CHAPTER TWO

SENSORS AND THEIR APPLCATIONS

Sensor

Sensor is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into an electrical signal, or a device that
detects and responds to some type of input from the physical environment such as light, heat,
moisture, pressure, position, flow, level and used to switch voltage or currents.

Light

Temperature
Sensor
Motion

Sound

Fig: Sensor and physical environment

Analog Sensor: Analog sensor produces a continuous output which is general proportional to the
quantity being measured. Physical quantity such as temperature, speed, pressure, displacement
are all analog quantities. Example, Thermocouple.

Signal
conditioning Analog signal

O/p

Time

Fig: Thermocouple temprature sensor

Digital Sensor : Digital sensor produces a discrete o/p signal or voltage that is a digital
representation of the quantity being measured. Digital sensor produces a binary output signal in
thre form of a logic “1” or a logic “0”, (“ON ” or “OFF”).

2.1 Resistive sensors

Resistive sensors rely on variation of the resistance of a material when the measured variable is
applied to it. This principle is applied most commonly in temperature measurement using
resistance thermometers or thermistors. It is also used in displacement measurement using strain
gauges or piezo resistive sensors. In addition, some moisture meters work on the resistance-
variation principle.

2.1.1 Potentiometer for linear and angular displacement

Figure below shows potentiometer for the measurement of (a) Linear (rectilinear) and (b) angular
(rotary) displacement.

Fig 2.1: Linear and angular displacement resistive sensor

They consist of a former with a cylindrical cross section which is either a straight cylinder or arc
of a circle. Resistive material is then placed on the former so that the resistance per unit length is
constant. This means that resistance is proportional to the distance travelled by the wiper
between . From figure (a), the ratio of open circuit voltage to supply voltage is
given by:
Where: Resistance of CB = Total resistance of potentiometer =

Resistance of AB = Fractional resistance =

Therefore, the open circuit voltage for a linear displacement potentiometer is:

From figure (b), the open circuit voltage for an angular displacement potentiometer is:

The choice of potentiometer for given application involves:

 Maximum traveled : Depends on range of displacement to be measured, e.g 0
to 5 cm, 0 to 300 .
 Supply voltage : Set by required output voltage , e.g 0 to 5 Vdc. We need
 Resistance : For a given load choose to be sufficiently small compared with
so the maximum non linearity is acceptable.

 Power rating : should be greater than actual power produced in

2.1.2 Resistive Metal and Semiconductor sensors for temperature

measurement

The resistivity of a material is the resistance to current flow between the opposite faces of a
unit cube of the material (ohm per unit length). The resistance R of a component is expressed by:

where is the length of the material (distance between contacts), and A is the cross sectional
area of the resistor; and A must be in compatible units. Table below gives the resistivity of
some common materials. The resistivity is temperature dependent, usually having a positive
temperature coefficient (resistance increases as temperature increases), except for some metal
oxides and semiconductors which have a negative temperature coefficient. The metal oxides are
used for thermistors. The variation of resistance with temperature is given by

where = resistance at temperature T2

= resistance at temperature T1
= temperature coefficient of resistance(TCR)
T = temperature difference between T1 and T2
The variation of resistance with temperature in some materials (platinum) is linear over a wide
temperature range. Hence, platinum resistors are often used as temperature sensors.

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) is a temperature sensor build from metal (conductor)
RTD has positive temperature coefficient (PTC), increasing temperature leads to increasing
resistivity.

Table 2.1: Resistivity of some common materials

Example: What is the resistance of a platinum resistor at 480°C, if its resistance at 16°C is
110Ω and TCR is 0.00385/°C ?
Resistive temperature element made from semiconductor are often referred to as Thermistor. A
thermistor is a special type of resistor which changes its physical resistance when exposed to
changes in temperature. Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material
using metal oxide technology such as manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc. The semiconductor
material is generally formed into small pressed discs or balls which are hermetically sealed to
give a relatively fast response to any changes in temperature. The resistance of these elements
decrease with temperature or it has negative temperature coefficient (NTC) with highly nonlinear
way. Thermistor with positive temperature coefficient also available.

Where = Resistance at Temperature 1(reference)

= Resistance at Temperature 2
= Temperature 1 (Kelvin)
= Temperature 2 in (Kelvin)

Example:

Find the value of R at 100 0C (373 K) with the value of thermistor resistance of 12 at 25 0C
(298 K) and is 3750 K.

2.1.3 Metal resistive strain gauge

Before discussing strain gauge, we must briefly explain the concept of stress, strain, elastic
modulus and poison’s ratio. Stress is defined by force / area, so that in figure below (a) the
stressed experienced by the body is +F/A, the positive sign indicating a tensile stress which tends
to increase the length of the body.
 Fig. 2.2. Stress and strain

In Fig(b) the stress is – F/A, the negative sign indicating a comprehensive stress which tends to
reduce the length of the body. The effect of applied stress is to produce a strain in the body
which is defined by (change in length) / (unstrained length). Thus in figure (a) the strain is

(tensile) and in fig (b), the strain is (comprehensive).

The relationship between strain and stress is linear for a given body over certain range of values;
the slope of street line is termed the elastic modulus of the body.

Elastic modulus =

The relation between longitudinal strain , where is poison’s ratio, which has a value
0.25 to 0.4 for most materials.
A strain gauge is a metal or semiconductor element whose resistance changes when under strain.
We can drive the relationship between change in resistance and strain by considering the factors
which influence the resistance of the element. The resistance of the element of a length , cross
sectional area A and resistivity ρ(fig below) is given by:

Fig. 2.3. strain gauge

In general when the element can change if the element is strained, so that the change
in resistance is given by:

Divide throughout by R= yields

is longitudinal strain in the element. Since the cross sectional area

=2
Where is transverse strain in the element

Now define the gauge factor:

Where Ro is unstrained resistance

For most metals and the term represents strain induced (piezo resistive effect) is
small around 0.4, so overall gauge factor is around 2.0. In semiconductor gauge the piezo
resistive term can be large, giving large gauge factors.
Table 2.2: Properties of strain gauge materials

Example: a typical strain gauge has:

- A gauge factor 2.0
- unstrained resistance 120
-
Maximum tensile strain +2x10-2
-
Maximum comprehensive strain -1x10-2
Find change in resistance at maximum strain and at maximum comprehensive
Ans:

2.2 Capacitive sensing elements

The simplest capacitor or condenser consists of two parallel metal plates separated by a dielectric
or insulating material (Figure below). The capacitance of this parallel plate capacitor is given by:

where is the permittivity of free space (vacuum) of magnitude 8.85 pF , is the relative
permittivity or dielectric constant of the insulating material, A is the area of overlap of the
plates, and d m is their separation. From the above equation we see that can be changed by
changing either d, A or ε.
 Fig. 2.4. Capacitive sensing elements
(a)Variable separation displacement sensor
If the displacement x causes the plate separation to increase to d + x the capacitance of the
sensor is:

(b) Variable area displacement sensor

In the variable area type, the displacement x causes the overlap area to decrease by
where w is the width of the plates, giving:

(c) Variable dielectric displacement sensor

In the variable dielectric type, the displacement x changes the amount of dielectric material
inserted between the plates. The total capacitance of the sensor is the sum of two
capacitances, one with area and dielectric constant , and one with area and dielectric
constant i.e.
Since when is the width of the plates,

2.3 Inductive sensing elements

2.3.1 Variable inductance (variable reluctance) displacement sensors

In order to discuss the principles of these elements we must first introduce the concept of a
magnetic circuit. In an electrical circuit an electromotive force (e.m.f.) drives a current through
an electrical resistance and the magnitude of the current is given by

e.m.f. = current × resistance

A simple magnetic circuit is shown in Figure (a): it consists of a loop or core of ferromagnetic
material on which is wound a coil of turns carrying a current . By analogy we can regard the
coil as a source of magneto motive force (m.m.f.) which drives a flux through the magnetic
circuit. The equation corresponding to e.m.f for a magnetic circuit is:

Fig. 2.5(a). Magnetic circuit

m.m.f. = flux × reluctance = ф ×

so that reluctance limits the flux in a magnetic circuit just as resistance limits the current in an electrical
circuit. In this example , so that the flux in the magnetic circuit is:

This is the flux linked by a single turn of the coil; the total flux N linked by the entire coil of n turns is:

Self-inductance of a coil
By definition the self-inductance L of the coil is the total flux per unit current, i.e.
The above equation enables us to calculate the inductance of a sensing element given the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is given by:

where l is the total length of the flux path, µ is the relative permeability of the circuit material, µ 0 is the
permeability of free space H and A is the cross-sectional area of the flux path.

Figure (b) shows the core separated into two parts by an air gap of variable width. The total reluctance of
the circuit is now the reluctance of both parts of the core together with the reluctance of the air gap. Since
the relative permeability of air is close to unity and that of the core material many thousands, the presence
of the air gap causes a large increase in circuit reluctance and a corresponding decrease in flux and
inductance. Thus a small variation in air gap causes a measurable change in inductance so that we have
the basis of an inductive displacement sensor.

Fig. 2.5(b). Core separated magnetic circuit

Figure (c) shows a typical variable reluctance displacement sensor, consisting of three elements: a
ferromagnetic core in the shape of a semi toroid (semicircular ring), a variable air gap and a ferromagnetic
plate or armature. The total reluctance of the magnetic circuit is the sum of the individual reluctances, i.e.

Fig 2.5(c). Variable reluctance displacement sensor

The length of an average, i.e. central, path through the core is and the cross-sectional area is ,
giving:

The total length of the flux path in air is twice the air gap, i.e. 2 d; also if there is little bending or fringing
of the lines of flux in the air gap, then the cross-sectional area of the flux path in air will be close to that
of the core. Assuming the relative permeability of air is unity,

The length of an average central flux path in the armature is 2R; the calculation of the appropriate cross-
sectional area is more difficult. A typical flux distribution is shown in Figure (c) and for simplicity we
assume that most of the flux is concentrated within an area 2rt, giving

Thus

Where

[ ] reluctance at zero air gap

A typical element with n = 500 turns, R = 2 cm, r = 0.5 cm, t = 0.5 cm, µC = µA = 100,
has = 1.3 × 1 , k=2× . This gives L = 19 mH at d = 0 (zero air gap)
and L = 7.6 mH at d = 1 mm.

2.3.2 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) displacement

sensor

This sensor is a transformer with a single primary winding and two identical secondary windings
wound on a tubular ferromagnetic former (Figure below). The primary winding is energized by
an a.c. voltage of amplitude ̂ p and frequency Hz; the two secondary’s are connected in series
opposition so that the output voltage ̂ out is the difference (V1-V2) of the
voltages induced in the secondary’s. A ferromagnetic core or plunger moves inside the former;
this alters the mutual inductance between the primary and secondary. With the core removed the
secondary voltages are ideally equal so that ̂ out = 0. With the core in the former, V1 and V2
change with core position x, causing amplitude ̂ out and phase to change.

Fig 2.6: LVDT and connections to phase-sensitive detector.

Fig. 2.7. LVDT secondary waveforms.

Fig. 2.7 shows a.c. waveforms for secondary voltages , and the difference - at three
positions , and . is the halfway point at and A and B are equidistant from C.

Fig. 2.7(a) shows the waveforms at A; here the lower secondary is strongly coupled to the
primary and the upper secondary is weakly coupled to the primary; has therefore greater
amplitude than and - is 180° out of phase with the primary voltage VP. Figure 8.13(b)
shows the waveforms at C; here the secondary’s are equally coupled to the primary and and
have approximately equal amplitudes; - has therefore minimum amplitude (ideally
zero) and C is termed the null point. Fig. 2.7 (c) shows the waveforms at B; here the upper
secondary is strongly coupled to the primary and the lower secondary is weakly coupled to the
primary; V1 has greater amplitude than and - is in phase with the primary voltage.
Therefore, ( - ) has the same amplitude at positions A and B but there is a phase difference
of 180°. A disadvantage of the LVDT is that it requires more complex signal processing
instrumentation, a phase sensitive demodulator is used to determine the direction of
displacement. LVDT displacement sensors are available to cover ranges from ±0.25 mm to ±25
cm. For a typical sensor of range ±2.5 cm, the recommended ̂ p is 4 to 6 V, the recommended
is 5 kHz (400 Hz minimum, 50 kHz maximum), and maximum nonlinearity is 1% f.s.d. over
the above range.

Properties of LVDT
• Linear over a large range
• Phase shift at zero crossing needs phase sensitive detection
• High sensitivity
• Almost contactless
• High life expectancy

2.4 Hall-effect sensors

Hall-effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. It
consists of a conductor carrying a current that is aligned orthogonally with the magnetic field.
This produces a transverse voltage difference across the device that is directly proportional to the
magnetic field strength. For an excitation current I and magnetic field strength B, the output
voltage is given by V = KIB, where K is known as the Hall constant.
Fig. 2.8. Hall-effect sensor.

The conductor in Hall-effect sensors is usually made from a semiconductor material as opposed
to a metal, because a larger voltage output is produced for a magnetic field of a given size. In one
common use of the device as a proximity sensor, the magnetic field is provided by a permanent
magnet that is built into the device. The magnitude of this field changes when the device
becomes close to any ferrous metal object or boundary.
Applications

- Flow rate sensor (digital)

- Proximity sensors
- Level measurement sensor
- Magnetic card reader
2.5 Piezoelectric transducers
Piezoelectric transducers produce an output voltage when a force is applied to them. They are
frequently used as ultrasonic receivers and also as displacement transducers, particularly as part
of devices measuring acceleration, force and pressure. The translational movement in a
displacement transducer is caused by mechanical means to apply a force to the piezoelectric
transducer. Piezoelectric transducers are made from piezoelectric materials. These have an
asymmetrical lattice of molecules that distorts when a mechanical force is applied to it. This
distortion causes a reorientation of electric charges within the material, resulting in a relative
displacement of positive and negative charges. The charge displacement induces surface charges
on the material of opposite polarity between the two sides. By implanting electrodes into the
surface of the material, these surface charges can be measured as an output voltage. For a
rectangular block of material, the induced voltage is given by:
Where F is the applied force, A is the area of the material in mm, d is the thickness of the
material and k is the piezoelectric constant. The polarity of the induced voltage depends on
whether the material is compressed or stretched.

2.6 OPTICAL SENSORS

Optical sensors are based on the modulation of light travelling between a light source and a light
detector, as shown in Figure below. The transmitted light can travel along either an air path or a
fiber-optic cable. Either form of transmission gives immunity to electromagnetically induced
noise, and also provides greater safety than electrical sensors when used in hazardous
environments.

Optical sensors (air path)

Light sources suitable for transmission across an air path include tungsten-filament lamps, laser
diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). However, as the light from tungsten lamps is usually in
the visible part of the light frequency spectrum, it is prone to interference from the sun and other
sources. Hence, infrared LEDs or infrared laser diodes are usually preferred. These emit light in
a narrow frequency band in the infrared region and are not affected by sunlight.
The main forms of light detector used with optical systems are photocells (cadmium sulphide or
cadmium selenide being the most common type of photocell), phototransistors and photodiodes.
These are all photoconductive devices, whose resistance is reduced according to the intensity of
light to which they are exposed. Photocells and phototransistors are particularly sensitive in the
infrared region, and so are ideal partners for infrared LED and laser diode sources.
Air-path optical sensors are commonly used to measure proximity, translational motion,
rotational motion and gas concentration.

Optical sensors (fiber-optic)

As an alternative to using air as the transmission medium, optical sensors can use fiber optic
cable instead to transmit light between a source and a detector. In such sensors, the variable
being measured causes some measurable change in the characteristics of the light transmitted by
the cable. The basis of operation of fibre-optic sensors is the translation of the physical quantity
measured into a change in one or more parameters of a light beam. The light parameters that can
be modulated are one or more of the following:
 Intensity
 Phase
 Polarization
 Wavelength
 Transmission time.
Fiber-optic sensors usually incorporate either glass/plastic cables or all plastic cables. All glass
types are rarely used because of their fragility. Plastic cables have particular advantages for
sensor applications because they are cheap and have a relatively large diameter of 0.5-1.0mm,
making connection to the transmitter and receiver easy. However, plastic cables should not be
used in certain hostile environments where they may be severely damaged. The cost of the fiber-
optic cable itself is insignificant for sensing applications, as the total cost of the sensor is
dominated by the cost of the transmitter and receiver. Fiber-optic sensors characteristically enjoy
long life. For example, the life expectancy of reflective fiber-optic switches is quoted at ten
million operations. Their accuracy is also good, with, for instance, ±1% of full-scale reading
being quoted as a typical inaccuracy level for a fiber-optic pressure sensor. Further advantages
are their simplicity, low cost, small size, high reliability and capability of working in many kinds
of hostile environment. Two major classes of fiber-optic sensor exist, intrinsic sensors and
extrinsic sensors. In intrinsic sensors, the fiber-optic cable itself is the sensor, whereas in
extrinsic sensors, the fiber-optic cable is only used to guide light to/from a conventional sensor.
 2.7 Ultrasonic transducers
Ultrasonic devices are used in many fields of measurement, particularly for measuring fluid flow
rates, liquid levels and translational displacements. Ultrasound is a band of frequencies in the
range above 20 kHz, that is, above the sonic range that humans can usually hear. Measurement
devices that use ultrasound consist of one device that transmits an ultrasound wave and another
device that receives the wave. Changes in the measured variable are determined either by
measuring the change in time taken for the ultrasound wave to travel between the transmitter and
receiver, or, alternatively, by measuring the change in phase or frequency of the transmitted
wave.
Ultrasound is sound waves above normal range of human hearing (greater than 20K hertz).
Since piezoelectric crystal generates voltage when force is applied to it, same crystal can be used
as an ultrasonic generator and detector.

Fig: operating principle of sonic distance sensor

X = v sound x t
Where:
V sound is known
t = 0.5 (time of flight)
X is distance between sensor head and object
Applying alternating current across piezoelectric crystals can cause them to oscillate at very high
frequencies.
Application
 Medical
 Speed through air or water
 Fullness of tank
 Amount of liquid in tank
 In mobile robot for obstacle avoidance