Unit 1 - Understanding Human Development

6/15/24, 12:52 AM Unit 1: Understanding Human Development
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6/15/24, 12:52 Unit 1: Understanding Human Development
1.1 Concepts of growth, development and

maturation
Human development refers to
the biological and psychological development of
the human being throughout the lifespan. It consists of
the development from infancy, childhood,
and adolescence to adulthood. The scientific study of
psychological human development is sometimes
known as Developmental psychology.
Human development is a lifelong process of physical,
behavioral, cognitive, and emotional growth and change. These
two terms, growth and development are used interchangeably.
Both relate to the measurement of changes occurred in an
individual after conception in the womb of the mother.
However, in the strict sense of terminology, these two terms
have different meanings:
Growth: can be defined as an increase in size, length, height
and weight or changes in quantitative aspect of an
organism/individual.
Hurlock has defined Growth as “change in size, in
proportion, disappearance of old features and acquisition of
new ones”.
Development: is a series of orderly progress towards
maturity. It implies overall qualitative changes resulting in the
improved functioning of an individual.
According to Crow and Crow (1965) development is
concerned with growth as well as those changes in behavior
which results from environmental situation.”
Growth refers to Development refers to
physiological changes. overall changes in the
individual. It involves
changes in an orderly and
coherent type towards
the goal of maturity.
Growth is one of the parts Development is a wider
of developmental process. term and growth is one
of its parts.
Changes take place in Changes in the
particular aspect of the body organism as a whole.
and behavior.
Growth stops once maturity Development is a
is attained. continue process: from
womb to tomb.
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Changes may be measured. As Can’t be always measured.

in case of height or weight.
Changes in the quantitative Development changes
respect is termed as in the quality along with
growth. quantitative aspect.
Growth occurs due to Development occurs
the multiplication of due to both maturation
cells. and interaction with the
environment.
Not affected by leaning Learning and experience
effects development
May or may not bring Development is also
development. A child may grow possible without
in terms of height and weight but growth.
this growth may not bring any
functional
improvement/development.
Maturation:
Maturation is the process of learning to cope and react in an
emotionally appropriate way. It does not necessarily happen
along with aging or physical growth, but is a part of growth and
development. A situation a person must deal with at a young
age prepares them for the next and so on into adulthood.
Maturation does not stop when physical growth ends - it
continues through adulthood. An adult who loses a parent, for
instance, learns to cope with a new emotional situation that will
affect the way he or she deals with situations that follow.
According to Garry and Kingsley “Maturation is the
process whereby behavior is modified as a result of
growth and development of physical structures.”
Types of
Maturation Physical
Maturation
As the name suggests it indicates the physical development
and growth that we go through as we get older. A child goes
through some very distinct physical maturity as they progress
through all their development stages. For example, in the early
stages of development, a child depends on reflexes majorly.
Then as they age, they develop their motor skills and
coordination. They also grow taller and add more weight as
they develop. Their body
goes through hormonal changes as they leave adolescence

and enter early adulthood.
Cognitive Maturation
This refers to the cognitive development of children from
birth to adulthood. It refers to how babies think, learn,
interact with their environment, etc. Some important aspect
of cognitive development is the processing of information,
language development, reasoning skills, development of
intellects and memory.
This process of cognitive development begins right at infancy.

An infant uses their sensory organs to explore their
surroundings.
By three months infants can actually distinguish faces and
sounds. And as they go through adolescence and their teenage
year, the cognitive development continues. Each stage is
earmarked with certain benchmarks that the teachers can
focus on to chart the child’s cognitive maturity.
Principles of Development
From the scientific knowledge gathered through observation of

children, some principles have emerged. These principles
enable the parents and the teachers to understand how
children develop. What is expected of them? How to guide them
and provide proper environment for their optimum
development? It seems that the process of development is
operated by some general principles. These rules or principles
may be named as the principles of development. Some of these
principles are briefly explained below:
1. Principle of Continuity: Development is a process
which begins from the moment of conception in the
womb of the mother and goes on continuing till the time
of death. It is a never ending process. The changes
however small and gradual continue to take place in all
dimensions of one’s personality throughout one’s life.
2. Principle of Individual differences: Every organism is
a distinct creation in itself. Therefore, the development
which undergoes in terms of the rate and outcome in
various dimensions is quite unique and specific. For
example, all children will first sit up, crawl and stand
before they walk. But individual children will vary in
regard to timing or age at which they can perform these
activities.
3. Principle of lack of uniformity in the developmental

rate: Though development is a continuous process it
does not exhibit steadiness and uniformity in terms of the
rate of development in various dimensions of personality
or in the developmental periods and stages of life. Instead
of steadiness, development usually takes place in fits and
starts showing almost no change at one time and a
sudden spurt at another. For example, shooting up in
height and sudden change in social interest, intellectual
curiosity and emotional make-up.
4. Principle of uniformity of pattern: Although there
seems to be a clear lack of uniformity and distinct
individual differences with regard to the process and
outcome of the various stages of development, yet it
follows a definite pattern in one or the other dimension
which is uniform and universal with respect to
individuals of a species. For instance, the development of
language follows a somewhat definite sequence quite
common to all human beings.
5. Principle of proceeding from general to specific:
While developing in relation to any aspect of personality,
the child first picks up or exhibits general responses and
learns to show specific and goal-directed responses
afterwards. For example, a baby starts by waving his
arms in general random movement and afterwards these
general motor responses are converted into specific
responses like grasping or reaching out. Similarly when a
new born baby cries, his whole body is involved in doing
so but as he develops, it is limited to the vocal cords,
facial expression and eyes etc. In development of
language, a baby calls all men daddy and all women
mummy but as he grows and develops, he begins to use
these names only for his own father and mother.
6. Principle of integration: By observing the principle of
proceeding from general to specific or from the whole to
the parts, it does not mean that only the specific
responses are aimed for the ultimate consequences of
one’s development. Rather, it is a sort of integration that
is ultimately desired. It is the integration of the whole and
its parts as well as the specific and general responses that
enables a child to develop satisfactorily in relation to
various aspects or dimensions of his personality.
7. Principle of interrelation: The various aspects of one’s
growth and development are interrelated. What is
achieved or not achieved in one or the other dimension
in the course of the gradual and continuous process of
development surely affects the development in other

dimensions. All healthy body tends to develop a healthy
mind and an emotionally stable and socially conscious
personality. On the other hand, inadequate physical or
mental development may results in a socially or
emotionally maladjusted personality. That is why all
efforts in education are always directed towards
achieving harmonious growth and development in all
aspects of one’s personality.
8. Principle of interaction: The process of development
involves active interaction between the forces within the
individual and the forces belonging to the individual.
What is inherited by the organism at the time of
conception is first influenced by the stimulations received
in the womb of the mother and after birth, by the forces
of physical and socio-psychological environment for its
development. Therefore, at any stage of growth and
development, the individual’s behaviour or personality
make-up is nothing but the end-product of the constant
interaction between his heredity endowment and
environmental set-up.
9. Principle of interaction of maturation and
learning: Development occurs as a result of
both
maturation and learning. Maturation refers to changes in
an organism due to unfolding and ripening of abilities,
characteristics, traits and potentialities present at birth.
Learning denotes changes the changes in behaviour due
to training and experience.
10. Principle of predictability: Development is
predictable, which means that, to a great extent, we can
forecast the general nature and behaviour of a child in
one or more aspects or dimensions at any particular
stage of its growth and development. Not only such
prediction is possible along general lines but it is also
possible to predict the range within which the future
development of an individual child is going to fall. For
example, with the knowledge of the development of the
bones of a child it is possible to predict his adult
structure and size.
11. Principle of cephalocaudal and proximodistal
tendencies: Cephalocaudal and proximodistal
tendencies are found to be followed in maintaining the
orderly sequence and direction of developments.
According to cephalocaudal tendency, development
proceeds in the direction of the longitudinal axis, ie.
head to foot. For example, before it becomes able to
stand, the child first gains control over his head and
arms and then on his legs. In terms of proximodistal
tendency,
development proceeds from the near to the distant and

the parts of the body near the centre develops before the
extremities. For example, in the beginning the child is
seen to exercise control over the large fundamental
muscles of the arm and the hand and only afterwards the
smaller muscles of the fingers.
12. Principle of spiral versus linear
advancement. The path followed in development by the
child is not straight and linear and development at any
stage never takes place with a constant or steady pace. At
a particular stage of his development, after the child had
developed to a certain level, there is likely to be a period
of rest for consolidation of the developmental progress
achieved till then. In advancing further, development
turns back and then moves forward again in a spiral
pattern.
1.2 Growth curve and stages of human

development from infancy to childhood
Overview of postnatal growth: Scammon’s curves

The curves of systematic growth reported by Scammon
about 60 years ago. Upon analysis of the size of various parts
and organs of the body, Scammon proposed that the growth
of different tissues and systems could be summarized in four
patterns (or curves) of growth.
1. General Curve
The general, or body, curve describes the growth of the
body as a whole and of most of its parts – the growth
pattern of stature, weight and most external dimensions
of the body.
It is also characteristic of the growth pattern of most
systems of the body, including muscle mass, the
skeleton, (with the exception of certain parts of the skull
and face), the respiratory system, the heart and blood
vessels, the digestive system, and the urinary portion of
the uro- genital system.
The growth pattern is S - shaped (sigmoid) and has four
phases: rapid growth in infancy and early childhood,
steady but rather constant growth during middle
childhood, rapid growth during the adolescence spurt,
and slow increase and eventual cessation of growth after
adolescence.
2. Neural Curve
The neural curve characterizes the growth of the brain,

nervous system, and associated structures, such as the
eyes, upper face, and parts of the skull. These tissues
experience rapid growth early in postnatal life, so that
about 95% of the total increment in size of the central
nervous system between birth and 20 years is already
attained by about 7 years of age. Neural tissues shows
steady gain after 7 years of age, with a slight growth
spurt during adolescence.
3. Genital Curve
The genital curve characterizes the growth pattern of the
primary and secondary sex characteristics. The former
include the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina in
females, and the testes, seminal vesicles, prostate and
penis in males. Secondary sex characteristics include
breast development in females, pubic and axillary hair in
both sexes, and facial hair and growth of the larynx in
males. Larynx growth is related to voice changes that
occur during male adolescence. Genital tissues show
slight growth in infancy, followed by a latent period
during most of childhood. Genital tissues then experience
extremely rapid growth and maturation during the
adolescent spurt.
4. Lymphoid Curve
The lymphoid curve describes the growth of the
lymph glands, thymus gland, tonsils, appendix and
lymphoid patches of tissue in the intestine. These
tissues are involved, in general with the child’s
developing immunological capacities, including
resistance to infectious diseases.
Lymphatic tissues show rapid growth during infancy and
childhood, reaching a maximum at about 11 to 13 years
of age. At these ages, children have, on a relative basis,
about twice as much lymphoid tissue as they have as
adults. The decline of the lymphoid curve during the
second decade of life is related to the involution
(shrinking) of the thymus and tonsils at this time.
Scammon’s curves thus indicate the differential nature of
postnatal growth. Growth occurs in different areas and tissues
of the body at different times and at different rates. Although
somewhat simplified and diagrammatic, the curves give a sense
of order to the structural and functional changes that occur
with growth and maturation. Nevertheless, there are several
exceptions to the four curves. The craniofacial skeleton is one
such exception. The upper part of the face, the orbits of the
eyes, and the cranial vault follow the neural curve and complete
a good portion of their growth by about 7 years of age. The
lower
face, including the jaw, follows the general curve. Thus the
upper part of the face has a different growth pattern than the
lower part.
Stages of human development from infancy to adulthood
Even though development is a continuous process, some
theorists believe that various stages can be identified for the
sake of locating major shifts and determining the
developmental tasks. This helps in monitoring the pace of
developmental changes. It must be pointed out that there is no
sharp dividing line between them. Each stage has certain
characteristic features and prepares the ground for the next
stage. Some theorists have suggested stages in specific areas of
development. For instance Piaget who identified stages of
cognitive development and Freud who suggested stages of
psycho-sexual development. These theories are explained in
other lessons.
1. Infancy
Infancy comprises the first year of life. This is a period of
rapid growth in most bodily systems and dimensions
and rapid development of the neuromuscular system.
After birth, the growth is oriented towards functional
state of life. Growth is mainly by addition of more cells or
increase in the protoplasm. It can be said that anabolic
processes exceed catabolic processes and there is
increase in size, shape and weight. This characterizes the
infant stage.
Immediately after birth the rate of growth increases. In
case weight the peak velocity is reached at two months
after birth. The cells become larger in size. The cervical
and lumber curvatures of the spinal column appear as
the baby begins to straighten the head and tries to sit up
and to stand. During infancy growth is very rapid. More
than 50 percent of birth length and 200 percent of birth
weight take place during the first year of life.
2. Childhood
Childhood ordinarily spans from the end of infancy (the
first birthday) to the start of adolescence. The infant
attains childhood before reaching adolescence. It is
often divided into early childhood and middle
childhood.
 The early childhood (2-6 years): is the period of
eruption of milk teeth. Motor skills are refined,
language develops, ties are formed with peers,
and the child learns through play.
 The middle childhood (7 to 11 years) is the period
of eruption of permanent teeth, though not all
erupt.
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These are the school years when the child

acquires literacy skills, thought processes are
refined, friendships emerge and self-concept is
formed.
3. Adolescence
Adolescence (11-20 years): This period is marked by
puberty which signals the onset of rapid physical and
hormonal changes, emergence of abstract thinking,
sexual maturity, stronger peer ties, sense of self and
autonomy from parental control. During this period there
is a marked acceleration of growth which is known as
adolescence growth spurt. The adolescence spurt is a
constant phenomenon and occurs in all children, though
it varies in intensity and duration from one child to
another. In boys it takes place, on the average from age
12 to 15. In girls the spurt begins about two years earlier
than in boys. Differentiation in primary and secondary
sexual characteristics marks the adolescence period.
There are changes in the reproductive organs, in body
size and shape, in the relative proportions of muscle, fat
and bone and in a variety of physiological functions.
4. Adulthood
This period starts from 20 years to till death. Generally
this period is divided in three sub categories. These are
as follow.
 Early adulthood (20-40 years): This is the stage of
life when the youngster leaves home for the sake
of education, or to find a career, and to form
intimate relationships leading to marriage and
having children.
 Middle adulthood (40-60 years): At this stage the
person is at the peak of his/ her career. There is a
need to help children begin independent lives,
and to look after own parents who are aging.
 Late adulthood (60 years till death): This period
is marked by retirement from work, decrease in
stamina and physical health, bonding with grand-
children, and dealing with impending old age and
death of self and spouse.
FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
All children also do not have same type of intelligence.
Some have more musical talents, others have more
intrapersonal intelligence, others also have more linguistic
abilities etc. So, children differ from each other because
several factors influence on their development. Some of the
important factors have been enumerated below:
1. Hereditary Factors:- Heredity exerts an influence on

human development. The child carries genetic
endowments from his/her parents. It is genetically
transmitted characteristics from one generation to the
next. The physical characteristics like height, weight, eye
color etc. and psychological characteristics such as
intelligence, personality, creativity and so on are innately
determined and hereditary. The genetic code provides
the base on which brain and body grow and manifest in
observable appearance and behavior.
2. Environmental Factors:- Another important factor of
human development is the environment where an
individual lives. The child lives and grows in his
environment. Environment consists of a wide range of
stimuli and it provides the necessary input and
experiential base for development of the child.
Enrichment or impoverishment of the environment
would produce differences in his abilities. For example, a
child may have inherited music talent from his parents
through transmission of genes, but he may not excel in
music field if he does not get the proper environment and
support to develop his innate ability.
3. Home Environment:- Home environment exerts
tremendous influence on child‟s understanding of the
external world. It builds self-concept and prepares him
to face the external world. The child begins to acquire
knowledge through interaction with parents and other
family members. During his early years of development,
the behaviours of the child are modulated by the home
environment. The environment of the family can be
supportive or stressful for the child. If it is supportive,
warm and harmonious environment, the child develops
normally. In unsupportive and stressful home
environment, broken families or uncaring parents in the
family, children may develop as maladjusted persons.
4. Cultural Factors:- Culture refers to a system of beliefs,
attitudes and values that are transmitted from one
generation to the next. It is a product of past human
behavior and is also a shaper of future aspirations. The
development of the child is influenced by family as well as
by the society. The child learns the habits, beliefs,
attitude, skills and standards of judgment through the
socialization processes. The socialization processes of the
child take place according to the culture, customs and
traditions of the society. For example, greeting someone
is a familiar experience but behavioral experiences are
different in different cultures. In Indian culture, people
greet others by
saying namaskar, folding hands or lying down near the

feet but in Western culture, people greet by handshake
or kissing or saying hello etc.
5. Socioeconomic Status (SES):- Socioeconomic Status
plays a pivotal role in human development. The index of
socioeconomic status is determined by parental
education, occupation and income. The children of low
socioeconomic status may develop as mal-nourished,
suffer from lack of knowledge in many aspects and their
normal development may get hampered. The parenting in
high socioeconomic status families would be different
from low socio-economic status families. Children of the
high socioeconomic groups of the society get better social
opportunities, are nurtured with better nutrition, good
medical treatment and are exposed to more intellectual
stimulation than low socioeconomic group.
6. Education and Training:- Each child is equipped with
certain abilities which need to be nurtured through
proper education and training. Therefore, the first and
foremost step is to identify and recognize the ability of
the child and the next step is to provide adequate
opportunities to develop the same. If proper
identification of the ability is not possible and adequate
facilities are not available to the child, then his innate
ability may not be developed. Thus, adequate education
and training have influence on human development.
1.3 Domains of development (Physical, Cognitive,

Socio-emotional, moral and language).
1. Physical development
It is important to know how children develop physically
because physical development influences children’s
behaviour directly by determining what they can do and
indirectly their attitudes towards self and others.
Physical development involves changes in body size and
body proportions which is measured in terms of height
and weight. The physical development involves growth
of bones, fat muscle, teeth, puberty changes of primary
and secondary characteristics and neurological
development.
2. Cognitive development
Cognition refers to the mental activities involved in
acquisition, processing, organization, storage and use
of information. These activities include perceiving,
imagining, reasoning and judging. A single and global
measure of an individual’s general level of cognitive

development is called intelligence. The neuron patterns
in the brain are the determining factors of intellectual
development. Mental growth is the process of
organization of behaviour patterning which brings the
individual to a stage of psychological maturity.
The observational studies on children’s intellectual
development by Jean Piaget, (1896-1980) a Swiss
psychologist, is considered as an important landmark
in this area. Piaget’s theory covers the entire range of
ages from infancy through adolescence.
3. Socio-emotional development
Social and Emotional refers to your child's ability to
make and maintain relationships.
Every child is born with potentialities for both pleasant
and unpleasant emotions. Even infants have the ability to
respond emotionally. The first sign of emotional
behaviour in the new born infant's 'general excitement'
due to intense stimulation. However, the emotional status
of the infant in the next few months is not very clear-cut
and appears to be diffused. With age, emotional
responses become less diffused and random. For
example, at first, the child expresses displeasure by
screaming/crying but later his reactions include resisting,
throwing objects, stiffening of the body etc. As the child
becomes older linguistic responses increase and child's
motor responses decrease especially in fear and anger.
Social development refers to development of the ability to
behave in accordance with social expectations, which
involve social perception, thinking and reasoning about
people, one self and social relationship. These are called
"Social Cognition'. The process of learning the standards
of behaviors, roles and values in a given culture is called
'Socialization'. Socialization is largely determined by
child's cognitive development as well as social
stimulation available to the child.
4. Moral development
The independence that comes with adolescence
requires independent thinking as well as the
development
of morality — standards of behavior that are
generally agreed on within a culture to be right or
proper. Just as Piaget believed that children’s
cognitive development follows specific patterns,
Lawrence Kohlberg
(1984) argued that children learn their moral values
through active thinking and reasoning, and that

moral development follows a series of stages.
It involves an individual’s growing ability to
distinguish right from wrong and to act in accordance
with those distinctions.
5. Language development
Language involves receptive and expressive forms when
receptive language ability is limited expressive language
development is affected. Speech is only one form of
expressive language. It is the most useful and most
widely used form in expressing our thoughts and
feelings. If speech is to be an useful form of
communication, the speaker must use words used by
others.
1.4 Main characteristics and features of

development across stages (Prenatal
development, Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence,
Adulthood)
Prenatal development
1. The ovum
Conception occurs when an egg from the mother is
fertilized by a sperm from the father. In humans, the
conception process begins with ovulation, when an ovum,
or egg (the largest cell in the human body), which has
been stored in one of the mother’s two ovaries, matures
and is released into the fallopian tube. Ovulation occurs
about halfway through the woman‘s menstrual cycle and
is aided by the release of a complex combination of
hormones. In addition to helping the egg mature, the
hormones also cause the lining of the uterus to grow
thicker and more suitable for implantation of a fertilized
egg.
2. The Zygote
Within several hours, half of the 23 chromosomes from
the egg and half of the 23 chromosomes from the sperm
fuse together, creating a zygote—a fertilized ovum. The
zygote continues to travel down the fallopian tube to the
uterus. Although the uterus is only about 4 inches away
in the woman‘s body, this is nevertheless a substantial
journey for a microscopic organism, and fewer than half
of zygotes survive beyond this earliest stage of life. If the
zygote is still viable when it completes the journey, it will
attach itself to the wall of the uterus, but if it is not, it will

be flushed out in the woman‘s menstrual flow. During
this time, the cells in the zygote continue to divide: The
original two cells become four, those four become eight,
and so on, until there are thousands (and eventually
trillions) of cells. Soon the cells begin to differentiate,
each taking on a separate function. The earliest
differentiation is between the cells on the inside of the
zygote, which will begin to form the developing human
being, and the cells on the outside, which will form the
protective environment that will provide support for the
new life throughout the pregnancy.
3. The Embryo
Once the zygote attaches to the wall of the uterus, it is
known as the embryo. During the embryonic phase,
which will last for the next 6 weeks, the major internal
and external organs are formed, each beginning at the
microscopic level, with only a few cells. The changes in
the embryo‘s appearance will continue rapidly from this
point until birth. While the inner layer of embryonic cells
is busy forming the embryo itself, the outer layer is
forming the surrounding protective environment that will
help the embryo survive the pregnancy. This
environment consists of three major structures: The
amniotic sac is the fluid- filled reservoir in which the
embryo (soon to be known as a fetus) will live until birth,
and which acts as both a cushion against outside pressure
and as a temperature regulator. Theplacenta is an organ
that allows the exchange of nutrients between the
embryo and the mother, while at the same time filtering
out harmful material. The filtering occurs through a thin
membrane that separates the mother‘s blood from the
blood of the fetus, allowing them to share only the
material that is able to pass through the filter. Finally, the
umbilical cord links the embryo directly to the placenta
and transfers all material to the fetus. Thus the placenta
and the umbilical cord protect the fetus from many
foreign agents in the mother‘s system that might
otherwise pose a threat.
4. The Fetus
Beginning in the 9th week after conception, the embryo
becomes a fetus. The defining characteristic of the fetal
stage is growth. All the major aspects of the growing
organism have been formed in the embryonic phase, and
now the fetus has approximately six months to go from
weighing less than an ounce to weighing an average of 6
to 8 pounds. That‘s quite a growth spurt.
The fetus begins to take on many of the characteristics of

a human being, including moving (by the 3rd month the
fetus is able to curl and open its fingers, form fists, and
wiggle its toes), sleeping, as well as early forms of
swallowing and breathing. The fetus begins to develop its
senses, becoming able to distinguish tastes and respond
to sounds. Research has found that the fetus even
develops some initial preferences. A newborn prefers the
mother‘s voice to that of a stranger, the languages heard
in the womb over other languages (DeCasper & Fifer,
1980; Moon,
Infancy and Toddlerhood Stage
Developmental psychologists used the term infancy to denote
the period of development that generally is from birth to two
years of age. The word infant means “without language”.
Infancy includes development in the areas of cognition,
perception, motor activity, emotion, sociability and language.
In the beginning of infancy period infants can recognise human
faces and after that they can differentiate between known and
unknown faces and react differently. Development on different
areas take place through infancy to toddlerhood, i.e, the first
three years of life.
1. Physical development:
It refers to the changes in the body. This development is
rapid during infancy. Infants increase their body weight
almost triple and increase in height by about one-third
during the first year alone. Not only body size and weight
of the infant increase but also brain size expands rapidly
during the first 18 months and brain weight of the infant
reaching more than half of the adult brain due to rapid
growth of dendrites and axons within the brain and glia
cells. Physical development also includes development in
vision, hearing, perceptual development etc. Infants
motor development takes place in a sequential order and
this type of development proceeds from head towards the
limbs. Infant first controls his head and trunk, then lift his
chest, sit upright, crawling, creeping, stand with help,
stand along with holding some objects, walking and so on.
This development occurs due to improvement of skills
and control of other body parts like legs, arms, etc.
Gradually children develop their eye, head and hand
coordination and are able to pick up things.
Piaget noted that the sensory motor stage of cognitive
development occurs during infancy. During infancy
period there are development in vision, control of
muscles and
nervous system, start to eat and sleep on regular

intervals, sit on their own and to hold objects themselves.
2. Social and Emotional Development:
Infants at about two months old demonstrate social
smiling in response to human faces. When they are four
months old, they show laughter and express anger,
sadness and surprise by six months. By 8 or 10 months,
they actively seek information about other people‟s
feelings. They learn to respond when somebody calls
them by their names at about age six to twelve months.
They also have face to face contact. They are afraid of
when their parents or care-taker leaves them. They start
expressing anger if their needs are not met. Thus, social
and emotional development starts during the period of
infancy to toddlerhood itself Children start expressing
their feelings of trust, fear, confidence, love, etc. They
express affection as a form of emotion to others as a part
of social emotional development.. If a child is neglected
during this period, it affects his social emotional
development negatively. During this period as children
are attached with their care givers, parents and other
siblings, etc., so children develop separation anxiety if
they are separated from them. This appears at the age of
nine months.
3. Cognitive Development
Infants express their intellect by making various sounds
like gurgling, cooing, etc. They observe their own hands
and feet. They gradually learn the relationship between
their actions and the external world. They can
manipulate various objects to produce effects. Infants
seem to acquire knowledge about the world only through
motor activities and sensory impressions. They try to
focus their eyes on various objects and people, put
everything in their mouth. Children develop ability to
form mental representation during infancy. Around the
end of the 9th month infants demonstrate object
permanence. By babyhood stage they learn to make
sounds like mama, papa, they try to copy various
activities as others do. By 12 months of age many
children are able to say some words which can be
understood by others. During infancy children start
developing language ability, learn through their sense
organs and explore the world in their own ways. In this
period children are dependent on others where as in
toddlerhood stage, creativity and socialisation begins. In
infancy period emotions are of simple type but in
toddlerhood emotions are of varying types and growth is
faster than other periods of life.
Childhood stage
This stage includes two sub-stages: one is early childhood and
another is late childhood. This period covers the period
between the age of 3 to 11 years. Sometimes the girls at 13
years and boys at 14 years of age are considered as adolescents
and till then the child is considered being in the childhood
stage. During this period significant physical and psychological
changes take place. But compared to infancy, growth rate is
slow but stable during the childhood. In this stage, children gain
2 to 3 inches in height and 5 to 6 pounds in weight every year.
They learn to walk, run, jump and play. They can gain
knowledge to distinguish between what is good and what is
bad. Their physical capacities increased independently, they
perform tasks and meet adult expectations in several ways.
1. Physical Development:
Early childhood stage covers the age range from 3 to 6
years. Children begin to develop athletic appearance and
they lose their babyish roundness. As abdominal muscles
develop, the trunk, arms and legs grow longer. Their
brain and head grow rapidly than any other parts of the
body.
The late childhood period extends from 6 to 11 years.
This period is known as pre-adolescence. The different
parts of the body become stronger during this period.
Children learn to use their body parts appropriately with
speed and for proper behaviours. During late childhood
period some of the habits like table manners interactions
with others, eating appropriately, etc. may also be
modified wherever needed. In this period importance is
given to physical strength of children. If a particular child
is not growing physically at per with other children of his
age, the child may be emotionally and socially depressed.
2. Psycho-Social Development:
In early childhood stage children can say full sentences,
express their feelings and emotions and communicate
their needs and feelings and emotions and communicate
their needs and feelings with others. During early
childhood children have better control of their physical
movement and can have better coordination of their
body parts. They also learn how to cooperate with other
children and conflict resolution when they are about the
age of five or six years they are independent in various
ways. There are three important socio-emotional
developments, such as; development of self, gender roles
and moral development, take place during childhood
period. Through the process of identification the child
comes to know who he is and differentiates from who he
wants to be. The child is aware of this process through his

observation and imitation of parents and significant
others. The child‟s personality is laid down by this
identification. The child learns the socially appropriate
behaviours by observing and participating in the social
events. When the children are about the age of 5 to 6
years they can understand that they belong to a particular
gender and also learn to behave gender roles.
3. Cognitive Development:
The childhood period is important for cognitive
development of children. Children are curious to know
the answers of questions like, “why”, “Where” and “How”
for everything that happens. Cognitive abilities include
memory, reasoning, perception, problem solving and
thinking abilities which continue to emerge throughout
childhood. Jean Piaget worked on childhood cognitive
development. He concluded that children are not less
intelligent than adults but they simply think differently.
Piaget explained that human beings acquire knowledge
through interaction with the environment in which he
lives in, Piaget named early child hood (2 to 7 years) as
the preoperational stage of cognitive development which
there is a great expansion in the use of symbolic thought,
or representational ability. But they are not able to use
logic. In this stage children do not need to be in sensory
motor contact with an object, person or event in order to
think about it. They are aware that superficial
alternations do not change the nature of things and also
understand the cause-effect relationship. They develop
the ability to classify objects, people and events. Children
can count and deal with quantities. They become more
able to imagine how others might feel and aware of
mental activity and the functioning of the mind.
Adolescence stage
The term adolescence is derived from the Latin word
adolescere, which means to sprout into maturity. It is the
intermediate period between childhood and adulthood. This
period is otherwise called as the age of teenagers. It includes
three sub periods, such as: early adolescence (12 yrs -14 yrs),
middle adolescence (14 yrs -17 yrs) and late adolescence (17
yrs -19 yrs). Adolescence is the developmental transition
between childhood and adulthood entailing major physical,
cognitive and psychological changes. During this period
physical changes that occur are universal, but social and
psychological changes largely depend on the cultural contexts.
As this is the transitional phase of life adolescents rebel against
their parents and society most
often. Therefore, this period is labelled as storm and

stress period.
1. Physical Development
Sexuality and identity formation are two major
challenges of the period of adolescence. During this
period the most rapid physical growth occurs. There are
changes in the growth rate, sexual characteristics, and
behaviour.
Adolescent boys and girls develop in their height, weight,
strength and development of bones, muscles, etc. Puberty
and sexual maturity for both boys and girls marks the
beginning of the adolescent period. Growth spurts and
development of secondary sex characteristics signal
about the onset of adolescence. Menstruration is the first
sign of puberty for girl whereas appearance of few
whiskers is the sign of puberty for boys. The approximate
age for sexual maturation is 12.5 years for boys and 10.5
years for girls. Puberty begins in response to changes in
the hormonal system. Sex hormones like testosterone in
males and estrogen in females are secreted from the sex
glands. The secretion of sex hormones help in pubertal
development and also closely associated with emotions.
During this period emotion like aggression is found in
boys and depression is marked in girls. They try to imitate
their idols. Girls are conscious about their shapes and do
what their friends do while boys try to go for body
building.
2. Psycho-Social Development
During this period the physical changes in
adolescents bring about a wide variety of
psychological changes.
Adolescents become innovative and take interest in
learning various skills with great interest. They feel that
no one understands them, and they often consider
themselves to be „superman‟. Their sense of uniqueness
is expressed in the form of personal fable around them
away from the world of reality. They are argumentative
and they have a tendency to find fault with the authority
figures.
They do not able to differentiate between ideal and real.
Adolescents are very self-conscious and it is expressed in
the concept of imagery audiences. These imaginary
audiences criticise, encourage and motivate an
adolescent. Peer group influence is very important during
adolescence. They want to do what their friends are
doing, Adolescents abuse alcohol and drugs under peer
pressure. Developmental psychologists viewed that
adolescence as a period of risk, turmoil, uncertainty and
conflict, if proper care is not taken during this period
children became antisocial, abusive or depressed.
During adolescence not only there are changes in body
structures occur but also they think differently from
younger children. Jean Piaget opined that adolescents
enter the highest level of cognitive development, i.e.
formal operational stage of cognitive development.
During this period adolescents thoughts change from
concrete objects to abstract events. They can think
flexibly enough about the world. They accumulate
knowledge through interaction and apply the learned
concepts to new tasks.
Teenagers develop their reasoning skills and engage in
hypothetical deductive reasoning. As adolescents
develop their logical thinking, they are becoming
aggressive and argumentative. They are able to
understand abstract concepts such as congruence and
mass and they think in terms of theoretical concepts.
They are conscious about others opinion regarding them
and curious enough to know about spirituality,
traditions and beliefs. Thus, during adolescence people
deal with problems on an abstract level, to form
hypothesis and to reason from proposition that are
contrary to fact.
Adulthood Stage
An adult is someone who is responsible, mature, self-
supporting and well integrated into society. Also people do not
develop these attributes and characteristics at the same time
and with same skills. This adult stage has three sub-stages of
development. First stage is early adulthood, second stage is
middle adulthood, and third stage is late adulthood.
In early childhood period adults are at the peak of physical
health, strength and energy. At this period of life adults take
many important decisions of life like choice of career, type of
friends, residence, etc. independently and accept
responsibility and consequences for their own decisions.
Every adult tries for recognition, job security and to excel in
his job.
Middle adulthood period is explained in terms of a gradual
decline in one‟s physical abilities, physical health, stamina
etc, but the decline is gradual in nature. Both men and
women feel tired easily. In this period people experience
stress due to the double responsibility of caring for the aged
parents and the growing children.
The term “late adulthood” is roughly equivalent to old age.
This is the final stage of physical change.
1. Physical Development
Physical growth and development is at its maximum

during this period. Physical strength usually is more than
previous years due to mature physical structures.
strength, speed, coordination and endurance for activity
is greatest during this period. A number of sensory and
neural functions are optimal levels during this period.
Full brain weight and mature brain wave patterns are
observed at this stage of development. Changing life style
pattern has an impact on growth and development.
2. Psycho-Social Development
During early years of adulthood, people face the problem
of choosing, preparing for and entering into careers
brings a lot of social changes in the adult. They have
cordial relationships with their siblings. They spend very
few times with friends because their energies are
consumed for family and work. Middle adulthood people
have children of adolescent age. It is very difficult to
handle their problems. Conflicts occur between parents
and children regarding „giving‟ and „getting‟
independence.
Parents have to help their children in their search for
identity. Middle aged adult also have important
responsibilities towards their parents. In this period
they also try to b satisfied at work place. People are
worried about their jobs and pay packages because they
have to meet the daily needs of themselves and of the
family.
Intellectual ability and cognitive skills are high in early
adulthood. Middle adulthood people can not learn new
skills. Recent research suggests that intellectual
development continues into late adulthood. Intellectual
development continued and that are influenced by the
accumulation of the experiences of life, i.e. verbal skills,
social knowledge and moral judgements. During this
period people show changes in logic and morality. It is
observed that creativity peaks in the early adulthood but
forms of creativity that require experience, revision and
interpretation either remain unchanged or increase in
middle age. People utilise their cognitive skilss and
creativity particularly at the work place in order to get
recognition. Studies revealed that intelligence declines
with age, but there is no certainty that intelligence and
age are related with each other.
1.5 Debates in Human Development: Nature vs
Nurture, universalism vs. contextualism
NATURE VS. NURTURE
The nature versus nurture debate is one of the

oldest philosophical issues within psychology.
Nature refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors

that influence who we are—from our physical appearance
to our personality characteristics.
Nurture refers to all the environmental variables that
impact who we are, including our early childhood
experiences, how we were raised, our social
relationships, and our surrounding culture.
The nature-nurture debate is concerned with the relative
contribution that both influences make to human
behavior.
It has long been known that certain physical characteristics

are biologically determined by genetic inheritance. Color of
eyes, straight or curly hair, pigmentation of the skin and
certain diseases (such as Huntingdon’s chorea) are all a
function of the genes we inherit. Other physical
characteristics, if not determined, appear to be at least
strongly influenced by the genetic make-up of our biological
parents.
Height, weight, hair loss (in men), life expectancy and
vulnerability to specific illnesses (e.g. breast cancer in
women) are positively correlated between genetically related
individuals. These facts have led many to speculate as to
whether psychological characteristics such as behavioral
tendencies, personality attributes and mental abilities are
also “wired in” before we are even born.
Those who adopt an extreme hereditary position are known as
nativists. Their basic assumption is that the characteristics of
the human species as a whole are a product of evolution and
that individual differences are due to each person’s unique
genetic
code. In general, the earlier a particular ability appears,

the more likely it is to be under the influence of genetic
factors.
Characteristics and differences that are not observable at birth,
but which emerge later in life, are regarded as the product of
maturation. That is to say we all have an inner “biological
clock” which switches on (or off) types of behavior in a pre
programmed way.
The classic example of the way this affects our physical
development are the bodily changes that occur in early
adolescence at puberty. However nativists also argue
that maturation governs the emergence of attachment in
infancy, language acquisition and even cognitive development
as a whole.
At the other end of the spectrum are the environmentalists –
also known as empiricists. Their basic assumption is that at
birth the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and
that this is gradually “filled” as a result of experience
(e.g. behaviorism).
From this point of view psychological characteristics and
behavioral differences that emerge through infancy and
childhood are the result of learning. It is how you are brought
up (nurture) that governs the psychologically significant
aspects of child development and the concept of maturation
applies only to the biological.
For example, when an infant forms an attachment it is
responding to the love and attention it has received, language
comes from imitating the speech of others and cognitive
development depends on the degree of stimulation in the
environment and, more broadly, on the civilization within
which the child is reared.
Examples of an extreme nature positions in psychology
include Bowlby's (1969) theory of attachment, which views
the bond between mother and child as being an innate process
that ensures survival. Likewise, Chomsky (1965) proposed
language is gained through the use of an innate language
acquisition device. Another example of nature is Freud's
theory of aggression as being an innate drive (called thanatos).
In contrast Bandura's (1977) social learning theory states that
aggression is a learnt from the environment through
observation and imitation. This is seen in his famous Bobo doll
experiment (Bandura, 1961). Also, Skinner (1957) believed
that language is learnt from other people via behavior shaping
techniques.
Others examples are:

Intelligence
When someone achieves greatness thanks to an innovation or

other breakthrough, it is usually agreed that the individual has
a high level of intelligence. Often, when exploring the
background of the individual, the influences of nature versus
nurture are questioned.
 Nature - Those who would argue that nature is largely to
thank for the individual’s ability to achieve greatness might
point to his or her parents and use their level of intelligence
as a reason for why he or she is so successful. Perhaps the
child developed early skills quickly and this would be used
to show that the child was clearly, “born smart.”
 Nurture - Those who would argue that a child's intelligence
was affected by nurture would look at the child's
educational background as well as how his or her parents
raised her. These individuals would state that the
intelligence level which permitted the child to be so
successful, is largely the result of the child's upbringing and
the school system.
Personality
The development of personality traits is often part of the

nature versus nurture debate. People want to know how
children develop their personalities.
 Influence of the parents - Often it is easy to see similarities
between a child’s personality and one or both of her
parents’ personalities. In this situation, it would seem that
the child's personality has developed largely from the
influence of the parents.
 Effects of nature - In some situations, children develop
personalities, or tendencies toward certain behaviors, such
as shyness or aggression, that can’t seem to be explained
because neither parent demonstrates the same trait. In this
situation, it can be argued that nature is at play in the
development of the child's personality.
Homosexuality
The debate about homosexuality and whether the genesis of
which is the result of nature or nurture has spanned
throughout history, but has taken on even greater importance
in more recent years as the rights of these individuals are being
hotly debated throughout the world.
 Effects of environment - Some individuals believe that

homosexuality is a choice. Others believe that it is the result
of something having negatively affected an individual, such
as sexual assault, causing the individual to become
homosexual. These debates focus on the influence of nurture
and the individuals feel that environmental factors are the
cause of one’s homosexuality.
 Biological factor - Other individuals believe that
homosexuality is a biological factor, no more a choice than
eye color or foot size. These individuals are debating from
the perspective of nature being responsible for the
development of the individual.
These examples show several ways that the nature vs.

nurture debate plays out in real life.
It is widely accepted now that heredity and the
environment do not act independently. Both nature and
nurture are essential for any behaviour, and it cannot be
said that a particular behaviour is genetic and another is
environmental. It is impossible to separate the two
influences as well as illogical as nature and nurture do not
operate in a separate way but interact in a complex
manner.
UNIVERSALISM VS. CONTEXTUALISM
Universalism implies that it is possible to apply generalized

norms, values, or concepts to all people and cultures,
regardless of the contexts in which they are located. These
norms may include a focus on human needs, rights, or
biological and psychological processes and are based on the
perspective that
all people are essentially equivalent. As an example, the

United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights asserts
various rights to all people – e.g., to marry, own property, and
access equal protection under the law – regardless of culture
or nationality.
The concept of universalism is prevalent across the social,
political, and physical sciences. In the field of psychology,
universalism conventionally refers to the idea that the range
of human experience – from basic needs and psychological
processes to core values – is intrinsic and therefore similar
across humans and cultures.
Developmental contextualism is a perspective that views
human development as inextricably and reciprocally linked to
the multiple contexts of individuals’ lives (Lerner 1991, 1995).
While the perspective is applicable to human development
across the life span, the focus of this essay is on its relevance
for understanding and facilitating positive adolescent
development. Essentially, developmental contextualism implies
that adolescent development cannot be examined independent
of the people and places that comprise an adolescent’s life
space (i.e., contexts). Key contexts for adolescents include
family, peers, school, and community (Hill 1983). Moreover,
there is a reciprocal relationship between adolescents and
these contexts such that not only do contexts and the
individuals comprising them influence adolescents, but
adolescents also shape the contexts (Lerner 1991, 1995).
Contextualism, a world view or paradigm which suggests the
role of social, cultural, and historical change in individual
development, became the focus of increasing interest
throughout the 1970s. Nevertheless, despite the suggestion that
contextualism offered a new philosophical position from which
to derive concepts and theories of development, criticism
occurred because it was believed that the dispersive nature of
contextualism obviated the formulation of a useful definition of
development. We review the characteristics of the contextual
paradigm and argue for a principled integration (as opposed to
an eclectic one) between selected features of contextualism and
of organicism. The former approach offers a dispersive view of
the nature of variables involved in development and the latter
provides an integrative one. We attempt to forge a probabilistic
epigenetic, or developmental-contextual, paradigm for the
study of human development, one which relies on the concept
of integrative levels and which conceives of the causal variables
of development as interacting in a temporally probabilistic
manner.
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6/15/24, 12:52 AM Unit 1: Understanding Human Development

1.1 Concepts of growth, development and

Changes may be measured. As Can’t be always measured.

goes through hormonal changes as they leave adolescence

This process of cognitive development begins right at infancy.

From the scientific knowledge gathered through observation of

3. Principle of lack of uniformity in the developmental

development surely affects the development in other

development proceeds from the near to the distant and

1.2 Growth curve and stages of human

Overview of postnatal growth: Scammon’s curves

The neural curve characterizes the growth of the brain,

These are the school years when the child

1. Hereditary Factors:- Heredity exerts an influence on

saying namaskar, folding hands or lying down near the

1.3 Domains of development (Physical, Cognitive,

measure of an individual’s general level of cognitive

through active thinking and reasoning, and that

1.4 Main characteristics and features of

attach itself to the wall of the uterus, but if it is not, it will

The fetus begins to take on many of the characteristics of

nervous system, start to eat and sleep on regular

wants to be. The child is aware of this process through his

often. Therefore, this period is labelled as storm and

Physical growth and development is at its maximum

NATURE VS. NURTURE

The nature versus nurture debate is one of the

Nature refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors

It has long been known that certain physical characteristics

code. In general, the earlier a particular ability appears,

Others examples are:

When someone achieves greatness thanks to an innovation or

The development of personality traits is often part of the

 Effects of environment - Some individuals believe that

These examples show several ways that the nature vs.

UNIVERSALISM VS. CONTEXTUALISM

Universalism implies that it is possible to apply generalized

all people are essentially equivalent. As an example, the

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