Basic Mechanical Engineering

Study of fuels. Steam generation units with accessories and mountings. Study
of steam generation and steam turbines. Introduction to internal combustion
engines and their cycles. Study of SI and CI engines and gas turbines with
their accessories.

Refrigeration and air conditioning with their application. Refrigeration

equipment: compressors, condensers and evaporators.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Rajshahi-6204
 Thermodynamics

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Rajshahi-6204
 Thermodynamics
❑Thermodynamics is derived from two Greek words “thermes” and “dynamikos”.

❖“Thermes” means heat and

❖“Dynamikos” is related to the study of motion (dynamics)

❑Thus, in a simple way thermodynamics is nothing but a study of heat in motion (or heat movement or heat flow).

❑Now let’s see some examples:

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Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Rajshahi-6204
 Applications of Thermodynamics

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Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Rajshahi-6204
 Basic Mechanical Engineering

Study of Fuels

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 Introduction

• Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as main constituent

which on proper burning gives large amount of heat which can be used
economically for domestic and industrial purpose.
• A fuel is a substance that contains carbon and hydrogen undergoes
combustion in presence of oxygen to gives large amount of energy.

Fuel + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy

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Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Rajshahi-6204 7
 Classification of Fuel
On the basis of occurrence fuel is classified into two
Solid
categories; natural or primary fuels and artificial or secondary
(Wood, peat, lignite, coal)
fuels.
i) Natural/primary fuels: These fuels are naturally present. Liquid
ii)Artificial/ secondary fuels: They are synthesized by primary Natural/Primary
(Petroleum or Crude oil)
fuels.
Gaseous

Fuel
(Natural gases)

Solid
(Charcoal, coke)

Liquid
Artificial/Secondary
(Petrol, diesel, kerosene)

Gaseous
(Coal gas, water gas,
producer gas, LPG)

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 Unit of heat
i)Calorie: It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through one degree
centigrade.

ii)British Thermal Unit (BTU): It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water to one
degree Fahrenheit.
1 B.T.U. = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal
1 kcal = 3.968 B.T.U.

iii) Centigrade Heat Unit (CHU): It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of
water to one degree centigrade.
1 kcal = 3.968 B.T.U. = 2.2 C.H.U.

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 Calorific value
Calorific value of fuel can be defined as the amount of heat evolved when one unit mass or volume of the fuel
undergoes complete combustion in presence of oxygen.

i)Higher or gross calorific value (HCV or GCV): HCV is the total amount of heat produced when unit mass/volume of
the fuel has been burnt completely and the products of combustion have been cooled to room temperature.

ii)Lower or net calorific value (LCV or NCV): In actual use of any fuel, the water vapor and moisture etc. are not
condensed and escape as such along with hot combustion gases. Hence lesser amount of heat is available. So LCV is
the net heat produced when unit mass/volume of the fuel is burnt completely, and the products of combustion are
permitted to escape.
LCV = HCV – latent heat of water vapour
LCV = HCV – mass of hydrogen × 9 × latent heat of steam
One part by mass of hydrogen produced nine parts by mass of water molecule. Therefore,
LCV = HCV – H/100 × 𝟗 × 2466 kJ/kg
H = percentage of hydrogen in fuel

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 Characteristics of good fuel
• A fuel should have high calorific value.
•Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature at which the fuel in an air-liquid mixture ignites spontaneously
and continues to burn without any external heating. Ignition temperature should not be either very high or very low.
It should be moderate. Low ignition temperature is dangerous for storage and transport of fuel. High ignition
temperature causes difficulty in igniting the fuel but the fuel is safe during storage, handling and transport. Hence
ideal fuel should have moderate ignition temperature.
• Handling, storage and transportation should be easy.
• Fuel should have low content of non-combustible(ash) matter and low moisture content.
• Fuel should be readily available in bulk at cheap rate.
• Fuel should have low moisture content.
• Fuel should burn efficiently, without releasing hazardous pollutants.

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 Comparison of solid, liquid and gaseous fuel

Solid fuel Liquid fuel Gaseous fuel

Calorific value Low High Highest

Pollution Their ash content is high and Ash content is low and they burn They are almost pollution free;
they produce lot of smoke on without smoke. they burn without smoke and ash
burning. less.

Ignition Moderate ignition temperature Ignition temperature is low. So, Very low ignition temperature. So,
temperature there is a chance of fire hazard they are highly inflammable and
and fire hazard chances of fire hazard is highest

Cost Production cost is low Cost is relatively higher than solid More costly compared to solid and
fuel liquid fuel

Transportation Easy to transport through They can be transported through They can be conveyed through
normal carriage. So, cost is low pipelines. Hence, it is more costly pipelines hence costly

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 Comparison of solid, liquid and gaseous fuel
Solid fuel Liquid fuel Gaseous fuel

Storage Needs lot of space. But, there is no Costly special storage tank is
risk required for storing and safety
precaution has to be taken to
prevent fire hazard as most of
them are highly inflammable and
volatile
They can be compressed in
cylinder. So, storage does not need
lot of space. Safety precaution has
to be taken to prevent fire hazard
as they are highly inflammable and
volatile

Mode of Thermal efficiency is low and
operation ignition temperature is high. So,
during large proportion of heat is wasted
combustion during combustion. They require a
large excess of air for complete
combustion. But the combustion
operation cannot be controlled
easily
Ignition temperature is low. So,
firing is easier and fire can be
extinguished by stopping liquid fuel
supply. The flame produced by
burning can be easily controlled by
adjusting fuel supply
Ignition temperature is lowest. So,
firing is easy. The flame produced
by burning can be easily controlled
by adjusting fuel supply

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 Conventional and Alternate Fuels

• Conventional fuels include fossil fuels (petroleum, coal), and nuclear materials such as uranium.
• Alternative fuels, known as non-conventional and advanced fuels, are any materials or substances that can be
used as fuels, other than conventional fuels like; fossil fuels, as well as nuclear materials such as uranium and
thorium, as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear reactors.

Some well-known alternative fuels include

• Bio-diesel,
• Bio-alcohol (methanol, ethanol, butane)
• Refuse-derived fuel
• Chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells)
• Hydrogen
• Non-fossil methane
• Non-fossil natural gas
• Vegetable oil
• Propane and
• other biomass sources.

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 Need for Alternate Fuels
1. Conventional fuels are going to run out
•One day, our sources for traditional fuels including petroleum would be depleted. Owing to the fact that these fuels are
typically not renewable
•Non-environmentalists also concur with the opinion that the majority of oil fields (situated in the Middle East) in the world
are associated with problems – both political and economic.
•Determining a new method or solution with respect to finding different countries to create new fuels would reduce the
unrest and conflict resulting from the world’s dependence on fuel supply from the Middle East.
2. To reduce pollution
•The use of alternative fuels considerably decreases harmful exhaust emissions (such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
particulate matter and sulfur dioxide) as well as ozone-producing emissions.
3. To protect against global warming
• According to a commonly accepted scientific theory, burning fossil fuels was causing temperatures to rise in the earth’s
atmosphere (global warming).
4. To save money
•Alternative fuels can be less expensive to use not just in terms of the fuel itself but also in terms of a longer service life. This
in turn means savings for the long term.
5. Can reuse waste
• Biofuels, bio products, and bio power provide modern and fresh relevance to the old belief that trash for one person is a
treasure for another. That’s good news considering that Americans produce in excess of 236 million tons of waste each year.
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 Selection Criteria of Alternative Fuels
1. It must be cheap and should be available everywhere.
2. It must burn clean and produce less emission.
3. It must have high calorific value.
4. It should be easy and cheaper to produce.
5. It should need less modification in existing I.C engines.
6. It should increase the engine life.
7. It should require less engine maintenance.
8. It should be easy to handle and store.

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Bomb Calorimeter

𝑚𝑤 +𝑚𝑒 𝐶𝑤 (𝑡2 −𝑡1 )

HCV=
𝑚𝑓
Bomb Calorimeter
Boys gas calorimeter

𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑤 (𝑡2 −𝑡1 )
HCV=
𝑣