Chapter-1 Part-1 Wind load Lecture note

Department of Civil Engineering Structural Design
Chapter 1: Lateral Loads on Structure

1.1.Introduction to wind loads on structures
The aim of structural design is to ensure that, with an acceptably high probability a structure will
remain fully functional during its expected life. The expected life time of structure is formally
known as its design life and is usually a period of at least 50 years for building structures, 20
years for roads and 100 years for monumental building structures, Dam, Bridge and other Civil
engineering structures. During its design life, a structure must be capable of safely sustaining all
applied loads and other stress-inducing actions that might reasonably be expected to occur. Thus,
it is necessary to identify and more importantly quantify the various types of load which act on
its members.
It is worth pointing out at this stage in contrast procedures in which the structure is erected
(constructed) from the ground upwards; building structures are generally designed from the top
down wards. This is because the magnitudes of internal forces in members at any level depend
on the forces being transferred from the levels above as well as the loads applied directly as at
that levels.
1.1.1. Classification of actions
The term action is used in the ES EN 1990:2015 in order to group together generically all
external influences on a structure’s performance. It encompasses loading by gravity and wind,
but includes also vibration, thermal effects, fire and seismic loading.
An action can be defined as any things that gives rise to stresses in a structure and can be direct
or indirect in nature. Indirect actions are imposed deformation which do not result from external
forces such as temperature effects or uneven settlement. Direct actions are force that applied to a
structure by external agents. It includes the vertical loads (gravity loads) e.g. self-weight,
imposed loads, etc. and the horizontal loads (lateral loads) e.g. wind loads, earthquake loads, etc.
In this chapter, the static effect of the lateral loads both wind load and earthquake load will be
discussed.
1.1.2. Wind load on structures
Wind is generally word for air naturally in motion which by virtue of the mass and velocity
possess kinetic energy. If an obstacle is placed in the path of the wind, so that the moving air is
stopped or deflected from its path, then all or part of the kinetic energy of the moving air is
Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 1

transformed into the obstacle (i.e. the kinetic energy is converted into potential energy of
pressure, which causes wind pressure).
Wind loads are fluctuating with time and place (variable loads) which acts directly normal to the
internal and external surface of the whole structure or individual components of the whole
structure. The intensity of wind loads on structure is related to the square of the wind velocity
and dimension of the member that are resisting the wind (frontal area). Wind velocity is
dependent on geographical location, the height of the structure, the topography of the area and
the roughness of the surrounding terrain.
Shape of structure: - Wind pressure depends on the shape of the structure that the wind strikes.
Pressure are smallest when the body has a streamlined cross-section and greater for blunt or
concave cross-section that do not allow the wind to pass smoothly around.
Figure 1.1: Effect of the building shape on the wind velocity
Roughness of the surrounding terrain: - Friction between the ground surface and the wind
strongly influences the wind velocity. Near the ground surface, the friction between the air and
ground reduced the velocity, whereas at higher elevations above the ground, friction has little
influences and wind velocities are much higher. The more the air is streamed, the less the
reaction force exerted by the structure.

Figure 1.2: Effect of roughness of the surrounding terrains and geographic locations on the wind
velocity
Height of the structure: - Wind velocity increases with the powers of the structural height
because of friction effect on the ground surface.
Figure 1.3: Effect of the building height on the wind velocity

Wind effects induce forces, vibrations and in some cases instabilities in the overall structure as
well as its non-structural components. The response of a structure to the variable action of wind
can be separated in to two components, a background component and a resonant component. The
background component involves static deflection of the structure under the wind pressure. The
resonant component, on the other hand, involves dynamic vibration of the structure in response
to changes in wind pressure. In most structures the resonant component is relatively small and
structural response to wind forces is treated using static methods of analysis alone. However, for
tall or otherwise flexible structures, the resonant component of wind should be calculated using
dynamic methods of analysis. Such structures are not considered further here.
1.2.Wind loads on stiff building face (Quasi – static methods)

1.2.1. Methods of wind load analysis on the structures
Basically, we have two types of analysis based on excitation. Static analysis and Dynamic
analysis. In most structures, the resonant component (dynamic) is relatively small and structural
response to wind forces is treated using static methods of analysis (quasi-static) alone. However,
for tall or otherwise flexible structures, the resonant component of wind should be calculated
using dynamic methods of analysis.
The simple Quasi-static procedure (aim of this chapter)
 Only used for structures whose structural properties do not make them susceptible to
dynamic excitation (dynamic coefficient 𝐶𝑑 ≤ 1.2).
A detailed Dynamic procedure
 Must be used for those structures which are likely to be susceptible to dynamic excitation
(𝐶𝑑 > 1.2).
The dynamic coefficient 𝐶𝑑 takes into account the reduction effects due to the lack of correlation
of pressures over surfaces as well as the magnification effects due to the frequency content of
turbulence close to the fundamental frequency of the structure. Values of 𝐶𝑑 for buildings
depending on the material of construction.

Figure1.4: 𝐶𝑑 values for steel buildings (Source: Adopted from EBCS 1995)
Figure 1.5: 𝐶𝑑 values for composite (steel/concrete) buildings (Source: Adopted from EBCS-
1995)

1.2.2. Modelling of wind actions as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 3
By nature, wind actions fluctuate with time and act directly as pressures on the external surfaces
of enclosed structures and because of openings of the external surface also act indirectly on the
internal surfaces. They may also act directly on the internal surface of open structures. Pressures
act on areas of the surface resulting in forces normal to the surface of the structure or of
individual cladding components. Additionally, when large areas of structures are swept by the
wind, friction forces acting tangentially to the surface may be significant.
1.2.2.1.Representations and classification of wind actions
The wind action is represented by a simplified set of pressures or forces whose effects are
equivalent to the extreme effects of the turbulent wind. Unless otherwise specified, wind actions
should be classified as variable fixed actions (see ES EN 1990: 2015 section 4.1.1).
Generally, calculations shall be performed using appropriate design models involving relevant
variables. The models shall be appropriate for predicting the structural behavior and the limit
states considered. Design models should normally be based on established engineering theory
and practice, verified experimentally if necessary.
The modelling for static actions should normally be based on an appropriate choice of the force-
deformation relationships of the members and their connections. Effects of displacements and
deformations should be considered in the context of ultimate limit state verifications (including
static equilibrium) if they result in an increase of the effects of actions by more than 10%.
When dynamic actions may be considered as quasi-static, the dynamic parts are considered
either by including them in the static values or by applying equivalent dynamic amplification
factors to the static actions. For some equivalent dynamic amplification factors, the natural
frequencies have to be determined.
In some cases (e.g. for crosswind vibrations or seismic actions) the actions may be defined by
provisions for a modal analysis based on a linear material and geometric behavior. For regular
structures, where only the fundamental mode is relevant, an explicit modal analysis may be
substituted by an analysis with equivalent static actions depending on mode shape, natural
frequency and damping. In some cases the dynamic actions may be expressed in terms of time

histories or in the frequency domain, for which the structural response may be determined by
appropriate methods.
As per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 1, quasi-static method for calculating wind loads on

building structures up to a height of 200𝑚 and bridges having no span greater than 200𝑚
provided that they satisfy the criteria for dynamic response is applicable. If the height of building
structure is greater than 200𝑚, the wind-tunnel testing should be performed to reduce
uncertainties in parameters in load or resistance models and designed to resist the dynamic effect
of vortex shedding (i.e. structural vibrations in the flow direction as well as in the transverse
direction) and galloping. In the same way, aerodynamic effects should be considered for the
bridges.
The wind action is represented either as a wind pressure or a wind force. The action on the
structure caused by the wind pressure is assumed to act normal to the surface except where
otherwise specified; e.g. for tangential friction forces.
The representation of the wind pressure given in this section is valid for surfaces which are
sufficiently rigid to neglect their resonant vibrations caused by the wind, as is normally the case.
If a natural frequency of vibration of the surface is low (i.e. less than 5𝐻𝑧), these vibrations may
become significant and they shall be taken into account.
1.2.2.2.Static effects of wind load on buildings
The effect of the wind on the structure (i.e. the response of the structure) depends on the size,
shape and dynamic properties of the structure. The response of structures should be calculated
according to ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 5 from the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝 at the reference
height in the undisturbed wind field, the force and pressure coefficients and the structural factor
𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 6). 𝑞𝑝 depends on the wind climate, the terrain
roughness and orography and the reference height. 𝑞𝑝 is equal to the mean velocity pressure plus
a contribution from short-term pressure fluctuations.
The wind actions calculated using ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 are characteristic values (see ES EN
1990:2015 section 4.1.2). They are determined from the basic values of wind velocity 𝑉𝑏 or the
velocity pressure. In accordance with ES EN 1990: section 4.1.2 (7) the basic values are

characteristic values having annual probabilities of exceedance of 0.02 which is equivalent to a

mean return period of 50 years.
1.2.2.3.Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 5.2
The wind pressure acting on the external surfaces, 𝑊𝑒 should be obtained from expression
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 ) ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑒
Where: 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 ) is the peak velocity pressure (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.5)
𝑧𝑒 is the reference height for the external pressure given in ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7
𝐶𝑝𝑒 is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7).
The wind pressure acting on the internal surfaces of a structure, 𝑊𝑖 should be obtained from
expression
𝑊𝑖 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑖 ) ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑖
Where: 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑖 ) is the peak velocity pressure (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.5)
𝑧𝑖 is the reference height for the internal pressure given in ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7
𝐶𝑝𝑖 is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7).
The net pressure on a wall, roof or element is the difference between the pressures on the
opposite surfaces taking due account of their signs. Pressure, directed towards the surface is
taken as positive, and suction, directed away from the surface as negative.
The net wind force 𝐹𝑤 acting on a structure or a structural component may be determined directly
by using expression:
𝐹𝑤 = 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧)[𝐶𝑝𝑒 + 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ] ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓
Where: 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 is the structural factor as defined in ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 6
𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) is the peak velocity pressure (defined in ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.5) at reference
height 𝑧
𝐶𝑝𝑒 is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7)

𝐶𝑝𝑖 is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the reference area of the structure or structural element
Figure 1.6: Pressure on surfaces (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)
The frictional forces resulting from the friction of the wind parallel to the external surfaces can
be ignored when the total area of all surfaces parallel with (or at a small angle to) the wind is
equal to or less than 4 times the total area of all external surfaces perpendicular to the wind
(windward and leeward).
a) Structural factor 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 6)
The structural factor 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 should take into account the effect on wind actions from the non-
simultaneous occurrence of peak wind pressures on the surface together with the effect of the
vibrations of the structure due to turbulence. The structural factor 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 may be separated into a
size factor 𝐶𝑠 and a dynamic factor 𝐶𝑑 .
Determination of 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 6.2)
 For buildings with a height less than 15𝑚, the value of 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 may be taken as 1.
 For facade and roof elements having a natural frequency greater than 5𝐻𝑧, the value of
𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 may be taken as 1.

 For framed buildings which have structural walls and which are less than 100𝑚 high and
whose height is less than 4 times the in-wind depth, the value of 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 may be taken as 1.
The detailed procedure for calculating the structural factor 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 is given in expression if all of
the following requirements are met:
 The structure corresponds to one of the general shapes shown in Figure 1.7,
 Only the along-wind vibration in the fundamental mode is significant, and this mode
shape has a constant sign.
1+2𝑘𝑝 𝑙𝑣 (𝑍𝑒 )√𝐵2 +𝑅2

𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 = 1+7𝑙𝑣 (𝑍𝑒 )
Where: 𝑍𝑒 is the reference height see Figure 1.7. For structures where Figure 1.7 does not apply,
𝑍𝑒 may be equal to ℎ the height of the structure.
𝑘𝑝 is the peak factor defined as the ratio of the maximum value of the fluctuating part of the
response to its standard deviation
𝑙𝑣 is the turbulence intensity defined in ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.4
𝐵 2 is the background factor allowing for the lack of full correlation of the pressure on the
structure surface
𝑅 2 is the resonance response factor allowing for turbulence in resonance with the vibration mode
of the structure
The size factor 𝐶𝑠 takes into account the reduction effect on the wind action due to the non-
simultaneity of occurrence of the peak wind pressures on the surface and may be obtained from
expression:
1+1.7𝑙𝑣 (𝑍𝑒 )√𝐵2

𝐶𝑠 = 1+7𝑙𝑣 (𝑍𝑒 )
The dynamic factor 𝐶𝑑 takes into account the increasing effect from vibrations due to turbulence
in resonance with the structure and may be obtained from expression:
1+2𝑘𝑝 𝑙𝑣 (𝑍𝑒 )√𝐵2 +𝑅 2

𝐶𝑑 =
1+7𝑙𝑣 (𝑍𝑒 )√𝐵2

ℎ ℎ
𝑧𝑒 = 0.6ℎ ≥ 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑧𝑒 = ℎ1 + ≥ 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑧𝑒 = ℎ1 + ≥ 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛
2 2
Figure 1.7: General shapes of structures covered by the design procedure. The structural
dimensions and the reference height used are also shown (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-
4:2015)
Background factor 𝐵 2 may be calculated using expression:
1
𝐵2 = 𝑏+ℎ 0.63
1+0.9( )
𝐿(𝑧𝑒)
Where: 𝑏, ℎ is the width and height of the structure (see Figure 1.7).
𝐿(𝑧𝑒 ) is the turbulent length scale represents the average gust size for natural winds at reference
height 𝑧𝑒 .
𝑧 𝛼
𝐿(𝑧𝑒 ) = 𝐿𝑡 (𝑧 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 ≥ 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡
𝐿(𝑧𝑒 ) = 𝐿𝑡 (𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 < 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛
With a reference height of 𝑧𝑡 = 200𝑚, a reference length scale of 𝐿𝑡 = 300𝑚 and with
𝛼 = 0.67 + 0.05𝑙𝑛(𝑧0 ) where the roughness length 𝑧0 is in 𝑚. The minimum height 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 is
given in Table 4.1. It is on the safe side to use 𝐵 2 = 1.

Resonance response factor 𝑅 2 should be determined using expression:
𝜋2
𝑅 2 = 2𝛿 ∗ 𝑆𝐿 (𝑧𝑒 , 𝑛1,𝑥 ) ∗ 𝑅ℎ (𝜂𝑏 ) ∗ 𝑅𝑏 (𝜂𝑏 )
𝛿 is the total logarithmic decrement of damping for fundamental bending mode may be estimated
by:
𝛿 = 𝛿𝑠 + 𝛿𝑎 + 𝛿𝑑
Where: 𝛿𝑠 is the logarithmic decrement of structural damping
𝛿𝑎 is the logarithmic decrement of aerodynamic damping for the fundamental mode
𝛿𝑑 is the logarithmic decrement of damping due to special devices (tuned mass dampers,
sloshing tanks etc.)
Approximate values of logarithmic decrement of structural damping 𝛿𝑠 are given in Table F.2.
Table F.2: Approximate values of logarithmic decrement of structural damping in the

fundamental mode 𝛿𝑠 (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)
𝑆𝐿 (𝑧𝑒 , 𝑛1,𝑥 ) is the non-dimensional power spectral density function which expresses the wind
distribution over frequencies should be determined using expression:
6.8𝑓𝐿 (𝑧𝑒 ,𝑛)

𝑆𝐿 (𝑧𝑒 , 𝑛1,𝑥 ) = 5
[1+10.2𝑓𝐿 (𝑧𝑒 ,𝑛)] ⁄3
𝑛∗𝐿(𝑧𝑒 )
Where: 𝑓𝐿 (𝑧𝑒 , 𝑛) = is a non-dimensional frequency determined by the frequency 𝑛 =
𝑉𝑚 (𝑧)
𝑛1,𝑥 , the natural frequency of the structure in Hz, by the mean velocity 𝑉𝑚 (𝑧) and the turbulence
length scale 𝐿(𝑧𝑒 )

For cantilevers with one mass at the end a simplified expression to calculate the fundamental
flexural frequency n1 of structures is given by expression (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 Annex F):
1 𝑔
𝑛 = 𝑛1,𝑥 = 2𝜋 ∗ √𝑥
1
Where: 𝑔 is the acceleration of gravity= 9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
𝑥1 is the maximum displacement due to self-weight applied in the vibration direction in 𝑚
The fundamental flexural frequency n1 of multi-story buildings with a height larger than
50𝑚 can be estimated using expression:
46
𝑛 = 𝑛1,𝑥 = [𝐻𝑧]
ℎ
Where: ℎ is the height of the structure in 𝑚
The same expression may give some guidance for single-story buildings and towers.
Figure 1.8: Power spectral density function 𝑆𝐿 (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

𝑅ℎ , 𝑅𝑏 is the aerodynamic admittance functions
The aerodynamic admittance functions 𝑅ℎ and 𝑅𝑏 for a fundamental mode shape may be
approximated using expressions (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 Annex B.2):
1 1
𝑅ℎ = 𝜂 − 2𝜂2 (1 − 𝑒 −2𝜂ℎ ), 𝑅ℎ = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜂ℎ = 0
ℎ ℎ
1 1
𝑅𝑏 = 𝜂 − 2𝜂2 (1 − 𝑒 −2𝜂𝑏 ), 𝑅𝑏 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜂𝑏 = 0
𝑏 𝑏
4.6ℎ 4.6𝑏
𝜂ℎ = 𝐿(𝑧 ) ∗ 𝑓𝐿 (𝑧𝑒 , 𝑛1,𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂𝑏 = 𝐿(𝑧 ) ∗ 𝑓𝐿 (𝑧𝑒 , 𝑛1,𝑥 )
𝑒 𝑒
Peak factor 𝑘𝑝 should be obtained from expression:
0.6
√2𝑙𝑛(𝑣 ∗ 𝑇) +
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥. { √2𝑙𝑛(𝑣∗𝑇)
3
𝑇 is the averaging time for the mean wind velocity, 𝑇 = 600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝑣 is the up-crossing frequency should be obtained from expression:
𝑅2
𝑣 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥. {𝑛1,𝑥 √𝐵2 +𝑅2
0.018𝐻𝑧
Figure 1.9: Peak factor 𝑘𝑝 (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

Figure 1.10: 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 for multi-story steel buildings with rectangular ground plan and vertical
external walls (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)
Figure 1.11: 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 for multi-story concrete buildings with rectangular ground plan and vertical
external walls (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

b) Peak velocity pressure 𝒒𝒑 (𝒛) (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.5)
The peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) at height 𝑧 which includes mean and short-term velocity
fluctuations should be determined.
1
𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) = [1 + 7 ∗ 𝑙𝑣 (𝑧)] ∗ 2 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑉𝑚2 (𝑧) = 𝐶𝑒 (𝑧) ∗ 𝑞𝑏
Where:
𝜌 is the air density which depends on the altitude, temperature and barometric pressure to be
expected in the region during wind storms. The values for 𝜌 may be given in the National Annex.
𝑘𝑔⁄
The recommended value is 1.25 𝑚3 .
𝑙𝑣 (𝑧) is the turbulence intensity at height 𝑧 see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.4
𝐶𝑒 (𝑧) is the exposure factor given by:
𝑞𝑝 (𝑧)
𝐶𝑒 (𝑧) = 𝑞𝑏
𝑞𝑏 is the basic velocity pressure given by:
1
𝑞𝑏 = 2 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑉𝑏2
The exposure factor 𝐶𝑒 is a measure for the dependence of the wind effects over height on the
roughness of the terrain, peaks in the wind velocity, the height of the structure above ground
level and orography (hills, cliffs …etc.). For flat terrain where orographic factor 𝐶0 (𝑧) = 1.0, the
exposure factor is given by:
2
𝑧
𝐶𝑒 (𝑧) = (𝑘𝑟 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 ( )) [1 + 7 ∗ 𝑙𝑣 (𝑧)]
𝑧0
For flat terrain where orographic factor 𝐶0 (𝑧) = 1.0 (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.3.3),
the exposure factor 𝐶𝑒 (𝑧) is given as a function of height above terrain and a function of terrain
category as shown in Figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12: Illustrations of the exposure factor 𝐶𝑒 (𝑧) for 𝐶0 = 1.0, 𝑘𝑙 = 1.0 (Source: Adopted
from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)
Basic wind velocity 𝑽𝒃 (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.2)
The basic wind velocity shall be calculated from expression:
𝑉𝑏 = 𝐶𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑉𝑏,0
Where: 𝑉𝑏 is the basic wind velocity defined as a function of wind direction and time of year at
10𝑚 above ground of terrain category II
𝐶𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 is the directional factor
𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 is the season factor
𝑉𝑏,0 is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity
The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity 𝑉𝑏,0 is the characteristic 10 minutes mean wind
velocity, irrespective of wind direction and time of year, at 10𝑚 above ground level in open

country terrain with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles with separations of at
least 20 obstacle heights. The value of the basic wind velocity 𝑉𝑏,0 may be given in the National
Annex.
The value of the directional factor 𝐶𝑑𝑖𝑟 for various wind directions may be found in the National
Annex. The recommended value is 1.0.
The value of the season factor 𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 may be given in the National Annex. The recommended
value is 1.0. For temporary structures and for all structures in the execution phase, the seasonal
factor 𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 may be used. For transportable structures, which may be used at any time in the
year, 𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 should be taken equal to 1.0.
The 10 minutes mean wind velocity having the probability 𝑝 for an annual exceedance is
determined by multiplying the basic wind velocity 𝑉𝑏 by the probability factor 𝐶𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏 given by:
1−𝐾∗𝑙𝑛[−𝑙𝑛(1−𝑝)] 𝑛
𝐶𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏 = [1−𝐾∗𝑙𝑛[−𝑙𝑛(0.98)]]
Where:
𝐾 is the shape parameter depending on the coefficient of variation of the extreme-value

distribution.
𝑛 is the exponent.
The values for 𝐾 and n may be given in the National Annex. The recommended values are 0.2
for 𝐾 and 0.5 for 𝑛.
Mean wind velocity 𝑽𝒎 (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.3)
The mean wind velocity 𝑉𝑚 (𝑧) at a height z above the terrain depends on the terrain roughness
and orography and on the basic wind velocity, 𝑉𝑏 and should be determined using expression:
𝑉𝑚 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) ∗ 𝑐0 (𝑧) ∗ 𝑉𝑏
Where:
𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) is the roughness factor given in ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.3.2

𝑐0 (𝑧) is the orography factor taken as 1.0 unless otherwise specified in (see ES EN 1991-1-
4:2015 section 4.3.3)
Terrain roughness 𝒄𝒓 (𝒛) as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.3.2
The terrain roughness factor 𝒄𝒓 (𝒛) accounts for the variability of the mean wind velocity at the
site of the structure due to the height above ground level and the ground roughness of the terrain
upwind of the structure in the wind direction considered.
The procedure for determining 𝒄𝒓 (𝒛) may be given in the National Annex. The recommended
procedure for the determination of the roughness factor at height 𝑧 is given by the following
expression and is based on a logarithmic velocity profile.
𝑧
𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) = 𝑘𝑟 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 (𝑧 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥
0
𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑟 (𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) = 𝑘𝑟 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑧0
Where: 𝑧0 is the roughness length
𝑘𝑟 Terrain factor depending on the roughness length 𝑧0 calculated using
0.07
𝑧0
𝑘𝑟 = 0.19 ∗ (𝑧 )
0,𝐼𝐼
Where:
𝑧0,𝐼𝐼 = 0.05𝑚 (Terrain category II, From Table 4.1 of ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)
𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the minimum height defined in Table 4.1 of ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 is to be taken as 200𝑚 unless otherwise specified in the National Annex
𝑧0 , 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 depend on the terrain category.

Table 4.1: Terrain categories and terrain parameters (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-
4:2015)
Roughness length
Minimum height
Terrain category
Terrain description
𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑚)
𝑧0 (𝑚)
0 Sea or coastal area exposed to the open sea 0.003 1.0
I Lakes or flat and horizontal area with negligible vegetation and without 0.01 1.0
obstacles
II Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles (trees, 0.05 2.0
buildings) with separations of at least 20 obstacle height
III Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings or with isolated obstacles 0.3 5.0
with separations of maximum 20 obstacle heights (such as villages, suburban
terrain, permanent forest)
IV Area in which at least 15% of the surface is covered with buildings and their 1.0 10
average height exceeds 15𝑚
Terrain category 0

Terrain category I
Terrain category II

Terrain category III

Terrain category IV
Figure 1.13: Illustrations of the upper roughness of each terrain category (Source: Adopted from
ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

Transition between roughness categories 0, I, II, III and IV (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 Annex A.2)
If the structure is situated near a change of terrain roughness at a distance less than 2𝑘𝑚 from the
smoother terrain category 0 and less than 1𝑘𝑚 from the smoother terrain categories I to III, the
smoother terrain category in the upwind direction should be used. When there is choice between
two or more terrain categories in the definition of a given area, then the area with the lowest
roughness length should be used.
The terrain roughness to be used for a given wind direction depends on the ground roughness and
the distance with uniform terrain roughness in an angular sector around the wind direction. Small
areas (less than 10% of the area under consideration) with deviating roughness may be ignored.
Figure 1.14: Assessment of terrain roughness (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

Terrain orography 𝒄𝟎 (𝒛) as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.3.3
Where orography (e.g. hills, cliffs, escarpments) (not undulating and mountainous regions)
increases wind velocities by more than 5%, the effects should be taken into account using the
orography factor 𝑐0 . The effects of orography may be neglected when the average slope of the
upwind terrain is less than 3° . The upwind terrain may be considered up to a distance of 10 times
the height of the isolated orographic feature.
At isolated hills and ridges or cliffs and escarpments different wind velocities occur dependent
on the upstream slope 𝜙 = 𝐻 ⁄𝐿𝑢 in the wind direction, where the height 𝐻 and the length 𝐿𝑢 .
Figure 1.15: Illustration of increase of wind velocities over orography (Source: Adopted from ES
EN 1991-1-4:2015)
The largest increase of the wind velocities occurs near the top of the slope and is determined
from the orography factor 𝑐0 . 𝑐0 is related to the wind velocity at the base of the hill or
escarpment. The slope has no significant effect on the standard deviation of the turbulence. The
turbulence intensity will decrease with increasing wind velocity and equal value for the standard
deviation. 𝑐0 is defined by:
𝑐0 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜙 < 0.05
𝑐0 = 1 + 2 ∗ 𝑠 ∗ 𝜙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.05 < 𝜙 < 0.3

𝑐0 = 1 + 0.6 ∗ 𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜙 > 0.3
Where:
𝑠 is the orographic location factor, to be obtained from Figure 1.16 or Figure 1.17 scaled to the
length of the effective upwind slope length 𝐿𝑒
𝜙 is the upwind slope 𝐻 ⁄𝐿𝑢 in the wind direction (see Figure 1.16 and Figure 1.17)
𝐿𝑒 is the effective length of the upwind slope defined in Table A.2
𝐿𝑢 is the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction
𝐿𝑑 is the actual length of the downwind slope in the wind direction
𝐻 is the effective height of the feature
𝑥 is the horizontal distance of the site from the top of the crest
𝑧 is the vertical distance from the ground level of the site
Table A.2: Values of the effective length 𝐿𝑒 (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)
Type of slope(𝜙 = 𝐻 ⁄𝐿𝑢 )
Shallow (0.05 < 𝜙 < 0.3) Steep (𝜙 > 0.3)
𝐿𝑒 = 𝐿𝑢 𝐿𝑒 = 𝐻 ⁄0.3

Figure 1.16: Factor 𝑠 for cliffs and escarpments (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)
Figure 1.17: Factor 𝑠 for hills and ridges (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

Large and considerably higher neighboring structures as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section

4.3.4
The influence of neighboring structures on the wind velocity should be considered. If the
structure is to be located close to another structure, that is at least twice as high as the average
height of its neighboring structures, then it could be exposed (dependent on the properties of the
structure) to increased wind velocities for certain wind directions. Such cases should be taken
into account. If a building is more than twice as high as the average height have of the
neighboring structures then, as a first approximation, the design of any of those nearby structures
may be based on the peak velocity pressure at height 𝑧𝑛 (𝑧𝑒 = 𝑧𝑛 ) above ground.
1
𝑥 ≤ 𝑟: 𝑧𝑛 = 2 ∗ 𝑟
1 2∗ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑟 < 𝑥 < 2 ∗ 𝑟: 𝑧𝑛 = 2 [𝑟 − (1 − ) ∗ (𝑥 − 𝑟)]
𝑟
𝑥 > 2 ∗ 𝑟: 𝑧𝑛 = ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑤 In which the radius 𝑟 is:
𝑟 = ℎℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑖𝑓 ℎℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ ≤ 2 ∗ 𝑑𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑟 = 2 ∗ 𝑑𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑓 ℎℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ > 2 ∗ 𝑑𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
The structural height ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑤 , the radius 𝑟, the distance 𝑥 and the dimensions 𝑑𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 and 𝑑𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 are
illustrated in Figure 1.18. Increased wind velocities can be disregarded when ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑤 is more than
half the height ℎℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ of the high building i.e. 𝑧𝑛 = ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑤 .
Figure 1.18: Influence of a high rise building, on two different nearby structures (1 and 2)
(Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

Closely spaced buildings and obstacles as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.3.5
The effect of closely spaced buildings and other obstacles may be taken into account. In rough
terrain closely spaced buildings modify the mean wind flow near the ground as if the ground
level was raised to a height called displacement height ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑠 .
For buildings in terrain category IV, closely spaced buildings and other obstructions causes the
wind to behave as if the ground level was raised to a displacement height ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑠 . ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑠 may be
determined by expression:
𝑥 ≤ 2 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 0.8 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 0.6 ∗ ℎ
2 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 < 𝑥 < 6 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 1.2 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 0.2 ∗ 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 0.6 ∗ ℎ
𝑥 ≥ 6 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑠 = 0
Figure 1.19: Obstruction height and upwind spacing (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-
4:2015)
Wind turbulence 𝒍𝒗 (𝒛) as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.4
The turbulence intensity 𝒍𝒗 (𝒛) at height 𝑧 is defined as the standard deviation of the turbulence
divided by the mean wind velocity. The recommended rules for the determination of 𝑙𝑣 (𝑧) are
given in expression:
𝜎𝑣 𝑘𝑙
𝑙𝑣 (𝑧) = 𝑉 =𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑚 (𝑧) 0 (𝑧)∗𝑙𝑛(𝑧 ⁄𝑧0 )
𝑘𝑙
𝑙𝑣 (𝑧) = 𝑙𝑣 (𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) = 𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛
0 (𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 )∗𝑙𝑛(𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 ⁄𝑧0 )

Where:
𝑘𝑙 is the turbulence factor. The value of 𝑘𝑙 may be given in the National Annex. The
recommended value is 𝑘𝑙 = 1.0.
𝐶0 is the orography factor as described in ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.3.3
𝑧0 is the roughness length, given in Table 4.1 of ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
The standard deviation of the turbulence 𝜎𝑣 may be determined using expression:
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑟 ∗ 𝑉𝑏 ∗ 𝑘𝑙
c) Reference height, 𝑍𝑒 as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7.2.2
i. Reference height 𝒁𝒆 for Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
The reference height 𝒁𝒆 for walls of rectangular plan buildings (zone D windward) depends on
the aspect ratio ℎ/𝑏 and are always the upper heights of the different parts of the walls. They are
given for the following three cases:
Case 1: A building whose height ℎ is less than 𝑏 should be considered to be one part.
Case 2: A building whose height ℎ is greater than 𝑏 but less than 2𝑏 may be considered to be
two parts comprising: a lower part extending upwards from the ground by a height equal to 𝑏 and
an upper part consisting of the remainder.
Case 3: A building, whose its height greater than 2𝑏 may be considered to be in multiple parts
comprising: a lower part extending upwards from the ground by a height equal to 𝑏; an upper
part extending downwards from the top by a height equal to 𝑏 and a middle region between the
upper and lower parts which may be divided into horizontal strips with a height ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 with a
maximum value of 𝑏 as desired.
The rules for the velocity pressure distribution for leeward wall (zone E) and side walls (zones
A, B, C) may be given in the National Annex or be defined for the individual project. The
recommended procedure is to take the reference height as the height of the building.

Figure 1.20: Reference height 𝒁𝒆 depending on ℎ and 𝑏 and corresponding velocity pressure
profile (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

ii. Reference height 𝒁𝒆 for roofs
For roofs, the reference height 𝒁𝒆 is often taken as ridge height h.
𝑍𝑒
d) Pressure coefficients for buildings
External pressure coefficients give the effect of the wind on the external surfaces of buildings;
internal pressure coefficients give the effect of the wind on the internal surfaces of buildings.
i. External pressure coefficient 𝑪𝒑𝒆 for vertical walls as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section
7.2.2
The external pressure coefficient 𝑪𝒑𝒆 accounts for the variation in dynamic pressure on different
zones of the structure due to its geometry, area and proximity to other structures. For instance,
the wind acting on the structure in Figure 1.21 is slowed down by the windward face and
generates a pressure on that face. The wind is then forced around the sides and over the top of the
structure, causing suction on the sides and on all leeward faces. Suction can also be generated on
the windward slope of a pitched roof if the pitch is sufficiently small.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.21: Wind flow past a rectangular building. (a) Plan and (b) Elevation

The external pressure coefficients 𝑪𝒑𝒆 for buildings and parts of buildings depend on the size of
the loaded area 𝐴 which is the area of the structure that produces the wind action in the section to
be calculated. The external pressure coefficients are given for the various zones (zone A, B, C, D
and E) of the vertical walls of a rectangular building for loaded areas 𝐴 of 1𝑚2 and 10𝑚2 in the
Table 7.1 for the appropriate building configurations as 𝑐𝑝𝑒,1 for local coefficients and 𝑐𝑝𝑒,10 for
overall coefficients respectively.
Pressure coefficients are considered positive when the pressure is action onto the surface of the
structure and negative when the pressure is acting away from that surface. Thus, the external
pressure coefficient is positive when acting towards.
Figure 1.22: Key for vertical walls (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

Table 7.1: Recommended values of external pressure coefficients for vertical walls of
rectangular plan buildings (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)
In cases where the wind force on building structures is determined by application of the pressure
coefficients 𝑐𝑝𝑒 on windward (zone D) and leeward side (zone E) of the building simultaneously,
the lack of correlation of wind pressures between the windward and leeward side (a maximum at
windward side does not occur at the same instance as the maximum on leeward side) may have
to be taken into account. The lack of correlation of wind pressures between the windward and
leeward side may be considered as follows. For buildings with ℎ/𝑑 ≥ 5, the resulting force is
multiplied by 1.0. For buildings with ℎ/𝑑 ≤ 1, the resulting force is multiplied by 0.85. For
intermediate values of ℎ/𝑑, linear interpolation may be applied.
For 𝐴 ≤ 1𝑚2 ; 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = 𝑐𝑝𝑒,1
For 𝐴 ≥ 10𝑚2 ; 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = 𝑐𝑝𝑒,10
For 1𝑚2 < 𝐴 < 10𝑚2 ; 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = 𝑐𝑝𝑒,1 − (𝑐𝑝𝑒,1 − 𝑐𝑝𝑒,10 ) log10 𝐴
Figure 1.23: Recommended procedure for determining the external pressure coefficient 𝑐𝑝𝑒 for
buildings with a loaded area 𝐴 between 1𝑚2 and 10𝑚2 (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-
4:2015)

1.3.Wind pressure on roofs and practicing building code of standards for wind actions
External pressure coefficient 𝑪𝒑𝒆 for roofs
i. Flat roofs (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7.2.3)
Flat roofs are defined as having a slope (𝛼) of – 5° < 𝛼 < 5°. The reference height 𝑧𝑒 for flat
roof and roofs with curved or mansard eaves should be taken as ℎ. The reference height for flat
roofs with parapets should be taken as ℎ + ℎ𝑝 see Figure 1.23.
Figure 1.24: Reference height 𝑧𝑒 for flat roofs (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-1:2015)
The roof should be divided into zones as shown in Figure 1.25 and pressure coefficients for each
zone are given in Table 7.2 of ES EN 1991-1-4:2015.
Figure 1.25: Division of flat roofs into zones (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

Table 7.2-External pressure coefficients 𝐶𝑝𝑒 for flat roofs (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-
4:2015)
Notes
 For roofs with parapets or curved eaves, linear interpolation may be used for intermediate
ℎ𝑝
values of ⁄ and 𝑟⁄ .
ℎ ℎ
 For roofs with mansard eaves, linear interpolation between 𝛼 = 30°, 45° and 𝛼 = 60°
may be used.

 For 𝛼 > 60° linear interpolation between the values for 𝛼 = 60° and the values for flat
roofs with sharp eaves may be used.
 In Zone I, where positive and negative values are given, both values shall be considered.
ii. Monopitch roofs (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7.2.4)
Monopitch roofs are defined as having a slope 𝛼 ≥ 5°. The reference height 𝑧𝑒 should be taken
equal to ℎ. The roof including protruding parts should be divided into zones as shown in Figure
1.25 and the pressure coefficients for each zone that should be used are given in Table 7.3 of ES
EN 1991-1-4:2015.
Figure 1.26: Key for monopitch roofs (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)


Notes
 At 𝜃 = 0°, the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values around a
pitch angle of 𝛼 = +5° 𝑡𝑜 + 45°, so both positive and negative values are given. For
those roofs, two cases should be considered: one with all positive values, and one with all
negative values. No mixing of positive and negative values is allowed on the same face.
 Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles may be used between values of the
same sign. The values equal to 0.0 are given for interpolation purposes.
iii. Duopitch roofs (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7.2.5)
The reference height 𝑧𝑒 should be taken equal to ℎ. The roof including protruding parts should be
divided into zones as shown in Figure 1.27 and the pressure coefficients for each zone that
should be used are given in Table 7.4 of ES EN 1991-1-4:2015.

Figure 1.27: Key for duopitch roofs (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

Notes
 At 𝜃 = 0° the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values on the
windward face around a pitch angle of 𝛼 = −5° 𝑡𝑜 + 45°, so both positive and negative
values are given. For those roofs, four cases should be considered where the largest or
smallest values of all areas F, G and H are combined with the largest or smallest values in
areas I and J. No mixing of positive and negative values is allowed on the same face.
 Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles of the same sign may be used between
values of the same sign. (Do not interpolate between 𝛼 = +5° and 𝛼 = −5°, but use the
data for flat roofs). The values equal to 0.0 are given for interpolation purposes

iv. Hipped roofs (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7.2.6)

The reference height 𝑧𝑒 should be taken equal to ℎ. The roof including protruding parts should be
divided into zones as shown in Figure 1.27 and the pressure coefficients for each zone that
should be used are given in Table 7.5 of ES EN 1991-1-4:2015.
Figure 1.28: Key for hipped roofs (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

Notes
 At 𝜃 = 0° the pressures changes rapidly between positive and negative values on the
windward face at pitch angle of 𝛼 = +5° 𝑡𝑜 +45° , so both positive and negative values
are given. For those roofs, two cases should be considered: one with all positive values,
and one with all negative values. No mixing of positive and negative values are allowed.
 Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles of the same sign may be used between
values of the same sign. The values equal to 0.0 are given for interpolation purposes.
 The pitch angle of the windward face always will govern the pressure coefficients.
v. Multi-span roofs (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7.2.7)
Pressure coefficients for wind directions 0°, 90° and 180° for each span of a multi-span roof may
be derived from the pressure coefficient for each individual span. The reference height 𝑧𝑒 should
be taken equal to ℎ. Modifying factors for the pressures (local and global) for wind directions 0°
and 180° on each span should be derived:
 From monopitch roofs, modified for their position according to Figure 1.29 a and b.
 From duopitch roofs for α < 0 modified for their position according to Figure 1.29 c and
d.

The zones F/G/J used should be considered only for the upwind face. The zones H and I should
be considered for each span of the multi-span roof.
Figure 1.29: Key to multi-span roofs (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

ii. Internal pressure coefficient (𝐶𝑝𝑖 ) as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7.2.9
The design of roofing, cladding and internal walls requires that the internal pressures inside
buildings are known. Internal pressure arises due to opening, such as windows, doors and vents
in the cladding. In general, if the wind panel has a greater proportion of opening than the leeward
panel, then the interior of the structure is subjected to positive (outwards) pressure. Conversely,
if leeward face has more opening, then the interior is subjected to negative (in ward) pressure
(see Figure 1.6).
The calculation of the internal pressures in ES EN 1991-1-4 depends on the fact whether a
building has dominant faces (i.e. non-uniformly distributed openings) or not (i.e. uniformly
distributed openings). A face of a building should be regarded as dominant when the area of
openings at that face is at least twice the area of openings and leakages in the remaining faces of
the building considered.
For buildings without a dominant face (i.e. uniformly distributed openings), the internal pressure
coefficient 𝐶𝑝𝑖 should be determined from Figure 1.30 and is a function of the ratio of the height
and the depth of the building, ℎ/𝑑 and the opening ratio µ for each wind direction 𝜃.
Figure 1.30: Internal pressure coefficients for uniformly distributed openings (Source: Adopted
from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

The internal pressure coefficient, 𝐶𝑝𝑖 depends on the size and distribution of the openings in the
building envelope. The opening ratio µ should be determined from expression:
∑ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒(𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠) 𝑜𝑟 0.0
µ=
∑ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠(𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑, 𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠)
Notes
 This applies to façades and roof of buildings with and without internal partitions.
 Where it is not possible, or not considered justified, to estimate µ for a particular case
then 𝐶𝑝𝑖 should be taken as the more onerous of +0.2 and −0.3.
For buildings with a dominant face (i.e. non-uniformly distributed openings), the internal
pressure should be taken as a fraction of the external pressure at the openings of the dominant
face.
 When the area of the openings at the dominant face is twice the area of the openings in
the remaining faces,
𝐶𝑝𝑖 = 0.75𝐶𝑝𝑒
 When the area of the openings at the dominant face is at least 3 times the area of the
openings in the remaining faces,
𝐶𝑝𝑖 = 0.90𝐶𝑝𝑒
Where 𝐶𝑝𝑒 is the value for the external pressure coefficient at the openings in the dominant face.
When these openings are located in zones with different values of external pressures an area
weighted average value of 𝐶𝑝𝑒 should be used. When the area of the openings at the dominant
face is between 2 and 3 times the area of the openings in the remaining faces, linear interpolation
for calculating 𝐶𝑝𝑖 may be used.
The reference height 𝑧𝑖 for the internal pressures should be equal to the reference height 𝑧𝑒 for
the external pressures (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 5.1) on the faces which contribute by
their openings to the creation of the internal pressure. If there are several openings, the largest
value of 𝑧𝑒 should be used to determine 𝑧𝑖 .

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Department of Civil Engineering Structural Design

Chapter 1: Lateral Loads on Structure

1.1.2. Wind load on structures

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 1

Figure 1.1: Effect of the building shape on the wind velocity

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 2

Figure 1.3: Effect of the building height on the wind velocity

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 3

1.2.Wind loads on stiff building face (Quasi – static methods)

The simple Quasi-static procedure (aim of this chapter)

A detailed Dynamic procedure

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 4

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 5

1.2.2. Modelling of wind actions as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 3

1.2.2.1.Representations and classification of wind actions

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 6

As per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 1, quasi-static method for calculating wind loads on

1.2.2.2.Static effects of wind load on buildings

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 7

characteristic values having annual probabilities of exceedance of 0.02 which is equivalent to a

1.2.2.3.Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 5.2

𝐹𝑤 = 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧)[𝐶𝑝𝑒 + 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ] ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓

Where: 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 is the structural factor as defined in ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 6

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 8

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the reference area of the structure or structural element

Figure 1.6: Pressure on surfaces (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

a) Structural factor 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 6)

Determination of 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 6.2)

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 9

1+2𝑘𝑝 𝑙𝑣 (𝑍𝑒 )√𝐵2 +𝑅2

𝑙𝑣 is the turbulence intensity defined in ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.4

1+1.7𝑙𝑣 (𝑍𝑒 )√𝐵2

1+2𝑘𝑝 𝑙𝑣 (𝑍𝑒 )√𝐵2 +𝑅 2

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 10

Background factor 𝐵 2 may be calculated using expression:

𝐿(𝑧𝑒 ) = 𝐿𝑡 (𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 < 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 11

Resonance response factor 𝑅 2 should be determined using expression:

Where: 𝛿𝑠 is the logarithmic decrement of structural damping

𝛿𝑎 is the logarithmic decrement of aerodynamic damping for the fundamental mode

Table F.2: Approximate values of logarithmic decrement of structural damping in the

6.8𝑓𝐿 (𝑧𝑒 ,𝑛)

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 12

Where: 𝑔 is the acceleration of gravity= 9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2

𝑥1 is the maximum displacement due to self-weight applied in the vibration direction in 𝑚

50𝑚 can be estimated using expression:

Where: ℎ is the height of the structure in 𝑚

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 13

𝑅ℎ , 𝑅𝑏 is the aerodynamic admittance functions

Peak factor 𝑘𝑝 should be obtained from expression:

𝑣 is the up-crossing frequency should be obtained from expression:

Figure 1.9: Peak factor 𝑘𝑝 (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 14

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 15

b) Peak velocity pressure 𝒒𝒑 (𝒛) (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.5)

𝑙𝑣 (𝑧) is the turbulence intensity at height 𝑧 see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.4

𝐶𝑒 (𝑧) is the exposure factor given by:

𝑞𝑏 is the basic velocity pressure given by:

Chapter-1 Wind load Lecture Note Page 16

Basic wind velocity 𝑽𝒃 (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.2)

The basic wind velocity shall be calculated from expression:

𝑉𝑏 = 𝐶𝑑𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑉𝑏,0

𝐶𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 is the directional factor

𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 is the season factor