Statements
• Magazines
• Sales Report
• CRM Software
• Executive summaries

External sources of secondary data:

• Government reports
• Press releases
• Business journals
• Libraries
• Internet
Secondary data collection methods can also involve quantitative and
qualitative techniques. Secondary data is easily available, less time-
consuming, and expensive than primary data. However, the authenticity
of the data gathered cannot be verified using these methods.

Secondary data collection methods can also involve quantitative and

qualitative observation techniques. Secondary data is easily available, less
time-consuming, and more expensive than primary data.

However, the authenticity of the data gathered cannot be verified using

these methods.

Regardless of the data collection method of your choice, there must be

direct communication with decision-makers so that they understand and
commit to acting according to the results.

For this reason, we must pay special attention to the analysis and
presentation of the information obtained. Remember that these data must
be useful and functional to us, so the data collection method used has
much to do with it.

How QuestionPro Can Help in Data Collection Methods

QuestionPro is a comprehensive online survey software platform that can

greatly assist in various data collection methods. Here’s how it can help:

• Survey Creation: QuestionPro offers a user-friendly interface for

creating surveys with various question types, including multiple-
choice, open-ended, Likert scale, and more. Researchers can
customize surveys to fit their specific research needs and
objectives.
• Diverse Distribution Channels: The platform provides multiple
channels for distributing surveys, including email, web links, social
media, and embedding surveys on websites. This enables
researchers to reach a wide audience and collect data efficiently.
• Panel Management: QuestionPro offers panel management
features, allowing researchers to create and manage panels of
respondents for targeted data collection. This is particularly useful
for longitudinal studies or when targeting specific demographics.
• Data Analysis Tools: The platform includes robust data analysis
tools that enable researchers to analyze survey responses in real
time. Researchers can generate customizable reports, visualize
data through charts and graphs, and identify trends and patterns
within the data.
• Data Security and Compliance: QuestionPro prioritizes data
security and compliance with regulations such as GDPR and
 HIPAA. The platform offers features such as SSL encryption, data
masking, and secure data storage to ensure the confidentiality
and integrity of collected data.
• Mobile Compatibility: With the increasing use of mobile devices,
QuestionPro ensures that surveys are mobile-responsive, allowing
respondents to participate in surveys conveniently from their
smartphones or tablets.
• Integration Capabilities: QuestionPro integrates with various
third-party tools and platforms, including CRMs, email marketing
software, and analytics tools. This allows researchers to
streamline their data collection processes and incorporate survey
data into their existing workflows.
• Customization and Branding: Researchers can customize surveys
with their branding elements, such as logos, colors, and themes,
enhancing the professional appearance of surveys and increasing
respondent engagement.

Conclusion

The conclusion you obtain from your investigation will set the course of
the company’s decision-making, so present your report clearly, and list
the steps you followed to obtain those results.

Make sure that whoever will take the corresponding actions understands
the importance of the information collected and that it gives them the
solutions they expect.

QuestionPro offers a comprehensive suite of features and tools that can

significantly streamline the data collection process, from survey creation
to analysis, while ensuring data security and compliance. Remember that
at QuestionPro, we can help you collect data easily and efficiently.
Request a demo and learn about all the tools we have for you.

Q. Write a short note on Tabulations.

Ans. INTRODUCTION

Tabulation of Data – The progression of placing off the record

statistics/facts into tabular form is known as tabulation. A table is a
symmetric display of arithmetical data in rows and columns. Rows are
horizontally prepared whereas columns are perpendicularly prepared and
presented. Tabulation is the method of summarizing classified or grouped
data in the structure of a table so that it is very simply to understand, and
where an examiner is promptly able to put the desired information in a
systematic manner. Thus, a statistical table makes it possible for the
researcher to present a huge mass data/information in a meticulous and
systematic form. It facilitates association and regularly reveals certain
patterns in data which are otherwise not evident. Classification and
Tabulation, as a subject of reality are not two discrete processes. Truly they
go together.

2. DEFINITION

Tabulation passes on to the meticulous arrangement of the information

in to two forms (i.e., Column wise and row wise preparations). These
columns and rows are systematically put in an order and are horizontally
arranged. The records, facts of any data or statistics are tabulated and are
represented in rectangular formation with appropriate headings to put
together clearly all the information into special columns and rows. The most
important intention of the table is to formulate simpler the figures /
numbers and to facilitate comparisons.

3. OBJECTIVES OF TABULATION

The core objectives of tabulation are mentioned below:

• To bring out investigation and for evaluation of data

• To find omissions and errors in the data
• (To employ space economically and learn the development trends
and make things easier to understand the statistical figures for
future reference
• To facilitate the process of comparison, summarization and
detections of computational errors

4. PRINCIPLES OF TABULATION

• Tables should be comprehensible, concise and adequately titled.

• Each and every table should be distinctly numbered for easy
reference.
• The heading in each and every column and rows in a table should
be very clear, specific or relevant and brief.
• Instructive footnotes should be placed at appropriate places in a
table with a suitable indications
• Source of information of data should be clearly indicated.
• The columns and rows should be clearly separated with dark lines
• Differentiation should also be made between data of one class and
that of another.
• Comparable data should be presented side by side.
• The figures in percentage should be approximated before
tabulation.
• The alignment of the figures, symbols etc. should be properly
aligned and adequately spaced to enhance the readability of the
same.
 • Abbreviations should be avoided.

5. IMPORTANCE OF TABULATION

• Information or any statistics presented in a table should be alienated

into different dimensions and for each dimension should be clearly
mention the grand totals and sub totals to show the associations
between different dimensions of data put in the tabular form easy
understand.
• (The preparations of any statistics should be arranged in a systematic
manner with a heading and proper numberings which simply helps
the readers to recognize the necessary responsibility to the research.
• Tabulation builds the data into concise form; as a result, it helps the
reader to understand easily. This data can also be presented in the
form of graphs/charts/flow charts/ diagrams.
• The data in tabular form can be shown in the numerical figures in an
attention-grabbing form.
• It makes difficult data into a simpler form and as a result it becomes
easy to categorize within the data.
• Tabulation type of the arrangement is helpful in knowing the
mistakes.
• Tables will be helpful in condensing the information and makes easy
to examine the contents.
• Tabulation is economical mode to put the current data and helps to
minimize the time and in turn researcher will able perform the work
effectively.
• Recently the formation of tabular information with the help of
gadgets easily summaries the large data which is scattered in a
systematic.

6.PREPARATION OF TABLES

Preparation of any data or information should be in a proficiency manner.

Following are few of doctrine which a research should be followed for the
purpose of preparing a faultless or clear table are listed below:

6.1. Table Number: The number of the table must be positioned at the
central point on the top of the table.

6.2. Title: Every table should have required suitable heading.

6.3. Captions and stubs: It includes the perpendicular column’s

headings with horizontal row’s headings.

6.4. Head notes: It is clear statement given below the title which
clarifies the contents of the table.
 6.5. Body: The data in a tabular form should be put all the facts and
figures and it should be presented in a systematic manner.
6.6. Source: The basis from which the data were obtained should be
specifically given such as the names, pages with number; table numbers
from where the data had been took.

Format of Tabulation of Data and Parts of a Table

The textual display of statistics of the selected students in University should

be shown in the below tabular form. The arrangement of students related
information in a University are taken on the basis of their discipline
(examples – Science and Commerce) they chosen for the admission for the
academic year 2016 and 2017

Source: Survey Data (2016 – 2017) Note : M = Male, F = Female and T =

Total

Tabulation of data involves the counting of responses – the researcher

requirements to categorize how many (in per cent) respondents specially
chosen for each reasonable response choice. Normally, research
assessment questions dive into closed-ended and open-ended categories-

6.7. Closed-ended questions are previously put up for

straightforwardness of tabulation. Valuable response normal values are
designed in the investigative analysis from the survey for the respondent
to decide on and allowing for uncomplicated tabulation of the result without
the required for complex data mistreatment for analysis.

6.8. Open-ended questions are commonly not in a “ready-to-tabulate”

formation. In order to regulate quantitatively, analyze open – ended
comments, the responses must first be “coded” to allow for tabulation.
Coding is regularly instruction manual procedure of assemblage individual
responses into categories. Once coded into standardized numeric values,
results can readily be tabulated in the same way as closed-ended data.

7. TYPES OF TABULATION

There are three type of tabulation

7.1. Simple Tabulation

7.2. Double Tabulation and

7.3. Complex Tabulation (including Cross-tabulation)

 7.1. Simple Tabulation – The statistics are tabulated to one
distinctive format.

For illustration, In a class, a pilot study was made on 07.07.2017 that

clearly showed that the level of frequency of all the selected students
owning different brands of Pens like Mont Blanc, Cello, Reynolds, Camlin,
Sheaffer, Papermate, Shanghai Hero, Parker, A.T.Cross, Aurora etc.

7.2. Double Tabulation – Two exclusive or different data are

tabulated.
For example, regularly the number of girls and boys in the class owning
different brand of Lap tops like Apple, IBM,HP, Lenovo, Sony, Acer, Dell
etc.

Source: Survey Data (2016 – 2017)

7.3. Complex Tabulation – Complex tabulation of figures includes

extra data than two characteristics.

For instance, in the research study, the regularity or number of girls, boys
and the total class owning special brands of laptops like Apple, IBM, Dell,
etc. Cross tabulations, which includes classifying the various factors, to
build it eventuality in a table of counts or frequencies at each one grouping
of dynamic levels? An occurrence of table is a put on demonstrate set-up
which used to inspect and trace the prospective correlation among two or
more unconditional variables.

For instance, the pilot study was undertaken on 16.07.2017 and

investigation was done on the number of students having special brands of
laptops including boys and girls whose age group fall under 21, 22 and 23.
The main purpose of this is to cross tabulation the data that could be a
postulation of both boys and girls who owes special type of laptop due to a
selective age group.

7.4. Simple Problems on Tabulation

• (i) In a Pilot study about vegetarians and Non-vegetarians food habits

or life style boys and girls in two metropolitan cities, the below
mention information was taken:
• Chennai: Girls were 40 per cent; Total vegetarians were 45 per cent
and Boys non-vegetarians were 20 per cent.
• Coimbatore: Boys were 55 per cent, Boys non-vegetarians were 30
per cent and Girls vegetarians were 15 per cent.
From the above information you are requires to prepare a table.

Solution:
Table Showing the Food habits of Chennai and Coimbatore cities

(ii) Transforming the ratios into corresponding numbers prepare a complete

table for the following information. Give a suitable title to the table.

In the year 2016 the total strength of students of three Universities

namely, Madras University, Delhi University and Mysore University in a
three different cities 4:2:5. The strength of the Delhi University was 2000.
The Proportion of girls and boys in all university ratios 2:3. The faculty-wise
distribution of boys and girls in the faculties of Arts, Science and Commerce
was in the ratio 1:2:2 in the three universities.

Solution

The data of the above problem is summarized in the below table.

Distribution of Students According to Faculty and University in the

year 2016

8. TECHNIQUES OF TABULATION

Tabulation is a performance and skills to identify with the intricate

information in a simple and methodical outline. The focal objectives of the
course of action in tabulation performance are as follows:

• The core function of the tables is to shorten the multifarious

information so that it can be easily understood.
• Statistics are separated into various divisions and for each division.
As the information arranged in a table either division wise with a label
and a number identified easily with the titles
• The statistical data are presented in a concise manner.

9. RULES OF TABULATION

With respect to the table formation there is no proper or hard and fast set
of laws for the tabulation of data but for constructing systematic tables,
below certain commons rules should be followed while arranging the
statistical data:

• The very first rule is to frame the proper title or label for each table
and it should be systematically numbered in a sequential order and
title of table must be written exactly above the table.
 • The table should be perfectly fit proper width of the column in a
standard form
• The table Captions, heading, sub-headings for each and every
columns and heading including the sub headings of rows and contents
must be very clear.
• Statistics in each and every column and row should be properly
specified in the title. Heading in each column is called caption and
Names of the each rows is known as stub.
• Feasible statistics is approximately put in to tabulation.
• Information provided in a table must be recorded in alphabetical/
chronological order or according to size.

10. DATA TABULATION AND ANALYSIS

Data Analysis Plan because such a sketch is part of good statistical practice.
The benefit of preparing a Data Analysis Plan at the pilot study includes
many planning stage. This should follow few steps such as

(a) highlighting the data variables which are really required to achieve
the research aim, e.g. the consequence of all information in a research
instrument in the study can be ascertain by inspection whether they enter
everywhere in the analysis plan;

(b) to locate typical data for analysts, it should follow few conditions such
as designing the outline, headings, font sizes, spacing, etc., and

(c) delineate the table, create and analysis techniques to have a clear
protocol, thus enabling the analysis to be completely quickly and efficiently.

Data Tabulation and Analysis

11. MERITS OF TABULATIONS

Statistical data arranged in a tabular form serve following objectives:

• It simplifies the complex information to understand easy.

• It will help to make comparison of related facts and facilitates
computation of various statistical measures like averages, dispersion,
correlation etc.
• It presents facts in a nutshell and avoids unnecessary repetitions and
explanations are avoided. Moreover, the needed information can be
easily located.
• Tabulated data are good for references and they make it easier to
present the information in the form of graphs and diagrams

12. LIMITATIONS OF TABULATION

Tabulation has few limitations:

• Tables contain only numerical data and Qualitative expression.

• Tables helps to draw conclusion where it finds that normal lay man
cannot understand properly

13. CONCLUSION

To summaries, the set of information collected

and verified is done on the basis of homogeneity and reliability, it
wishes to be sum up and open a clear and compact mode to highlight the
relevant features of statistics. Both categorization and tabulation enhance
the readability and magnetism of the data, by presenting the statistics in a
simpler manner that looks more appealing to the readers or researchers.
To end with, it should be stressed out that the tabulation plan is one of the
most vital credentials in the census groundwork and organization process.
A foremost attempt is required to prepare it. Once it is all set it should
seldom be changed unless mistakes are found and even then, it is essential
to validate that adequate possessions are available to undertake the new
actions.
Q. Explain the Research Findings?
Ans. Definition:
Research findings refer to the results obtained from a study or
investigation conducted through a systematic and scientific approach.
These findings are the outcomes of the data analysis, interpretation, and
evaluation carried out during the research process.

Types of Research Findings

There are two main types of research findings:

Qualitative Findings
Qualitative research is an exploratory research method used to
understand the complexities of human behavior and experiences.
Qualitative findings are non-numerical and descriptive data that describe
the meaning and interpretation of the data collected. Examples of
qualitative findings include quotes from participants, themes that emerge
from the data, and descriptions of experiences and phenomena.

Quantitative Findings
Quantitative research is a research method that uses numerical data and
statistical analysis to measure and quantify a phenomenon or behavior.
Quantitative findings include numerical data such as mean, median, and
mode, as well as statistical analyses such as t-tests, ANOVA, and
regression analysis. These findings are often presented in tables, graphs,
or charts.
Both qualitative and quantitative findings are important in research and
can provide different insights into a research question or problem.
Combining both types of findings can provide a more comprehensive
understanding of a phenomenon and improve the validity and reliability of
research results.

Parts of Research Findings

Research findings typically consist of several parts, including:

• Introduction: This section provides an overview of the

research topic and the purpose of the study.
• Literature Review: This section summarizes previous research
studies and findings that are relevant to the current study.
• Methodology: This section describes the research design,
methods, and procedures used in the study, including details on
the sample, data collection, and data analysis.
• Results: This section presents the findings of the study,
including statistical analyses and data visualizations.
• Discussion: This section interprets the results and explains
what they mean in relation to the research question(s) and
hypotheses. It may also compare and contrast the current
findings with previous research studies and explore any
implications or limitations of the study.
• Conclusion: This section provides a summary of the key
findings and the main conclusions of the study.
• Recommendations: This section suggests areas for further
research and potential applications or implications of the study’s
findings.
How to Write Research Findings
Writing research findings requires careful planning and attention to detail.
Here are some general steps to follow when writing research findings:

• Organize your findings: Before you begin writing, it’s

essential to organize your findings logically. Consider creating an
outline or a flowchart that outlines the main points you want to
make and how they relate to one another.
• Use clear and concise language: When presenting your
findings, be sure to use clear and concise language that is easy
to understand. Avoid using jargon or technical terms unless they
are necessary to convey your meaning.
• Use visual aids: Visual aids such as tables, charts, and graphs
can be helpful in presenting your findings. Be sure to label and
title your visual aids clearly, and make sure they are easy to
read.
• Use headings and subheadings: Using headings and
subheadings can help organize your findings and make them
 easier to read. Make sure your headings and subheadings are
clear and descriptive.
• Interpret your findings: When presenting your findings, it’s
important to provide some interpretation of what the results
mean. This can include discussing how your findings relate to
the existing literature, identifying any limitations of your study,
and suggesting areas for future research.
• Be precise and accurate: When presenting your findings, be
sure to use precise and accurate language. Avoid making
generalizations or overstatements and be careful not to
misrepresent your data.
• Edit and revise: Once you have written your research findings,
be sure to edit and revise them carefully. Check for grammar
and spelling errors, make sure your formatting is consistent,
and ensure that your writing is clear and concise.
Research Findings Example
Following is a Research Findings Example sample for students:

Title: The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health

Sample: 500 participants, both men and women, between the ages of
18-45.
Methodology: Participants were divided into two groups. The first group
engaged in 30 minutes of moderate intensity exercise five times a week
for eight weeks. The second group did not exercise during the study
period. Participants in both groups completed a questionnaire that
assessed their mental health before and after the study period.
Findings: The group that engaged in regular exercise reported a
significant improvement in mental health compared to the control group.
Specifically, they reported lower levels of anxiety and depression,
improved mood, and increased self-esteem.
Conclusion: Regular exercise can have a positive impact on mental
health and may be an effective intervention for individuals experiencing
symptoms of anxiety or depression.
Applications of Research Findings
Research findings can be applied in various fields to improve processes,
products, services, and outcomes. Here are some examples:

• Healthcare: Research findings in medicine and healthcare can

be applied to improve patient outcomes, reduce morbidity and
mortality rates, and develop new treatments for various
diseases.
• Education: Research findings in education can be used to
develop effective teaching methods, improve learning outcomes,
and design new educational programs.
 • Technology: Research findings in technology can be applied to
develop new products, improve existing products, and enhance
user experiences.
• Business: Research findings in business can be applied to
develop new strategies, improve operations, and increase
profitability.
• Public Policy: Research findings can be used to inform public
policy decisions on issues such as environmental protection,
social welfare, and economic development.
• Social Sciences: Research findings in social sciences can be
used to improve understanding of human behavior and social
phenomena, inform public policy decisions, and develop
interventions to address social issues.
• Agriculture: Research findings in agriculture can be applied to
improve crop yields, develop new farming techniques, and
enhance food security.
• Sports: Research findings in sports can be applied to improve
athlete performance, reduce injuries, and develop new training
programs.
When to use Research Findings
Research findings can be used in a variety of situations, depending on the
context and the purpose. Here are some examples of when research
findings may be useful:

• Decision-making: Research findings can be used to inform

decisions in various fields, such as business, education,
healthcare, and public policy. For example, a business may use
market research findings to make decisions about new product
development or marketing strategies.
• Problem-solving: Research findings can be used to solve
problems or challenges in various fields, such as healthcare,
engineering, and social sciences. For example, medical
researchers may use findings from clinical trials to develop new
treatments for diseases.
• Policy development: Research findings can be used to inform
the development of policies in various fields, such as
environmental protection, social welfare, and economic
development. For example, policymakers may use research
findings to develop policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.
• Program evaluation: Research findings can be used to
evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions in
various fields, such as education, healthcare, and social
services. For example, educational researchers may use findings
from evaluations of educational programs to improve teaching
and learning outcomes.
 • Innovation: Research findings can be used to inspire or guide
innovation in various fields, such as technology and engineering.
For example, engineers may use research findings on materials
science to develop new and innovative products.
Purpose of Research Findings
The purpose of research findings is to contribute to the knowledge and
understanding of a particular topic or issue. Research findings are the
result of a systematic and rigorous investigation of a research question or
hypothesis, using appropriate research methods and techniques.

The main purposes of research findings are:

• To generate new knowledge: Research findings contribute to

the body of knowledge on a particular topic, by adding new
information, insights, and understanding to the existing
knowledge base.
• To test hypotheses or theories: Research findings can be
used to test hypotheses or theories that have been proposed in
a particular field or discipline. This helps to determine the
validity and reliability of the hypotheses or theories, and to
refine or develop new ones.
• To inform practice: Research findings can be used to inform
practice in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and
business. By identifying best practices and evidence-based
interventions, research findings can help practitioners to make
informed decisions and improve outcomes.
• To identify gaps in knowledge: Research findings can help to
identify gaps in knowledge and understanding of a particular
topic, which can then be addressed by further research.
• To contribute to policy development: Research findings can
be used to inform policy development in various fields, such as
environmental protection, social welfare, and economic
development. By providing evidence-based recommendations,
research findings can help policymakers to develop effective
policies that address societal challenges.
Characteristics of Research Findings
Research findings have several key characteristics that distinguish them
from other types of information or knowledge. Here are some of the main
characteristics of research findings:

• Objective: Research findings are based on a systematic and

rigorous investigation of a research question or hypothesis,
using appropriate research methods and techniques. As such,
they are generally considered to be more objective and reliable
than other types of information.
 • Empirical: Research findings are based on empirical evidence,
which means that they are derived from observations or
measurements of the real world. This gives them a high degree
of credibility and validity.
• Generalizable: Research findings are often intended to be
generalizable to a larger population or context beyond the
specific study. This means that the findings can be applied to
other situations or populations with similar characteristics.
• Transparent: Research findings are typically reported in a
transparent manner, with a clear description of the research
methods and data analysis techniques used. This allows others
to assess the credibility and reliability of the findings.
• Peer-reviewed: Research findings are often subject to a
rigorous peer-review process, in which experts in the field
review the research methods, data analysis, and conclusions of
the study. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the
findings.
• Reproducible: Research findings are often designed to be
reproducible, meaning that other researchers can replicate the
study using the same methods and obtain similar results. This
helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
Advantages of Research Findings
Research findings have many advantages, which make them valuable
sources of knowledge and information. Here are some of the main
advantages of research findings:

• Evidence-based: Research findings are based on empirical

evidence, which means that they are grounded in data and
observations from the real world. This makes them a reliable
and credible source of information.
• Inform decision-making: Research findings can be used to
inform decision-making in various fields, such as healthcare,
education, and business. By identifying best practices and
evidence-based interventions, research findings can help
practitioners and policymakers to make informed decisions and
improve outcomes.
• Identify gaps in knowledge: Research findings can help to
identify gaps in knowledge and understanding of a particular
topic, which can then be addressed by further research. This
contributes to the ongoing development of knowledge in various
fields.
• Improve outcomes: Research findings can be used to develop
and implement evidence-based practices and interventions,
which have been shown to improve outcomes in various fields,
such as healthcare, education, and social services.
• Foster innovation: Research findings can inspire or guide
innovation in various fields, such as technology and engineering.
 By providing new information and understanding of a particular
topic, research findings can stimulate new ideas and approaches
to problem-solving.
• Enhance credibility: Research findings are generally
considered to be more credible and reliable than other types of
information, as they are based on rigorous research methods
and are subject to peer-review processes.
Limitations of Research Findings
While research findings have many advantages, they also have some
limitations. Here are some of the main limitations of research findings:

• Limited scope: Research findings are typically based on a

particular study or set of studies, which may have a limited
scope or focus. This means that they may not be applicable to
other contexts or populations.
• Potential for bias: Research findings can be influenced by
various sources of bias, such as researcher bias, selection bias,
or measurement bias. This can affect the validity and reliability
of the findings.
• Ethical considerations: Research findings can raise ethical
considerations, particularly in studies involving human subjects.
Researchers must ensure that their studies are conducted in an
ethical and responsible manner, with appropriate measures to
protect the welfare and privacy of participants.
• Time and resource constraints: Research studies can be
time-consuming and require significant resources, which can
limit the number and scope of studies that are conducted. This
can lead to gaps in knowledge or a lack of research on certain
topics.
• Complexity: Some research findings can be complex and
difficult to interpret, particularly in fields such as science or
medicine. This can make it challenging for practitioners and
policymakers to apply the findings to their work.
• Lack of generalizability: While research findings are intended
to be generalizable to larger populations or contexts, there may
be factors that limit their generalizability. For example, cultural
or environmental factors may influence how a particular
intervention or treatment works in different populations or
contexts.
Q. What are the different criteria of performing Scientific research.

Ans. Research forms the backbone of academic and scientific progress.

It’s a systematic pursuit of knowledge, a quest to unearth facts, and a
journey to new discoveries. In this exploration, the “Criteria of Good
Research” acts as a lighthouse, guiding researchers towards excellence
and integrity. This blog aims to demystify these criteria, ensuring that
your research not only contributes to your field but also stands the test of
credibility and reliability.
Understanding the Criteria of Good Research
1. Clarity and Preciseness
Good research begins with clear objectives and research questions. It’s
imperative to articulate what the research intends to achieve and what it
seeks to explore.
Specific Objectives
• Define the goals of your research.

• Ensure they are clear, focused, and attainable.

Well-Formulated Research Question

• Craft a question that guides your research path.

• It should be precise and manageable in scope.

2. Relevance and Significance

Research must contribute value to its field. It should address a gap in
knowledge or solve a specific problem.
Identifying the Gap
• Understand what has already been studied.

• Identify areas that require further exploration.

Impact of Research
• Evaluate how your research contributes to the field.

• Consider its practical applications and theoretical implications.

3. Methodological Rigor
The methodology is the blueprint of your research. It should be
systematic, appropriate, and reproducible.
Appropriate Method Selection
• Choose methods suited to your research question and objectives.

• Justify your methodological choices.

Reproducibility
• Ensure that others can replicate your study.

• This enhances the reliability and validity of your results.

4. Ethical Considerations
Research must be conducted with integrity and respect for ethical norms.
Informed Consent
• Obtain consent from participants, ensuring they are well-informed
about the research.

• Respect their privacy and confidentiality.

Avoiding Bias
• Recognize and mitigate potential biases in your study.

• Strive for objectivity and fairness.

5. Logical Structure and Coherence

A well-structured research flows logically from one point to another.
Consistent Argumentation
• Present your arguments and findings coherently.

• Ensure each section logically leads to the next.

Clear and Concise Presentation

• Communicate your findings effectively.

• Use language that is accessible and clear.

6. Comprehensive Data Analysis

The interpretation of data should be thorough and accurate.
Rigorous Data Analysis
• Employ appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis methods.

• Interpret your data in a way that answers your research question.

Critical Evaluation
• Assess the strengths and weaknesses of your findings.

• Discuss the implications and limitations of your research.

Conclusion
Adhering to the criteria of good research is not just about fulfilling
academic requirements; it’s about fostering a culture of excellence and
integrity in the pursuit of knowledge. By ensuring clarity, relevance,
methodological rigor, ethical conduct, logical coherence, and
comprehensive data analysis, your research will not only stand out in its
field but also pave the way for future inquiries. Embrace these criteria as
your guiding principles, and embark on a research journey that makes a
meaningful impact.

Q. What is editing? Discuss the types of editing

Ans. After you’re done with writing your research paper comes the time
for another tedious and time-consuming task, the editing process!
Research paper editing is a mentally challenging task that requires a high
level of concentration from the author.
It goes beyond simply rearranging all elements of the paper in an
organized manner. You have to check for grammar, clarity, and logical
coherency, and analyze the content of the research document.
Most research students often skip the editing process, and even some
researchers save editing for the last. These common mistakes will always
hinder the progress of your research paper.
In this blog, we’ll share practical insights on how to edit your research
paper with perfection. Continue reading to understand how you should
edit your research paper effectively.

On this Page
• What is Research Paper Editing?
• What are the Different Types of Research Paper Editing?
 • Strategies for Editing Your Research Paper
• Research Paper Editing Checklist
• How to Edit a Research Paper - Examples

What is Research Paper Editing?

Research paper editing is the process of reviewing and improving a

research paper to make it clear, well-organized, and error-free. It
involves checking and correcting grammar, spelling, and punctuation
errors.
Other than that, the editing process makes sure that the paper follows a
logical structure and is written clearly and concisely. Editors also look for
consistency in writing style and formatting.
Unlike revising, which primarily focuses on restructuring and refining the
content and overall argument, editing hones in on the finer details of
language, style, and formatting.
Before learning how to edit your research paper, you should know that
there are different types of research paper editing.

What are the Different Types of Research Paper Editing?

There are different editing processes for research papers. All of them
have the same focus, to take the research document toward perfection.
You have to use a combination of these editing types to make sure your
paper is as close to perfection as it can be.

Content Editing

• Purpose: Analyze the organization and presentation of the research

paper
• Focus: Ensures the paper makes sense, has a good flow, and
develops and communicates arguments clearly
• Questions to Address: Does the paper have logical consistency,
and are there any major gaps in reasoning?

Copy Editing
 • Purpose: Focuses on corrections related to spelling, punctuation,
grammar, word choice, and overall writing quality
• Focus: Enhances the overall quality of writing while editing
research papers

Line Editing

• Purpose: A 'line-to-line' check focusing on word choice and writing

impact, similar to copy editing
• Actions: Involves making changes to strengthen the paper,
addressing issues like imitative phrasing and run-on sentences
• Focus: Emphasizes clarity and simplification to ensure the meaning
is clear and not overly complex

Mechanical Editing

• Purpose: The final editing step after addressing structure, content,

coherence, style, flow, grammar, and word choice
• Focus: Ensures strict compliance with the style guide specified by
the chosen journal for publication
Once your paper goes through each strategy and steps in the process of
editing one by one, it becomes ready for submission to a journal or
presentation.

Strategies for Editing Your Research Paper

Here are the vital strategies that your research paper editing process
should go through. Follow these, and you'll have a well-polished paper
ready for submission.

Double-Check the Outline

“How to edit a research paper outline?”

Before getting into the nitty-gritty of editing your research paper, take a
moment to double-check your outline. The outline serves as the roadmap
for your paper. It guides both the readers and yourself through the logical
progression of ideas.
Here are some key considerations:
Confirm Structural Coherence
The structure of your paper should align with the outlined plan. Each
section should naturally lead to the next, creating a natural progression of
ideas.
Check Transitions
Review transitions between paragraphs and sections. Smooth transitions
enhance the readability of your paper. This makes it easier for readers to
follow your thoughts.
Outline Accuracy
Verify that your outline accurately represents the content of your paper.
Each point in your outline should encapsulate the essence of the
corresponding section in your research paper.
You should never skip checking the outline in editing research papers. An
accurate outline lays the foundation of polished and well-presented
academic work.

Edit in Stages

Editing research papers becomes very tedious if you try to edit different
aspects of the paper without a plan.
For example, while reviewing your paper for mistakes, you discover a
logical error in the outline. You jump straight to correcting it and after
that, you notice a factual error. You start working on correcting that as
well. This is the wrong approach!
• This approach takes too much time, and you might lose track of
what you’re actually doing

• It is always a great practice to break down the editing process into

phases

• You should devise a plan that breaks down what issues to fix first
As a result, editing research papers will be much easier, and you’ll have a
focused approach throughout.
It's a personal preference whether you want to tackle grammar or
punctuation first, or focus on the overall logical structure of your research
paper.

Make Your Paper Logically Sound

With a solid outline in place, shift your focus to verifying the overall logic
of your research paper. It's important for a reader to understand
something logically.
Here's how you can enhance the logical coherency of your paper:
• Organize Your Paper Effectively
Start by looking at how your paper is organized. Make sure your research
paper introduction, literature review, methodology, discussion,
and results follow a clear and logical order. Each part should fit together
smoothly.
• Establish Logical Connections Between Ideas
Think about how your ideas connect. Check that each point logically leads
to the next. Your paper should read like a coherent story, with one idea
naturally flowing into the next.
• Maintain a Consistent Tone
Throughout the writing process, maintain the same tone in your paper.
Avoid sudden changes in tone that might confuse your readers. Make sure
your tone matches the formal nature of academic writing.
One thing to note here is that each sentence in your paper should
somehow support the thesis statement. There should be no contradictions
in your writing.

Edit Out any Grammatical or Punctuation Issues

To make your writing clear and professional:

• Focus on fixing grammar and punctuation issues. Check each
sentence for problems like wrong verb use or confusing structure

• Pay attention to using commas, periods, and other punctuation

marks correctly, and keep the style consistent
 • Make sure each sentence is easy to understand and says what you
mean

• Use spell check to catch any misspelled words, especially in

technical terms
Tools like Microsoft Word can significantly improve your grammar by
offering built-in features such as grammar check, style recommendations,
and thesaurus as well.

Verify Adherence to Guidelines

One of the vital steps in editing research papers is to make sure that your
paper aligns with the required research paper format and guidelines.
Check the instruction manual provided to you by the concerned
publication or the journal.

Verify Source Accuracy

Verifying that your research paper sources are accurate. Make sure that
your in-text and bibliographical citations are correct, and that they follow
the required formatting guidelines
(e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• All references should follow a consistent formatting style throughout
your paper

• Double-check that your in-text citations accurately correspond to

the sources you've referenced

• Confirm that all necessary details are included in each reference,

such as authors' names, publication titles, and publication dates

• Cross-verify against your sources to guarantee accuracy and

completeness

Seek Feedback

Don't hesitate to ask others for their thoughts on your work. Seeking
feedback is like having a fresh pair of eyes on your paper. It helps you
catch things you might have missed and gives you different perspectives.
Share your paper with peers, colleagues, or mentors and ask for their
opinions. Are your ideas clear? Does your argument make sense?
Feedback helps you improve your paper before submitting it, making sure
it meets the expectations of your audience.

Do a Final Analysis of Your Research Paper

The final step is to analyze your paper for one final time. In this step, you
should look out for the following key points:
• Modifiers
Think about changing sentences that have extra describing words.
• Use Active Voice and Step-by-Step
Make sure everything has been described by using an active voice.
• Keep It Short
Rephrase any sentences that seem too long. Break them to enhance the
clarity of your text.
Now that we have addressed every strategy to edit a research paper,
following a checklist always comes in handy. An editing checklist makes
sure that you never miss out on even the smallest of details.
Here is a great video that brilliantly explains and simplifies how to edit
research papers effectively:

Research Paper Editing Checklist

For precise editing, a research paper checklist will always help you out.
Below is a comprehensive checklist to follow:

Aspect Checklist Items

- Clear thesis and aligned research question

- Logical structure and smooth transition
Content and Structure
- Well-supported arguments without unnecessary
details

- Correct grammar and punctuation

Language and Style
- Varied sentence structures
 - Clear and concise language without jargon
- Address run-on sentences
- Verify subject-verb agreement

- Consistent document formatting

Formatting and Citations - Accurate research citations, both in-text and
bibliographical

- Peer feedback considered and addressed

Review and Feedback
- Optional: Professional editing services explored

- Corrected typos and spelling errors

- Read aloud for clarity and coherence
Final Proofreading
- Check and correct abbreviations and punctuation
marks

Compliance with - Adherence to specific guidelines and additional

Guidelines instructions

Q. What is Analysis? Explain the different types of Analysis

Ans. Definition of research in data analysis: According to LeCompte and
Schensul, research data analysis is a process used by researchers to
reduce data to a story and interpret it to derive insights. The data
analysis process helps reduce a large chunk of data into smaller
fragments, which makes sense.

Three essential things occur during the data analysis process — the first
is data organization. Summarization and categorization together
contribute to becoming the second known method used for data
reduction. It helps find patterns and themes in the data for easy
identification and linking. The third and last way is data analysis –
researchers do it in both top-down and bottom-up fashion.

LEARN ABOUT: Research Process Steps

On the other hand, Marshall and Rossman describe data analysis as a

messy, ambiguous, and time-consuming but creative and fascinating
process through which a mass of collected data is brought to order,
structure and meaning.

We can say that “the data analysis and data interpretation is a process
representing the application of deductive and inductive logic to the
research and data analysis.”

Why analyze data in research?

Researchers rely heavily on data as they have a story to tell or research

problems to solve. It starts with a question, and data is nothing but an
answer to that question. But, what if there is no question to ask? Well! It
is possible to explore data even without a problem – we call it ‘Data
Mining’, which often reveals some interesting patterns within the data
that are worth exploring.

Irrelevant to the type of data researchers explore, their mission and

audiences’ vision guide them to find the patterns to shape the story they
want to tell. One of the essential things expected from researchers while
analyzing data is to stay open and remain unbiased toward unexpected
patterns, expressions, and results. Remember, sometimes, data analysis
tells the most unforeseen yet exciting stories that were not expected
when initiating data analysis. Therefore, rely on the data you have at
hand and enjoy the journey of exploratory research.

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Types of data in research

Every kind of data has a rare quality of describing things after assigning a
specific value to it. For analysis, you need to organize these values,
processed and presented in a given context, to make it useful. Data can
be in different forms; here are the primary data types.

• Qualitative data: When the data presented has words and

descriptions, then we call it qualitative data. Although you can
observe this data, it is subjective and harder to analyze data in
research, especially for comparison. Example: Quality data
represents everything describing taste, experience, texture, or an
opinion that is considered quality data. This type of data is usually
collected through focus groups, personal qualitative
interviews, qualitative observation or using open-ended questions
in surveys.
• Quantitative data: Any data expressed in numbers of numerical
figures are called quantitative data. This type of data can be
 distinguished into categories, grouped, measured, calculated, or
ranked. Example: questions such as age, rank, cost, length,
weight, scores, etc. everything comes under this type of data. You
can present such data in graphical format, charts, or
apply statistical analysis methods to this data. The (Outcomes
Measurement Systems) OMS questionnaires in surveys are a
significant source of collecting numeric data.
• Categorical data: It is data presented in groups. However, an item
included in the categorical data cannot belong to more than one
group. Example: A person responding to a survey by telling his
living style, marital status, smoking habit, or drinking habit comes
under the categorical data. A chi-square test is a standard method
used to analyze this data.

Learn More: Examples of Qualitative Data in Education

Data analysis in qualitative research

Data analysis and qualitative data research work a little differently from
the numerical data as the quality data is made up of words, descriptions,
images, objects, and sometimes symbols. Getting insight from such
complicated information is a complicated process. Hence it is typically
used for exploratory research and data analysis.

Finding patterns in the qualitative data

Although there are several ways to find patterns in the textual

information, a word-based method is the most relied and widely used
global technique for research and data analysis. Notably, the data
analysis process in qualitative research is manual. Here the researchers
usually read the available data and find repetitive or commonly used
words.

For example, while studying data collected from African countries to

understand the most pressing issues people face, researchers might
find “food” and “hunger” are the most commonly used words and will
highlight them for further analysis.

LEARN ABOUT: Level of Analysis

The keyword context is another widely used word-based technique. In

this method, the researcher tries to understand the concept by analyzing
the context in which the participants use a particular keyword.

For example, researchers conducting research and data analysis for

studying the concept of ‘diabetes’ amongst respondents might analyze the
context of when and how the respondent has used or referred to the word
‘diabetes.’

The scrutiny-based technique is also one of the highly recommended text

analysis methods used to identify a quality data pattern. Compare and
contrast is the widely used method under this technique to differentiate
how a specific text is similar or different from each other.

For example: To find out the “importance of resident doctor in a

company,” the collected data is divided into people who think it is
necessary to hire a resident doctor and those who think it is unnecessary.
Compare and contrast is the best method that can be used to analyze the
polls having single-answer questions types.

Metaphors can be used to reduce the data pile and find patterns in it so
that it becomes easier to connect data with theory.

Variable Partitioning is another technique used to split variables so that

researchers can find more coherent descriptions and explanations from
the enormous data.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Research Questions and Questionnaires

Methods used for data analysis in qualitative research

There are several techniques to analyze the data in qualitative research,

but here are some commonly used methods,

• Content Analysis: It is widely accepted and the most frequently

employed technique for data analysis in research methodology. It
can be used to analyze the documented information from text,
images, and sometimes from the physical items. It depends on
the research questions to predict when and where to use this
method.
• Narrative Analysis: This method is used to analyze content
gathered from various sources such as personal interviews, field
observation, and surveys. The majority of times, stories, or
opinions shared by people are focused on finding answers to the
research questions.
• Discourse Analysis: Similar to narrative analysis, discourse
analysis is used to analyze the interactions with people.
Nevertheless, this particular method considers the social context
under which or within which the communication between the
researcher and respondent takes place. In addition to that,
 discourse analysis also focuses on the lifestyle and day-to-day
environment while deriving any conclusion.
• Grounded Theory: When you want to explain why a particular
phenomenon happened, then using grounded theory for analyzing
quality data is the best resort. Grounded theory is applied to
study data about the host of similar cases occurring in different
settings. When researchers are using this method, they might
alter explanations or produce new ones until they arrive at some
conclusion.

LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers

Data analysis in quantitative research

Preparing data for analysis

The first stage in research and data analysis is to make it for the analysis
so that the nominal data can be converted into something meaningful.
Data preparation consists of the below phases.

Phase I: Data Validation

Data validation is done to understand if the collected data sample is per

the pre-set standards, or it is a biased data sample again divided into four
different stages

• Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to

the survey or the questionnaire
• Screening: To make sure each participant or respondent is selected
or chosen in compliance with the research criteria
• Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while
collecting the data sample
• Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all the
questions in an online survey. Else, the interviewer had asked all
the questions devised in the questionnaire.

Phase II: Data Editing

More often, an extensive research data sample comes loaded with errors.
Respondents sometimes fill in some fields incorrectly or sometimes skip
them accidentally. Data editing is a process wherein the researchers have
to confirm that the provided data is free of such errors. They need to
conduct necessary checks and outlier checks to edit the raw edit and
make it ready for analysis.
Phase III: Data Coding

Out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data preparation
associated with grouping and assigning values to the survey responses. If
a survey is completed with a 1000 sample size, the researcher will create
an age bracket to distinguish the respondents based on their age. Thus, it
becomes easier to analyze small data buckets rather than deal with the
massive data pile.

LEARN ABOUT: Steps in Qualitative Research

Methods used for data analysis in quantitative research

After the data is prepared for analysis, researchers are open to using
different research and data analysis methods to derive meaningful
insights. For sure, statistical analysis plans are the most favored to
analyze numerical data. In statistical analysis, distinguishing
between categorical data and numerical data is essential, as categorical
data involves distinct categories or labels, while numerical data consists of
measurable quantities. The method is again classified into two groups.
First, ‘Descriptive Statistics’ used to describe data. Second, ‘Inferential
statistics’ that helps in comparing the data.

Descriptive statistics

This method is used to describe the basic features of versatile types of

data in research. It presents the data in such a meaningful way that
pattern in the data starts making sense. Nevertheless, the descriptive
analysis does not go beyond making conclusions. The conclusions are
again based on the hypothesis researchers have formulated so far. Here
are a few major types of descriptive analysis methods.

Measures of Frequency

• Count, Percent, Frequency

• It is used to denote home often a particular event occurs.
• Researchers use it when they want to showcase how often a
response is given.

Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean, Median, Mode

• The method is widely used to demonstrate distribution by various
points.
• Researchers use this method when they want to showcase the most
commonly or averagely indicated response.
Measures of Dispersion or Variation

• Range, Variance, Standard deviation

• Here the field equals high/low points.
• Variance standard deviation = difference between the observed
score and mean
• It is used to identify the spread of scores by stating intervals.
• Researchers use this method to showcase data spread out. It helps
them identify the depth until which the data is spread out that it
directly affects the mean.

Measures of Position

• Percentile ranks, Quartile ranks

• It relies on standardized scores helping researchers to identify the
relationship between different scores.
• It is often used when researchers want to compare scores with the
average count.

For quantitative research use of descriptive analysis often give absolute

numbers, but the in-depth analysis is never sufficient to demonstrate the
rationale behind those numbers. Nevertheless, it is necessary to think of
the best method for research and data analysis suiting your survey
questionnaire and what story researchers want to tell. For example, the
mean is the best way to demonstrate the students’ average scores in
schools. It is better to rely on the descriptive statistics when the
researchers intend to keep the research or outcome limited to the
provided sample without generalizing it. For example, when you want to
compare average voting done in two different cities, differential statistics
are enough.

Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it is

commonly used to analyze a single variable.

Inferential statistics

Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about a larger

population after research and data analysis of the representing
population’s collected sample. For example, you can ask some odd 100
audiences at a movie theater if they like the movie they are
watching. Researchers then use inferential statistics on the
collected sample to reason that about 80-90% of people like the movie.

Here are two significant areas of inferential statistics.

 • Estimating parameters: It takes statistics from the sample research
data and demonstrates something about the population
parameter.
• Hypothesis test: It’s about sampling research data to answer
the survey research questions. For example, researchers might be
interested to understand if the new shade of lipstick recently
launched is good or not, or if the multivitamin capsules help
children to perform better at games.

These are sophisticated analysis methods used to showcase the

relationship between different variables instead of describing a single
variable. It is often used when researchers want something beyond
absolute numbers to understand the relationship between variables.

Here are some of the commonly used methods for data analysis in
research.

• Correlation: When researchers are not conducting experimental

research or quasi-experimental research wherein the researchers
are interested to understand the relationship between two or
more variables, they opt for correlational research methods.
• Cross-tabulation: Also called contingency tables, cross-
tabulation is used to analyze the relationship between multiple
variables. Suppose provided data has age and gender categories
presented in rows and columns. A two-dimensional cross-
tabulation helps for seamless data analysis and research by
showing the number of males and females in each age category.
• Regression analysis: For understanding the strong relationship
between two variables, researchers do not look beyond the
primary and commonly used regression analysis method, which is
also a type of predictive analysis used. In this method, you have
an essential factor called the dependent variable. You also have
multiple independent variables in regression analysis. You
undertake efforts to find out the impact of independent variables
on the dependent variable. The values of both independent and
dependent variables are assumed as being ascertained in an
error-free random manner.
• Frequency tables: The statistical procedure is used for testing the
degree to which two or more vary or differ in an experiment. A
considerable degree of variation means research findings were
significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance
analysis are similar.
• Analysis of variance: The statistical procedure is used for testing
the degree to which two or more vary or differ in an experiment.
A considerable degree of variation means research findings were
significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance
analysis are similar.
Considerations in research data analysis

• Researchers must have the necessary research skills to analyze

and manipulation the data, Getting trained to demonstrate a high
standard of research practice. Ideally, researchers must possess
more than a basic understanding of the rationale of selecting one
statistical method over the other to obtain better data insights.
• Usually, research and data analytics projects differ by scientific
discipline; therefore, getting statistical advice at the beginning of
analysis helps design a survey questionnaire, select data
collection methods, and choose samples.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

• The primary aim of data research and analysis is to derive ultimate

insights that are unbiased. Any mistake in or keeping a biased
mind to collect data, selecting an analysis method, or
choosing audience sample il to draw a biased inference.
• Irrelevant to the sophistication used in research data and analysis is
enough to rectify the poorly defined objective outcome
measurements. It does not matter if the design is at fault or
intentions are not clear, but lack of clarity might mislead readers,
so avoid the practice.
• The motive behind data analysis in research is to present accurate
and reliable data. As far as possible, avoid statistical errors, and
find a way to deal with everyday challenges like outliers, missing
data, data altering, data mining, or developing graphical
representation.

Q. Write a brief note on ‘task of Interpretation’ in the context of Research

Methodology
Ans.
Q. Definition of report writing?
According to Mary Munter and Lynn Hamilton, authors of “Guide to
Managerial Communication,” report writing is “the process of selecting,
organizing, interpreting, and communicating information to meet a
specific objective.”
What is report writing?
Report writing refers to the process of creating a document that
represents information in a clear and concise manner. Reports can be
written for various purposes, such as providing updates on a project,
analyzing data or presenting findings, or making recommendations.
Effective report writing requires careful planning, research, analysis, and
organization of information. A well-structured report should be accurate,
and objective, and contain a clear introduction, body, and conclusion. It
should also be written in a professional and accessible style, with
appropriate use of headings, subheadings, tables, graphs, and other
visual aids.
Overall, report writing is an important skill for professionals in many
fields, as it helps to communicate information and insights in a clear and
concise manner.
What is a report?
A report is a formal document that is structured and presented in an
organized manner, with the aim of conveying information, analyzing data,
and providing recommendations. It is often used to communicate findings
and outcomes to a specific audience, such as stakeholders, or managers.
Reports can vary in length and format, but they usually contain a clear
introduction, body, and conclusion.
Types of report writing
By understanding the different types of report writing, individuals can
select the appropriate format and structure to effectively communicate
information and achieve their objectives. However, the kind of report
used will depend on the purpose, audience, and context of the report.
1/ Informational reports: These reports provide information about a
topic, such as a product, service, or process.
Further Reading: What is an information report
2/ Analytical reports: These reports present data or information in a
structured and organized manner, often with charts, graphs, or tables, to
help the reader understand trends, patterns, or relationships.
3/ Formal Reports: These are detailed and structured reports written
for a specific audience, often with a specific objective. In comparison with
informal reports, formal reports are typically longer and more complex
than other types of reports.
4/ Progress reports: These reports provide updates on a project or
initiative, detailing the progress made and any challenges or obstacles
encountered.
5/ Technical reports: These reports provide technical information, such
as specifications, designs, or performance data, often aimed at a technical
audience.
6/ Research reports: These reports present the findings of research
conducted on a particular topic or issue, often including a literature
review, data analysis, and conclusions.
7/ Feasibility Report: A feasibility report assesses the likelihood of
achieving success for a suggested project or initiative.
8/ Business Reports: These reports are used in a business setting to
communicate information about a company’s performance, operations, or
strategies. Different types of business reports include financial
statements, marketing reports, and annual reports.
Structure of report writing
The structure of a report refers to the overall organization and layout of
the report, including the sections and subsections that make up the
report, their order, and their relationships to each other. A report can we
divided into three parts.
Preliminary Parts:
• Title page
• Date
• Acknowledgments (Preface or Foreword)
• Table of Contents
• List of Tables and Illustrations
Main Text:
• Introduction (clear statement of research objectives, background
information, hypotheses, methodology, statistical analysis, scope
of study, limitations)
• Statement of findings and recommendations (summarized
findings, non-technical language)
• Results (detailed presentation of findings with supporting data in
the form of tables and charts, statistical summaries, and
reductions of data, presented in a logical sequence)
• Implications of the results (clearly stated implications that flow
from the results of the study)
• Summary (brief summary of the research problem, methodology,
major findings, and major conclusions)
End Matter:
• Appendices (technical data such as questionnaires, sample
information, and mathematical derivations)
• Bibliography of sources consulted.
This structure provides a clear and organized framework for presenting a
research report, ensuring that all important information is included and
presented in a logical and easy-to-follow manner.
Extra Learnings
Role of a report structure in report writing
The report structure plays a crucial role in report writing as it provides a
clear and organized framework for presenting information in an effective
and logical manner. It ensures that the reader can easily understand the
purpose and scope of the report, locate and access the relevant
information.
The preliminary parts of the report, provide an overview of the report and
aid navigation. The main text makes it easier for the reader to
comprehend and analyze the information. And The end matter provides
additional details and sources for reference. An organized report structure
also helps the author to communicate their research and ideas effectively
to the intended audience.
What is the report writing format?
The format of report writing refers to the structure of a formal document
that provides information on a particular topic or issue. The report writing
format typically includes the following key components:
8 Essential elements of report writing are:
1/ Title: The title is the first thing that readers will see, and it should be
clear and concise. The title should include the report’s subject or topic and
the author’s name, date of writing, or who the report is for. Remember to
keep the title brief and informative, avoiding vague or ambiguous
language.
Example of Business Report Title Page:
“Market Analysis and Growth Strategies for XYZ Corporation”
Author: Mary Johnson
Date: January 2, 2022
Company: Earthcon Corporation
Department: Strategy and Planning
In this example, the title page includes the name of the report, ‘Market
Analysis 2022,’ the author’s name, ‘John Doe,’ the submission date,
‘January 1, 2024,’ and other details such as the name of the organization,
‘Earthcon Corporation.’
2/ Table of Contents: The table of contents provides an overview of the
report’s contents. It should list all sections and subsections with clear
headings. It is essential to make the table of contents organized and easy
to read, allowing readers to locate specific information quickly.
Example of Table of Contents
I. Introduction…… 1
• Purpose of the Report…… 2
• Methodology Used…… 2
II. Executive Summary…… 3
III. Background and Context…… 3
IV. Analysis and Findings…… 4
• Market Trends and Data…… 5
• Competitor Analysis…… 6
• SWOT Analysis…… 7
V. Recommendations and Conclusion…… 8
VI. References…… 9
3/ Summary: Also known as the executive summary, the summary
provides a brief overview of the entire report. It should summarize the
report’s main points, including findings, objectives, and
recommendations. The summary should be written after the entire report
is completed, and it should be concise and summarized in less than one
page.
Example of executive summary:
The Annual Sales Report for Earthcon Company shows a 10% increase in
overall sales compared to the previous year. The report also reveals that
the majority of sales came from the Midwest region and the target
demographic is primarily males aged 25-40. Based on these findings,
recommendations have been made to focus marketing efforts towards this
demographic in the upcoming year.
4/ Introduction: The introduction introduces the report’s topic and
informs readers what they can expect to find in the report. The
introduction should capture readers’ attention and provide relevant
background information. It should be clear and concise, including why the
report was written and its objectives.
Example of Introduction:
This comprehensive report aims to analyze and evaluate the sales
performance of EarthCon Corporation throughout 2024. It will look into
detailed sales trends observed throughout the year, carefully examining
the various factors that have influenced these trends. Additionally, the
report will identify and highlight potential areas for growth, offering
valuable insights and recommendations to drive future success.
5/ Body: The body is the longest section and includes all the information,
data, and analysis. It should present information in an organized manner,
often using subheadings and bullet points. The body should include all
relevant research findings and data, often accompanied by visuals such as
graphs and tables. It is essential to cite all sources correctly and remain
objective, avoiding personal opinions or biases.
Example of Background and Context:
This report seeks to analyze the influence of technological advancements
on business productivity. Previous research has indicated a correlation
between the adoption of innovative technologies and increased
operational efficiency for Earthcon. The report will examine further into
this topic and offer suggestions for maximizing the benefits of these
advancements.
Example of Analysis and Findings:
The market trends and data show a steady increase in demand for
innovative products, with a significant rise in sales in the past five years.
In comparison, competitor analysis reveals that Earthcon Corporation is
well-positioned to take advantage of this trend due to its strong brand
reputation and product portfolio. A SWOT analysis also highlights
potential areas for improvement and growth.
6/ Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the findings and conclusions
of the report. It should wrap up all the essential information presented in
the body and make recommendations based on the report’s findings. The
conclusion must be brief and clear, avoiding the introduction of any new
information not previously presented in the body.
7/ Recommendations: The recommendation section should provide
suggested goals or steps based on the report’s information. It should be
realistic and achievable, providing well-crafted solutions. It is often
included in the conclusion section.
Example of Recommendations and Conclusion:
Based on the analysis, it is recommended that EarthCon Corporation
invest in research and development to continue producing innovative
products. Additionally, efforts should be made to expand into emerging
markets to increase global reach. In conclusion, the Annual Sales Report
shows positive outcomes and recommends strategic actions for future
growth.
8/ Appendices: The appendices section includes additional technical
information or supporting materials, such as research questionnaires or
survey data. It should provide supplementary information to the report
without disrupting the report’s main content.
It is important to use clear headings and subheadings and to label tables
and figures. Also, proofreading and fact-checking are critical before
submitting the report. A well-crafted report is concise, informative and
free of personal bias or opinions.
What are the features of report writing
There are several key features of effective report writing that can help
ensure that the information presented is clear, concise, and useful. Some
of these features include:
1/ Clarity: Reports should be written in clear and concise language,
avoiding jargon or technical terms that may be confusing to the reader.
2/ Objectivity: A report should be objective, meaning that it should be
free from bias or personal opinions. This is particularly important when
presenting data or analysis.
3/ Accuracy: Reports should be based on reliable sources and accurate
data. Information should be verified and cross-checked to ensure that it is
correct and up-to-date.
4/ Structure: A report should be structured in a logical and organized
manner, with clear headings, subheadings, and sections.
5/ Visual aids: A report may include visual aids such as charts, tables,
and graphs, which can help to illustrate the key points and make the
information easier to understand.
6/ Evidence: Reports should include evidence to support any claims or
findings, such as statistics, quotes, or references to relevant literature.
7/ Recommendations: Many reports include recommendations or
suggestions for future action based on the findings or analysis presented.
Significance of report writing
Report writing is a critical skill that can have a significant impact on
individuals, and organizations. In fact, a report by the National
Association of Colleges and Employers found that the ability to
communicate effectively, including report writing, was the most important
skill sought by employers.
• Reports provide decision-makers with the information they need
to make informed decisions.
• Effective report writing demonstrates professionalism and
attention to detail, which can help to build trust and credibility
with clients.
• Reports can inform planning processes by providing data and
insights that can be used to develop strategies and allocate
resources.
• Reports often include recommendations or suggestions for future
action, which can help to improve processes, procedures, or
outcomes.
Further Reading: What is the significance of report writing
Report writing examples and samples
Annual business report of reliance company for the year 2020-
21. (Source)
 Example of Progress Report

The essential process of report writing

Report writing requires careful planning, organization, and analysis to
ensure that the report effectively communicates the intended message to
the audience. Here are the general steps involved in the process of report
writing:
Plan and prepare:
• Identify the purpose of the report, the target audience, and the
scope of the report.
• Collect and examine data from different sources, including
research studies, surveys, or interviews.
• Create an outline of the report, including headings and
subheadings.
Write the introduction:
• Start with a brief summary of the report and its purpose.
• Provide background information and context for the report.
• Explain the research methodology and approach used.
Write the main body:
• Divide the report into logical sections, each with a clear heading.
• Present the findings and analysis of the research in a clear and
organized manner.
• Use appropriate visual aids, such as tables, graphs, or charts to
present data and information.
• Utilize a language that is both clear and Brief, and avoid using
unnecessary jargon or technical terminology.
• Cite all sources used in the report according to a specified citation
style.
Write the conclusion:
• Summarize the main findings and conclusions of the report.
• Restate the purpose of the report and how it was achieved.
• Provide recommendations or suggestions for further action, if
applicable.
Edit and revise:
• Review the report for errors in grammar, spelling, and
punctuation.
• Check that all information is accurate and up-to-date.
• Revise and improve the report as necessary.
Format and present:
• Use a professional and appropriate format for the report.
• Include a title page, table of contents, and list of references or
citations.
• Incorporate headings, subheadings, and bullet points to enhance
the report’s readability and facilitate navigation.
• Use appropriate fonts and sizes, and ensure that the report is
well-structured and visually appealing.
Important Principles of report writing
To write an effective report, it is important to follow some basic principles.
These principles ensure that your report is clear, concise, accurate, and
informative. In this regard, here are some of the key principles that you
should keep in mind when writing a report:
1/ Clarity: The report should be clear and easy to understand.
2/ Completeness: The report should cover all the relevant information
needed to understand the topic
3/ Conciseness: A report should be concise, presenting only the
information that is relevant and necessary to the topic.
4/ Formatting: The report should be properly formatted, with consistent
fonts, spacing, and margins
5/ Relevance: The information presented in the report should be
relevant to the purpose of the report.
6/ Timeliness: The report should be completed and delivered in a timely
manner.
7/ Presentation: The report should be visually appealing and well-
presented.
Extra Learnings
Styles of report writing
When it comes to the style of report writing, it’s important to use hard
facts and figures, evidence, and justification. Using efficient language is
crucial since lengthy reports with too many words are difficult to
read. The most effective reports are easy and quick to read since the
writer has comprehended the data and formulated practical
recommendations.
To achieve this, it’s important to write as you speak, avoid empty words,
use descending order of importance, use an active voice, and keep
sentences short. The goal should be to write to express and not to
impress the reader.
It’s also important to get facts 100% right and to be unbiased and open.
By following these tips, one can create a well-written report that is easy
to understand and provides valuable insights.
Q. Explain the importance of Error of Interpretation
Ans. Introduction

Errors abound at every turn in the world today, given the proliferation of
varied interpretations on same or similar things. In a predominantly post-
modern thinking world, this is hardly surprising. What is however
disturbing is the fact that post-modern relative thinking has invaded the
Christian Church as well. It appears to have found a fertile ground,
breeding superstition and indeed, spawning spurious hermeneutical
methods, much like was the case prior to the Protestant Reformation. It is
frightening how Christians differ on the interpretation and application of
the same portion or text of scripture. Various hermeneutical approaches
are used, each claiming to be equally legitimate, authentic, valid and God
honouring! While some approach exegesis from an allegorical method,
others insist exclusively on the literal approach. Both these are extremes
because due regard should be given to genre as well. D.A Carson realised
these errors and addressed them in his most informative book "Exegetical
fallacies". Bloomberg et al have done a commendable work well worth a
diligent study. Drs Philip C. Johnson and Cherian Sannesh have equally
done some impressive work on this matter too in several of their potent
publications. In this paper however, we basically highlight some basic
interpretive fallacies, their roots (very briefly) and possible effects. It is
hoped that using Johari window perspective, we shall spot our blind spots
and peradventure make amends. Very well then, we kick-start our
consideration hence.

Errors of interpretation

Errors arise from a faulty collection/collation of information, interpretation

and analysis of the same. Some of these errors are deliberate while
others are accidental and unintended. The interpreter must therefore
make much of the tools they use to collate as well as interpretation.
Below are some of the common errors and their source(s):

1. Errors related to prejudice and biases: The errors arise from a

defective or faulty mindset or world view. The interpreter uses their
background orientation lenses to interpret a given scenario. For instance,
if I have judged John as inefficient in the past, I will not give him urgent
tasks no matter how he improves his competencies unless there is
consistent tangible evidence. The problem here is that past assignments
have affected my judgement and thus I draw up wrong conclusions when
in fact John has so improved to even surpass my favourite/preferred
subordinate. We all have specific leanings every day which may affect our
judgement about issues in life. No one is immune from such bias or
prejudice. The ideal is to remain objective as much as possible. Some of
these tendencies manifest in the following ways:

a. Basic human tendency to distort: humans have great difficulty

remaining objective since the fall. They either over or under state a
situation. Exaggeration seems more appealing to many and thus give a
false picture. The human heart naturally opposes what is against its
preferences or biases.

b. Basic tendency to disbelief: The Human heart since the fall is inclined
towards disbelief due to sins' deceitfulness. Men love darkness rather than
light. Man's preference for darkness is well documented in scripture and
evident in everyday life, hence the incessant attacks on the faith. It is
difficult for a person to receive the free gift of salvation but would like to
"work" for it in some way.
c. Basic tendency to rebellion: A darkened heart is also a heart that is
hostile to God. It cannot submit to God's law nor can it do so (Romans
8:5-10). The unregenerate heart prefers to do evil in the cover of
darkness which things are even shameful to mention. Evangelical
obedience marks a regenerate heart unlike the opposite. Even believers,
if in a declined spiritual state can be rebellious at times and thus distort or
misinterpret scripture.

d. Lack or limited Theological/Biblical background: Those that would

interpret the Bible may not even have what it takes to interpret the entire
holy writ. They may know parts of the Bible but not the entire campus of
scripture and thus are prone to misinterpretation. Their theological
orientation is thus defective and will deliver wrong results. Others try to
interpret the Bible without due regard to the Biblical background and why
certain things happened the way they did. Using mere natural human
reasoning will not do. These are spiritual matters. If they sought to
discover the authorial intent, things would perhaps be different.

e. Low spiritual maturity: Some believers may genuinely be regenerate

but still mere infants in Christ. A novice is easily misled or may not
possess sufficient depth to explain things properly and clearly. It is by
constant use that people become proficient at using the sword of the
spirit (Hebrews 5:13-14).

f. Influence of Philosophies: others are influenced by the world views of

the times. Dockery and Thornbury well highlight this idea as do William L.
Craig and Norman L. Geisler. Their world is thus impaired or affected to
the extent that they may perceive and explain things in a wrong or
different way than what the natural context is saying. For example, if you
are feminist, you will certainly find the Bible restrictive and gender
"imbalanced"!

g. Imbalance between cause/commitment: Apart from the philosophical

aberrations that intrude into some one's interpretation of scripture there
are other things that come into play. People usually veer towards their
preferences, pick and chose what best suits their taste or inclination. For
example, if one prefers not to eat scavengers, they will master all the
passages in scripture that talk against eating such while exalting those
that seem to favour their position. Another example is those that are
crazy about miracles, demons or tongues, in short, Charismata. In every
passage, they look out for this phenomenon and high light them. The
same happens to those that are heavily dogmatic, they look out for what
supports their view. I once preached at a particular church from 1
Chronicles 12:32 about the "men of Issachar" where my main point was
strategic thinking. The Church leaders' summary at the end of the sermon
bordered on giving money, food etc. to the church! We all have our
unfettered inclinations.
2. Errors related to meaning and perception: Closely connected to point 1
above, our interpretation of the world around us is largely affected by our
world view, values or hind orientation. Thus, we interpret everything
using those lenses and thus read into statements, pictures, circumstance
things that may not be there or author intended at all. For instance, if I
believe that a Christian can lose their salvation, I will look for evidence to
that effect and use it to interpret the whole Bible that way. In every
statement, there is absolute and contextual meaning and thus people
should take heed to this as they interpret. The following errors are
common:

a. Ignorance about the nature of the passage: Statements must be

carefully interpreted as they were originally meant to be i.e. the sense
and intent of the author should be explored and explained accordingly. If
something is meant to be negative, then do not attempt to force it to be
positive. That would be a violation of interpretation principles. The
consequences might be grave along the way.

b. Right and wrong keys: At times, certain "keys" are applied wrongly
leading to wrong conclusions. If for instance, a passage talks about the
nation of Israel as applied to the "spiritual Israel" and vice versa, then
potential problems occur if not properly handled. Granted, Covenant
theology and dispensationalism are often at daggers drawn over the
matter of Israel and the Church, one needs to know the 'what and when'
of the right use of terms and meanings. For instance, OT Israel is asked
to conquer and obliterate some nations as they inherit Canaan, should
this hold true for the Church today? Can the Church get rid of people? Of
course, not but due care in interpretation is essential. Alternatively, has
the Church replaced Israel in the New Covenant or not? If so, to what
extent? This is certainly an emotive subject betraying theological
hermeneutical bias.

c. Human limitations: To be human is to have limitations. The human

mind can only go so far in capacities. Knowledge for instance increases
with time as one invests in reading and hard study. Depending on our
background orientation, training and world view, each of us has some
blind spots only 'highlight-able' by others. The Johari window model is
handy here.

d. Multiple meanings: Some words have more than one meaning

depending of the context used. Thus, it is very easy for crafty fellows to
distort things or even genuinely get lost or confused.

e. Inability to perceive divine actions: Some actions depicted in the Bible

by God are hard to understand or fully decipher. Some appear harsh while
others appear too good to be true. In one passage, God sends a heathen
nation to punish the children of God while in another the heathen are
seriously routed for being Godless. Salvation itself is a sovereign act of
God whereby he saves whom he will and at whatever time he pleases.
This puzzles the natural mind.

f. The mysterious character of biblical doctrines: The scripture is spiritual

in nature and thus spiritually discerned. The natural mind finds many
doctrines hard to comprehend if not offensive.

g. Linguistic limitations: Languages have limitations and can be used

differently in different contexts. For example, the word "faith" has
different meanings in different contexts of the scripture.

3. Errors related to collection and integration: At times, errors are

committed at the collection and interpretation stage in surveys or
research. Errors also occur when interpreting a text from one dialect to
another e.g. from Greek to English. Some compound Greek words may
not have exact equivalents in English. This forces translators/interpreters
to come up with a compromise or the closest equivalent. In the process,
some aspects are lost. For instance, in I John 2:1-3, we find the words
"expiation" or "propitiation" interpreted as "atoning sacrifice" by different
English Bible versions. Each of these words (i.e. expiation or propitiation)
has its own emphasis leaving out other equally important aspects of
Jesus' work on the Cross. The Greek etymological word however may not
have that problem. Another aspect worth mentioning is that truth and
particular doctrines are scattered all over the scripture and not localised
in one central place. That is why someone must have a wide campus of it
(scripture) to be balanced in its interpretation. We high light some
common interpretation areas in that regard:

a. Ignoring some and emphasising other portions: some passages, as

hinted at earlier, are more appealing than others. This is so because some
resonate more with our preferences than others. Thus, the human heart
has a propensity to gravitate towards those and neglect others, if not
oppose them. For instance, the passages that emphasize God's absolute
sovereignty of affairs of the world are least liked by the proud human
heart,

b. Progressive nature of Revelation: Biblical Revelation was progressive

until the canon of scripture was complete. In interpreting any passage,
bear in mind the period in which that revelation too place. This helps
avoiding misinterpretations. Vos makes much of the issue of progressive
revelation.

c. Progressive nature of human interpretation: Though Biblical revelation

is now complete, the human heart still needs to understand fully the
teachings of scripture. Knowledge is progressive for humans, not God,
thus errors are bound to arise if due care is not administered.
d. The sufficient/Total distinction: God's written word is sufficient for life
and Godliness. All we need to know is embedded in the word, including
what is not explicitly stated. These unstated items such as smoking are
dealt with by way of principle rather than direct prescription.

e. Emotionalism and denominationalism: People have very deep

attachment to their cause or party. Similarly, Christians have their
loyalties to their denominations and set of teachings, at times even
eclipsing what the Bible clearly teaches. Others are so hooked to their
emotion cranking to the extent that reason is suspended in preference to
the 'feel good' theology. This position often leads to biasness.

There are certainly plenty other sources of error but in our discourse, we
limited our focus on errors of interpretation. For a deeper holistic
consideration of hermeneutics, we recommend the land mark volume
"Hermeneutics" by Bloomberg and others. It's a great read, tackling about
any area of hermeneutics.

Conclusion

Due to various preferences and biasness, people often interpret scripture

or indeed any given passage under the influence of their back-ground
orientation. In this matter of Bible interpretation, we should call no man
master, as the old divines used to say. No matter how learned or
articulate, let us stick to the Solas (sola scriptura, sola fide, sola gratia &
sola Christus) alluded to elsewhere in our writings.

Q. Give a detailed example of drafting a research report?

Ans.

Q.