Sampling and Sampling Techniques

Introduction
Research provide solution to social and organizational problems and extend the frontiers of
human knowledge. It is mostly conducted on or about a population on whom results obtained can
be applied. A population helps to define the boundaries of a study and give readers a clue about
the context of the study, and opportunity to focus on specific areas within its scope (Hossan et
al., 2023). Hence, to avoid undue or wrongful generalizations, a study must have a specific
population, a specific focus.
Boundaries help a researcher to identify different groups within a study, like the main group
being studied, the group from which samples are taken, and the actual samples. It also helps to
ensure that these groups are well-connected and aligned with each other (Salkind, 2009).
A researcher has to define the population of their study accurately, prior to commencing research
activities. This helps to determine adequate sample size, and draw samples that represent the
entire population. Success of research and reliability of results mostly depend on samples and
sampling procedures. This lesson focuses on how to define a research population, and select
representative samples.
Definition
In research, the term “population” does not correspond to its demographic meaning as an entire
group of people living within a certain geographic or political boundary. It is instead a group that
meet a set of specified criteria, and about which information or knowledge is sought; or who’s
problems, a research seek to solve. Hence, population in research consist not only people, but
also organizations objects, events, or outcomes with well-defined inclusion and exclusion
criteria.

Therefore, a research population is a collection or aggregate of specified persons, groups, events,

objects or trends, etc., which share common features and which are the subjects of a study. It is a
clearly defined group about which information is sought to solve identified and well-formulated
problems.
Often, the purpose of a study define the population to be studied. For example, if a study is
designed to gain knowledge about consumers in a city, it should be clear on the category of
consumers (current, potential or former) that must be included.
Types of research population
Research population may be conceived in different ways, depending on their nature. The
commonest types include:
a) Finite population: A finite population is one containing a known and countable number of
elements. It may be relatively small or large.
 b) Infinite population: An infinite population is one that consists an unknown and endless
number of elements. An infinite population is also difficult to estimate because it is
unstable.
c) Target population: This is the population about which, a researcher seek information. It is
the population of interest in a study, but which may be difficult to access or study fully.
d) Accessible population: The accessible population is one that a researcher has access to,
which shares the properties of the target population and which a study actually surveys.
Sample
It is preferable for a study survey the entire universe about which a phenomenon is being
examined. However, this is sometimes not feasible, as a very large universe often make census
unrealistic. In such instances, a sample may be taken, based on which; generalizations about the
universe can be made.
A sample is a subset or portion of a population that is drawn for measurement, using appropriate
methods, and studied with a view to making a conclusion or generalizations about the
population. Often, research involve surveying a large population. This is fraught with challenges.
Hence, the standard practice to take a sample that is proportional to the population, and to make
conclusion about the population based on knowledge gained from the sample. To allow for
generalizability however, a sample must be representative of the population from which it is
drawn.
Reasons for drawing a sample
Researchers are at liberty to decide when to take a census (study the entire population) or draw a
sample. However, when a population is large (above 30 elements), the convention is to draw a
sample. This is because:
a) It may be impossible or cumbersome to study the entire population;
b) Drawing a sample quicken the gathering of required data; and
c) Working with a sample is more efficient (costs less, saves time and requires less labour).
Sample size determination
Sample size determination is the process of arriving at the right or appropriate number of
elements from a population to focus on, in a study. The essence is to ensure that an adequate and
representative sample is drawn, and that knowledge obtained from the sample can be generalized
to the population.
A representative sample is one that shares the properties of the population in the right proportion;
and which can provide statistically accurate estimates of the parameters of the population, but
which is small enough to be manageable and cost-effective.
The extent to which a researcher can determine and draw a representative sample, depends on the
following:
 a) Knowledge of the population;
b) Size of the population;
c) Level of homogeneity in the population;
d) Level of precision sought;
e) Degree of confidence required in the outcome of the study; and
f) Sampling method adopted.
To determine a sample from a given population, a researcher may:
a) adopt the sample size used in a similar study;
b) rely on published tables on sample size determination; or
c) use formula to compute the sample size.
It is however important to note:
a) that a larger sample size brings a study closer to unraveling the truth;
b) that a diverse population requires a larger sample size; and
c) that sampling accuracy depends on size; and not ratio of sample to population.
Sampling process
Sampling is a systematic process undertaken to select a subset of individuals or items from a
population, often employing statistical techniques to ensure that a sample taken, adequately
represent the characteristics of the population.
Sampling enable researchers to make observations and statistical inferences about a population,
using samples. Social science research often infer patterns of behaviors of specific populations,
but it may be difficult to study the entire populations, so, a representative sample is taken from
the population.
It is important that a sample that is truly representative of the population is chosen, so that
inferences derived from the sample can be generalized to the population. Sampling is the
process of selecting a sample that adequately represents a population of interest. The process of
selecting a representative sample from a population involves, defining the target population;
determining a sample size; preparing a sampling frame and selecting a representative sample
through proper sampling method.
Sampling techniques
Sampling – the process of drawing a sample – is a technical operation that is conducted
according to prescribed standards. A scientific investigation may suffer credibility if its sampling
technique is crude or inadequate. Though a “best approach” to derive a sample from a universe
do not exist (Baridam, 2001); sampling method is determined by the nature and purpose of a
study and the sampling error a researcher is willing to tolerate.
Sampling is based on ideas drawn from logic, especially, inductive reasoning, which involves
moving from the specific to the general. So, larger samples increase the chances of sample
representativeness (Bryman & Bell, 2007); and bring research results closer to reality. To select a
subset of a population, different techniques can be used. These are however grouped into:
a) probability sampling techniques; and
b) nonprobability sampling techniques.
Probability sampling techniques
Probability sampling is a technique in which every element of population has a chance of being
selected in the sample, and this chance can be accurately determined (Bhattacherjee, 2012).
Probability sampling has two key attributes:
a) every element of the population has a known non-zero chance of being included in the
sample; and
b) the sampling procedure involves random selection at some point.
Probability sampling is thus the most accurate and reliable sampling method because it provide
all elements of a given population, a known, equal and independent chance of being included in
the sample.
Probability sampling is required when there is need to accurately generalize results; but it is
mostly suitable for a population that is homogeneous in nature. A study that seek to validly
generalize results from a sample to a population, have better reckoning if its sample is drawn
using probability sampling techniques. This is because probability sampling provide greater
opportunities to arrive at an unbiased sample that is also representative of a population. The
different types of probability sampling techniques include:
Simple random sampling: This is a completely random method of drawing a sample in which
each element and each combination of elements in the population have an equal chance of being
selected to become a part of the sample. It is about the simplest random sampling method and a
fair way to select a sample. Even though it may not be considered a perfect sampling method,
results obtained through simple random sampling has high credibility and generalizability.
Simple random sampling can be done by:
a) tossing a coin;
b) throwing a dice;
c) raffle method; or
d) blindfold method.

Simple random sampling can be conducted with replacement or without replacement. In

instances where a certain element of the population that has been included in the sample has a
chance to be selected again, is called sampling with replacement; while in sampling without
replacement, an element once drawn cannot be selected again. To apply simple random
sampling, a researcher requires complete information about the population and a sampling frame
- a list of all the elements in the population. The simple random sampling procedure is as
follows:
a) Define population.
 b) Determine the sample size.
c) Prepare a sampling frame.
d) Name or label every unit of the population on slips of paper and mix them up.
e) Draw required number of units from the well-mixed slips.

Systematic random sampling: Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling in which

sample elements from a population are selected according to a random starting point, but with a
fixed, periodic interval. This interval is called the sampling interval, and is calculated by dividing
the population size by the desired sample size. To use systematic sampling, the population must
be finite, and can be listed accurately. Systematic sampling is relatively easy, as it simply
requires the researcher to choose every “nth” participant from a sampling frame, after a random
starting point. The systematic sampling procedure is given below:
a) Define population.
b) Determine the size of the population.
c) Determine sample size.
d) Decide sampling interval (population size ÷ sample size).
e) Choose a starting point by randomly selecting one element of the population.
f) Select the rest of the sample units based on the sampling interval.
Systematic random sampling is favoured for being simple, practical and speedy; but criticized on
the grounds that a randomly selected first element may influence the selection of other elements
and for not being adequate for a heterogeneous population and an infinite population.
Stratified random sampling: In stratified random sampling, a population is divided into
different non-overlapping, homogeneous subgroups based on shared characteristics; and then
samples taken from subgroups using simple random or systematic sampling methods.
Stratified random sampling is especially relevant where a population is heterogeneous, and a
simple random sample may not provide accurate results. By dividing the population into strata,
researchers can ensure that their sample is representative of the population, that sampling error is
reduced, and that sampling bias is avoided; and that more accurate results can be obtained.
Stratified random sampling come in two variants: proportionate stratified random sampling and
disproportionate stratified random sampling. Proportionate stratified random sampling is one in
which the size of the sample is proportionate to the population of the stratum; while in
disproportionate stratified random sampling, the size of the sample is disproportionate to the
population of the stratum. Steps in stratified random sampling are as follows:
a) Define the population.
b) Determine stratification criteria or variables.
c) Divide the population into stratum on the basis of clearly defined variables.
d) List the elements in each stratum.
e) Select required number of elements from each stratum, using appropriate random
sampling techniques.
Stratified random sampling is the most adequate sampling method for a population with distinct
subgroups. Its ability to increase precision, represent each subgroup proportionately, control bias,
save costs, and improve data quality endears it researchers in many fields.
Cluster random sampling: This probability sampling technique involves separating the total
population of a study into subgroups, or clusters; and then randomly selecting a cluster or
clusters to be studied. Cluster random sampling is suitable when a population is large, widely
dispersed, and difficult to access. Clusters selected should however, taken together, mirror the
characteristics of the entire population.
It may not be feasible to a random sample from a population that is large and widely dispersed.
So, it may be reasonable to divide the population into “clusters” (usually along geographic
boundaries), and them, randomly sample a few clusters, and measure all units within those
clusters. However, depending on differences between clusters, the variability of sample
estimates in cluster sampling will be higher than that in simple random sampling, hence results
obtained from cluster samples may be less generalizable than those obtained from simple random
samples.
Felix-Medina and Thompson (2004) identify four variants of cluster random sampling:
a) Single-stage cluster sampling: This is a type of cluster sampling where each element of
the chosen clusters is sampled. Researchers first divide the total population into a
predetermined number of clusters based on how large they want each cluster to be. Then,
they randomly select and sample from the clusters and collect data from each individual
unit in a selected cluster.
b) Two-stage cluster sampling: in the sampling method, researchers only collect data from a
random subsample of individual units within selected clusters. This technique is less
precise than single-stage sampling and is used only when it is too challenging or
expensive to test an entire cluster.
c) Multistage sampling: In this sampling method, a researcher firstly, create clusters from a
target population. Secondly, they randomly select clusters. Thirdly, sample units within
the selected clusters are randomly selected. In this sampling method, random selection
occurs at both the cluster level and at the sample unit level. Multistage sampling is useful
when naturally occurring clusters are large, resulting in reduced precision when
compared to the stratified random-sampling approach. In this event, smaller clusters can
be created and sampled. For example, rather than sampling all small scale enterprises in a
state, a secondary cluster, such as small scale enterprises in agribusiness, could be
utilized and sampled. Multistage sampling hold the advantage of reducing the cluster
size, and enhances estimator precision.
d) Matched-pair sampling: This is a sampling method in which a researcher divide the
population of study into subgroups based on specific criteria, for the purpose of
comparing them. For instance, to determine why some firms consistently make more
profit than others, a researcher would have to categorize a sampling frame of firms into
“high profit firms” and “low profit firms” based on gross margins, earnings per share, or
some other measure of profitability. Next, the researcher would select a simple random
 sample of firms in one subgroup, and match each firm in this group with a firm in the
second subgroup, based on their size, industry segment, etc. Now, the researcher have
two matched samples of high-profitability and low-profitability firms that they can study
in greater detail. Matched-pair sampling is an ideal way of understanding differences
between subgroups within a given population.
Steps in cluster random sampling are as follows:
a) Define the target population.
b) Create and evaluate sampling frames.
c) Determine clusters.
d) Select a cluster or clusters.
e) Create sub-clusters.
f) Study the entire cluster or select sample units using simple or systematic random
sampling

Cluster sampling is used when the target population is too large or widely dispersed, and
studying each subject would be costly, time-consuming, and improbable. In such situations,
researchers can form clusters based on a geographical area by grouping firms within a region,
state, or local government areas into clusters.

Nonprobability sampling techniques

Nonprobability sampling is a method where samples are chosen without ensuring that every
element of the population has an equal or known chance of being selected. As different from
probability sampling, which relies on random selection, nonprobability sampling relies on the
judgment or convenience of the researcher; test units are selected at the discretion of the
researcher.

Nonprobability sampling offer flexibility and creativity in research. It does not require complete
sampling frame, hence, is an efficient way to collect data. However, in order to draw conclusions
about the population based on the sample, the researcher must make the risky assumption that the
sample is representative of the population.

Generally, scientific favour probability sampling as a method of gaining information about a

population. However, trends have pressed researchers to apply nonprobability sampling. These
trends include:
a) decline in response rates in probability surveys;
b) high cost of data collection;
c) increased burden on respondents;
d) desire for access to real-time statistics, and
e) surge of non-probability data sources such as web surveys and social media.

However, nonprobability sampling does not allow for estimation of sampling error; and
information obtained from nonprobability samples have challenges with respect to data quality;
potential presence of participation and selection bias; and reduced accuracy in results obtained.
So, information obtained from a nonrandom sample cannot be generalized without caution
The commonly used nonprobability sampling methods include:
Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where
samples are selected from the population only because they are conveniently available to the
researcher. This is a sampling technique in which a sample units are drawn from a population
based on proximity to the researcher, availability or accessibility. It is a quick and
straightforward method, often used for preliminary research. In using convenience sampling, the
researcher does not consider sample representativeness.

For instance, a researcher stands outside a shopping mall to administer questionnaire on shoppers
as they walk in, the sample that will be obtained is a convenient sample. This method exclude
part of the population who shop at other shopping malls For example, a high end-store will
attract more affluent shoppers; a shopping mall close to a university will attract more students.

Hence, results obtained from a sample selected using convenience sampling may not adequately
represent the opinion of the entire population of the study (all shoppers). So, scientific
generalizability of the result will be limited. Convenience can be a favoured sampling method
when the researcher:
a) Is more concerned with response rate, than sample representativeness.
b) Has a tight, hence wants a low-cost method to collect data.
c) Is running a pilot study.
d) Is observing habits, opinions, and views of a target population.
e) Do not have access to a sampling frame.
Purposive sampling: This is a sampling method in which researchers select samples based on
their credibility and expertise on the phenomenon being studied. That is, the researcher choose
only those elements of the population who they consider adequately qualified to participate in the
study.

Over all, using purposive sampling requires a researcher to have ideas about the composition and
behaviour of the population, and to select specific elements of the population to be included in
the sample, based on their level of experience about the phenomenon being studied. In other
words, the researcher purposely selects what they consider to be a representative sample.

However, purposive sampling is useful in exploratory studies, especially for selecting members
for focus groups or in-depth interviews. The advantage of this approach is that since experts tend
to be more familiar with the subject matter of a study than non-experts, opinions from a sample
of experts may be more credible than a sample that includes both experts and non-experts. Its key
weakness is that preconceived notions of the researcher can influence results obtained. This is
because preconceived notions of the researcher may be reflected in the sample; and biases can be
introduced if those preconceived ideas are inaccurate.
Quota sampling: This is a nonprobability sampling method in which researchers select samples
based on specific particulars, and in proportion to their prevalence in the population. In quota
sampling, the researcher segment the total population into mutually exclusive subgroups (just as
in stratified sampling), and then choose a non-random set of test units from each subgroup
according to specific qualities, to meet a predefined quota. This means that a researcher may
divide quotas based on need, rather than based on equality.

Quota sampling may be proportional or non-proportional. In proportional quota sampling, the

proportion of test units in each subgroup match the population of that subgroup. Non-
proportional quota sampling is less restrictive in that the researcher do not have to achieve a
proportional representation, but meet a minimum number of test units in each subgroup.
Quota sampling may also be controlled or uncontrolled. It is controlled when a researcher not
only ensure that test units represent certain attributes proportionally, but also control for the
order in which they are selected, in order to avoid bias introduced by temporal or sequence
effects. Quota sampling is uncontrolled when there are no restrictions to a researcher’s choice of
samples; that is, the researcher is free to choose test units at will.
There are four steps in the quota sampling process: Firstly, the total population is divided into
mutually exhaustive subgroups, so that elements belong only to subgroup. Secondly, the number
of elements in each subgroup determined, and its proportion to total population is evaluated. This
is with a view to ensuring that samples taken from each subgroup align with the size of that
subgroup.
Thirdly, an appropriate sample size is selected, while maintaining the proportion evaluated in the
previous step. The sample chosen must represent the target population; and fourthly, the study is
conducted according to the quotas defined, in order to achieve actionable results.
Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling, also known as chain or network sampling is a
technique in which currently enrolled test units are asked to assist the researcher in identifying
other potential subjects. That is, a researcher start by identifying at least one test unit that match
the criteria for inclusion in their study, and then ask them to recommend others they know who
also meet the selection criteria. The initial test unit then refer the researcher to other potential test
units they know within the target population. This process continues until the desired sample size
is reached.
For instance, a researcher that wants to survey confidential secretaries, but know only one or just
a few of such, can start with them and ask them to recommend others who are also confidential
secretaries. Although this method hardly leads to representative samples, it is useful when:
a) A research is about a “hard-to-reach” population and does not have a sampling frame - a
population that possess specific traits, and might be difficult to identify,
b) the population is small relative to the general population
c) the population is geographically dispersed; or
d) studying a population that possess a social stigma.
Snowball sampling is also used to study sensitive topics or topics that people may not be
comfortable to discuss publicly due to perceived risks associated with self-disclosure. The
method enable researchers to access such hidden populations while ensuring confidentiality and
protecting their privacy.
Snowball sampling also has two variants: Linear snowball sampling and exponential snowball
sampling. Linear snowball sampling is a straight-line referral sequence, beginning with only one
subject. That one subject recommend a new test, which is then recruited into the sample group;
and this new test unit recommend yet other test units, and the pattern continue until the ideal
sample size is reached.
In exponential snowball sampling, the initial test unit recommend multiple new test units, which
are recruited into the sample group, and each of these referrals recommend multiple test units;
and the pattern continues until the desired sample size is reached. Exponential snowball sampling
is further subdivided into two: exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling and
exponential discriminative snowball sampling.
In exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling, the first subject recruited to the sample
recommends multiple referrals; each of which recommend more potential test units that are
accommodated the sample group. This geometric chain sampling sequence continues until there
are enough participants for the study. In the exponential discriminative snowball sampling
however, while referred test unit recommend multiple subjects, only one subject is recruited
from each referral, based on the objectives of the study or as may be determined by the
researchers.