Chapter-1 Part-2 Earthquake Load Lecture Note

Department of Civil Engineering Structural Design
Chapter 1: Lateral Loads on Structure

1.4. Earthquake Loads on Structures: General theory on earthquake effects and types
An earthquake is a sudden motion or trembling in the earth’s upper crust (Lithosphere) caused
by abrupt releases of accumulated strains energy in rocks below, volcanic activity, landslides and
collapse of underground caves. It is the earth’s natural means of releasing stress. The movement
taking place at the fault lines causes energy release which is transmitted through the earth in the
form of waves. These waves known as seismic waves and reach the structure causing shaking.
Figure 1.32: Arrival of seismic waves at a site

1.4.1. What causes Earthquakes?
Long time ago, a large collection of material masses fused and formed the earth. Large amount
of heat was generated by this fusion and slowly as the earth cooled, the heavier and denser
materials sank to the center and the lighter ones rose to the top. Hence, the internal structure of
the earth is one of the key parameters to understand the major seismic activity around the world.
The earth may be considered to have three concentric layers. The inner core (radius~1290𝑘𝑚),
the outer core (thickness~2200𝑘𝑚), the mantle (thickness~2900𝑘𝑚) and the crust
(thickness~5 𝑡𝑜 40𝑘𝑚). The inner core is solid and consists of heavy metals (e.g., nickel and
iron), while the crust consists of light materials (e.g., basalts and granites). The outer core is
liquid in form and the mantle has the ability to flow. At the core, the temperature is estimated to
be ~2500°𝑐, the pressure ~4 million atmospheres and density ~13.5 𝑔𝑚/𝑐𝑐; this is in contrast
to ~𝟐𝟓°𝒄, 1 atmosphere and 1.5 𝑔𝑚/𝑐𝑐 on the surface of the earth.
Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 1

Figure1.33: Inside the earth
Convection currents develop in the viscous mantle because of prevailing high temperature and
pressure gradients between the crust and the core like the convective flow of water when heated
in a beaker. The energy for the above circulations is derived from the heat produced from the
incessant decay of radioactive elements in the rocks throughout the earth’s interior. These
convection currents result in a circulation of the earth’s mass; hot molten lava comes out and the
cold rock mass goes into the earth. Many such local circulations are taking place at different
regions underneath the earth’s surface, leading to different portions of the earth undergoing
different directions of movements along the surface.
The convective flow of the mantle material causes the crust and some portion of the mantle to
slide on the hot molten outer core. The earth’s crust therefore is not static but subjected to
motion. The earth crust consists of several gigantic rigid rock plates of about 80𝑘𝑚 in thickness
that float in slow motion on the viscous (partially plastic) mantle and are called tectonic plates.
These plates move in different directions and at different speeds relative to each other at a rate
5 𝑡𝑜 10𝑐𝑚 per year on the plastic mantle. The movement is called plate tectonics. Tectonic
plates are made of elastic but brittle rocky material.
So, elastic strain energy is stored in them during the relative deformations that occur due to the
gigantic tectonic plate actions taking place in the earth.

But, when the rocky material along the interface of the plates in the earth’s crust reaches its
strength, it fractures and a sudden movement takes place there, the interface between the plates
where the movement has taken place (called the fault) suddenly slips and releases the large
elastic strain energy stored in the rocks at the interface. This sudden slip at the fault causes the
earthquake.
A violent shaking of the earth during which large elastic strain energy released spreads out in the
form of seismic waves that travel through the body and along the surface of the earth. These
waves (seismic waves) are of two types - body waves and surface waves; the latter are restricted
to near the earth’s surface. Body waves consist of Primary waves (P-waves) and Secondary
waves (S-waves) and Surface waves consist of Love waves and Rayleigh waves.
Under P-waves, the material particle oscillate back and forth in the longitudinal direction of
propagation of the wave and cause alternate compression (push) and tension (rarefaction of
material; pull) of the medium. P-waves are similar to sound waves and obey all physical laws of
science and acoustics. Since geological materials are stiffer in volumetric compression the P-
waves are the fastest (8 𝑡𝑜 13𝑘𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐) and can pass through solids and fluids (liquid and gas).
Under S-waves, the material particles oscillate at right angles to the direction of propagation of
the wave and cause shearing deformation as they travel through a material. The direction of
particle movement can be used to divide S-waves into two components, SV (vertical plane
movement) and SH (horizontal plane movement). S-waves do not change the instantaneous
volume of the material gets distorted. The velocity of the S-waves is directly proportional to the
shear strength of the material through which they pass and it can move 5 𝑡𝑜 7𝑘𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 . S-waves
do not travel through liquids as fluids have no shearing stiffness. S-waves cause maximum
damage to structures by rocking surface in both horizontal and vertical directions.
L-waves cause surface motion similar to that caused by S-waves but with no vertical component.
L-waves are always dispersive and are often described as SH waves that are trapped in by
multiple reflections within the surficial layers.
Rayleigh waves make a material particle oscillate in an elliptical path in the vertical plane (with
horizontal motion along the direction of energy transmission). These are produced by the

interaction of P- and S- waves with the surface of the earth. The velocity of Rayleigh waves
depends on Poisson's ratio of the material through which they pass.
Rayleigh Waves
Love Waves
Figure1.34: Motions caused by body and surface waves

1.4.2. Recording Earthquakes
The vibratory motion produced during an earthquake could be measured in terms of

displacement, velocity or acceleration. A seismologist is interested in even small amplitude
ground motions (in terms of displacement) that provides insight into the wave propagation
characteristics and enables him to estimate the associated earthquake parameters.
As accelerations are the causative phenomena for forces that damage structures (Force = mass x
acceleration), engineers are more concerned with the earthquake causing structural damage,
hence are interested in acceleration measurement. The instruments measure the ground
displacements are called seismographs. The record obtained from a seismograph is called a
seismogram.
The ancient Chinese seismograph consist of a special vase that had eight sculpted dragons
mounted around the vase in eight primary directions. Each dragon held in its mouth a metal ball.
When the ground shock, some of the balls would fall from the mouths of the dragons into the
waiting mouths of the sculpted frogs to show how the ground had moved.
Figure 1.35: Ancient Chinese Seismograph

Modern Seismograph can measure the intensity and duration of seismic waves in different
directions. Records the movement of earth in relation to a stationary mass on a rotating drum or
magnetic tape. More than one type of seismograph is needed to record both vertical and
horizontal ground motion.
Horizontal component of earthquake
Vertical component of earthquake
Figure 1.36: Modern Seismograph

1.4.3. Intensity and Magnitude of Earthquakes
The intensity of an earthquake refers to the degree of destruction caused by it. In other words,
intensity of an earthquake is a measure of severity of the shaking of ground and its attendant
damage. It is empirical to some extent because the extent of destruction or damage that takes
place to a construction at a given place depends on many factors. These includes:
 Distance from the epicenter,

 Compactness of the underlying ground,
 Type of construction,
 Magnitude of the earthquake,
 Duration of the earthquake and
 Depth of the focus.
Relationships correlating earthquake intensity to peak ground velocity is given by
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 14𝑉𝑔
𝑀𝑀𝐼 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2
Where 𝑽𝒈 is the peak ground velocity in 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Relation reported by Wald et.al, (1999) based on Californian earthquake database is
𝑀𝑀𝐼 = 3.47𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑉𝑔 ) + 2.35
Empirical relationships correlating peak ground acceleration to MMI
𝑀𝑀𝐼 = 3.66𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝑔 ) − 1.66
Where 𝒂𝒈 Peak Ground Acceleration in cm/sec/sec

Measurement scale of Intensity of Earthquakes

The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the amount of energy released by the geological
rupture causing it, and is therefore a measure of the absolute size of the earthquake, without
reference to distance from the epicenter.
Similar to intensity scales, a number of approaches for measurement of magnitude of an

earthquake. Richter Magnitude ML is defined the earthquake magnitude as the logarithm to the
base 10 of the largest displacement of a standard seismograph (called Wood-Anderson
Seismograph with properties 𝑇 = 0.8𝑠𝑒𝑐, 𝑚 = 2800 and damping nearly critical ≈ 0.8) situated
100𝑘𝑚 from the focus.
𝑀 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐴
Where A denotes the amplitude in micron (10−6 𝑚) recorded by the instrument located at an
epicentral distance of 100𝑘𝑚 and M is the magnitude of the earthquake.
When the distance from the epicenter at which an observation is obtained other than100𝑘𝑚, a
correction is introduced to the equation as follows:
100
𝑀 = 𝑀∆ − 1.73𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
∆

Where 𝑴 is the magnitude of the earthquake; ∆ =distance from epicenter (km), 𝑴∆ = magnitude
of the earthquake calculated for earthquake using the values measured at a distance ∆ from the
epicenter.
Figure 1.37: A graphical form of the Richter magnitude scale procedures
1.4.4. Determination of Hypocenter or Earthquake Focus
Seismologists use the elapsed time between the arrival of a P-waves and S-waves at a given site
to assist them in estimating the distance from the site to the center of energy release. The
distance of focus from the observation station is determined by the relative arrival times of the P
and S waves.

Figure 1.38: Various distance measurements associated with earthquake
The distance from hypocenter to observation point is given by
𝑇
𝑆=
1 1
(𝑉 − 𝑉 )
𝑠 𝑝
Where 𝑇 = difference in time of arrival of P and S waves at an observation point;
𝑆 = distance from hypocenter to observation point and 𝑉𝑝 and 𝑉𝑠 are the velocity of P and S
waves respectively.
𝐸 𝐺
𝑉𝑠 = √ =√
2𝜌(1 + 𝑣) 𝜌
𝐸
Where 𝐺 = 2(1+𝑣) is the shear modulus.

𝐸 (1 − 𝑣)
𝑉𝑝 = √
𝜌 (1 + 𝑣)(1 − 2𝑣)
Where 𝐸 is the young’s modulus, 𝑣 is the Poisson’s ratio (0.25) and 𝜌 is the density
1.4.5. Basic aspects of Earthquake resistant design
The mass of the building being designed controls seismic design in addition to the building
stiffness, because earthquake induces inertia forces that are proportional to the building mass.
Designing buildings to behave elastically during earthquakes without damage (non-dissipative
structure- structure designed for a particular seismic design situation without taking into account
the non-linear material behavior) may render the project economically unviable. As a
consequence, it may be necessary for the structure to undergo damage (dissipative structure-
structure which is able to dissipate energy by means of ductile hysteretic behavior and/or by
other mechanisms) and thereby dissipate the energy input to it during the earthquake. Therefore,
the traditional earthquake-resistant design philosophy requires that normal buildings should be
able to resist:
(a) Minor (and frequent) shaking with no damage to structural and non-structural elements;
(b) Moderate shaking with minor damage to structural elements, and some damage to non-
structural elements; and
(c) Severe (and infrequent) shaking with damage to structural elements, but with no collapse
(to save life and property inside/adjoining the building).
The peak ground acceleration (PGA) i.e. maximum acceleration experienced by the ground
during shaking is one way of quantifying the severity of the ground shaking.

Figure 1.39: Earthquake-Resistant Design Philosophy for buildings: (a) Minor (Frequent)
Shaking – No/Hardly any damage, (b) Moderate Shaking – Minor structural damage, and some
non-structural damage, and (c) Severe (Infrequent) Shaking – Structural damage but no collapse
In earthquake design, there are two options namely design the building to remain elastic or to
undergo inelastic behavior. The design for only a fraction of the elastic level of seismic forces
(~8 − 14%) is possible, only if the building can stably withstand large displacement demand
through structural damage without collapse and undue loss of strength. This property is called
ductility. But, sufficient initial stiffness is required to be ensured to avoid structural damage
under minor shaking. Although Ethiopian standard for earthquake resistance code depend on in
the event of earthquakes human lives are protected, damage is limited and structures important
for civil protection remain operational. Thus, seismic design balances reduced cost and
acceptable damage to make the project viable. This careful balance is arrived based on extensive
research and detailed post-earthquake damage assessment studies.
In contrast, structural damage is not acceptable under design wind forces. For this reason, design
against earthquake effects is called as earthquake-resistant design and not earthquake-proof
design.
There are four aspects of buildings that architects and design engineers work with to create the
earthquake-resistant design of a building, namely:

i. Seismic structural configuration,
ii. Lateral stiffness refers to the initial stiffness of the building, even though stiffness of the
building reduces with increasing damage.
iii. Lateral strength refers to the maximum resistance that the building offers during its
entire history of resistance to relative deformation and
iv. Ductility refers the ratio of the maximum deformation and the idealized yield
deformation in addition to other aspects like form, aesthetics, functionality and comfort
of building.
i. Seismic structural configuration
Perhaps, the most important in the design of a building for seismic loads is to choose of the
building configuration. That is the distribution of masses and stiffness in the building and the
choice of load paths by which lateral loads will eventually reach the ground.
Seismic structural configuration entails three main aspects, namely:
(a) Geometry, shape and size of the building,
(b) Location and size of structural elements includes members considered as part of the
structural system that resists the seismic action, modelled in the analysis for the seismic design
situation and fully designed and detailed for earthquake resistance and
(c) Location and size of significant non-structural elements includes architectural, mechanical or
electrical element, system and component which, whether due to lack of strength or to the way it
is connected to the structure is not considered in the seismic design as load carrying element.
(a) Geometry, shape and size of the building
Influence of the geometry of a building on its earthquake performance is best understood from
the basic geometries of convex and concave. Structures with convex geometries are preferred to
those with concave geometries as the former demonstrate superior earthquake performance.
In the context of buildings, convex shaped buildings have direct load paths for transferring
earthquake shaking induced inertia forces to their bases for any direction of ground shaking

while concave buildings necessitate bending of load paths for shaking of the ground along
certain directions that result in stress concentrations at all points where the load paths bend.
Figure 1.40: Basic forms of seismic structural configuration: Two geometries of architectural
forms (a) convex and (b) concave
Figure 1.41: Simple plan shape buildings do well during earthquakes

In tall buildings with large height-to-base size ratio (i.e. size of the building) (see figure 1.42a),
the horizontal movement of the floors during ground shaking is large. In short but very long
buildings (see figure 1.42b), the damaging effects during earthquake shaking are many. And in
buildings with large plan area like warehouses (see figure 1.42c) the horizontal seismic forces
can be excessive to be carried by columns and walls.
Figure 1.42: Buildings with one of their overall sizes much larger or much smaller than the other
two do not perform well during earthquakes
(b) Location and size of structural elements
If the building configuration is symmetrical or quasi-symmetrical, a symmetrical layout of

structural elements, which should be well-distributed in-plan, is appropriate for the achievement
of uniformity. Uniformity in plan is characterized by an even distribution of the structural
elements which allows short and direct transmission of the inertia forces created in the
distributed masses of the building. If necessary, uniformity may be realized by subdividing the
entire building by seismic joints (construction joints) into dynamically independent units.
Uniformity in the development of the structure along the height of the building is also important,
since it tends to eliminate the occurrence of sensitive zones (weak storey) where concentrations
of stress or large ductility demands might prematurely cause collapse. The use of evenly

distributed structural elements increases redundancy and allows a more favorable redistribution
of action effects and widespread energy dissipation across the entire structure.
Many buildings with an open ground story intended for parking purposes. Because of this,
buildings that have fewer columns or walls in a particular story or with unusually tall story tend
to damage or collapse which is initiated in that story.
Figure 1.43: Weak or Flexible storey
Buildings on slope ground have unequal height columns along the slope, which causes ill effects
like twisting and damage in shorter columns.
Figure 1.44: Slope ground

Buildings with columns that hang or float on beams at an intermediate storey and do not go all
the way to the foundation, have discontinuities in the load transfer path.
Figure 1.45: Floating column
In other ways, twist in buildings called torsion by engineers makes different portions at the same
floor level to move horizontally by different amounts. Thus, buildings with twist will perform
poorly during strong earthquake shaking. Seismic torsional response may lead to amplification of
displacement responses and possibly damage at the perimeter elements of lateral force resisting
system of a torsionally non-symmetric building system. This induces more damage in the frames
and walls on the side that moves more.
Figure 1.46: Vertical members of buildings that move more horizontally sustain more damage
Therefore, it should not be forgotten that careful selection of location of vertical lateral force
resisting system to coincide with center of mass, significantly decreases torsional effects. If this

twist cannot be avoided, special calculations need to be done to account for this additional shear
forces in the design of buildings as per the code.
The irregularities in building configuration system are classified into two types.
Vertical Irregularities- sudden change in strength, stiffness, geometry and mass results in
irregular distribution of forces over the height.
Horizontal Irregularities– refers to asymmetric plan shape or discontinuous in the horizontal

resisting elements such as openings and re-entrant corner and other changes resulting in torsion.
Guidelines to planning and detailing of earthquake resistive structural systems
1) In plan, simple forms are best for earthquake resistance. Buildings with asymmetrical
shapes, with wings or with complicated plans often perform poorly in earthquake.
2) Structures must be uniform and continuous in elevation. Sharp changes in vertical
configuration should be avoided.
Building and its structure should be simple, symmetric and regular in plan and elevation.
Horizontal Layout of Buildings (Plan)
Seismic behavior of irregular shaped plans differs from regular shapes because the first can be
subjected to their asymmetry and/or can present local deformations due to the presence of re-
entrant corners or excessive openings. Both effects give origin to undesired stress
concentrations in some resisting members of the building. On the contrary, the ideal rectangular
or square plane, structurally symmetric, with enough in-plane stiffness in its diaphragm, presents
an ideal behavior. Building shaped like a box, such as rectangular, both in plan and elevation, is
inherently stronger than one that is L-shaped or U-shaped that is a building with wings.
Figure 1.47: Horizontal layout of buildings

Horizontal (plan) irregularities include:
 Torsional irregularity  Out-of-plane offsets

 Re-entrant corners  Non-parallel lateral force-resisting
 Diaphragm discontinuity systems
Torsional irregularity
Irregularity occurs when the center of stiffness and center of mass of a structure do not concide.
In building structures, earthquake forces are assumed to act at the center of mass of the floor
while lateral force resistance acts at the center of rigidity (stiffness) of the floor as determined by
the layout of the rigid elements designed to resist lateral forces.
In seismic response studies it is commonly assumed that all points of at building foundation are
excited simultaneously. Therefore, if the centers of mass coincide with centers of rigidity of the
floor diaphragms, a horizontal component of ground motion will induce translational motion
without rotation. However, if the centers of mass and center of rigidity do not coincide, a
horizontal component of earthquake ground motion will generally induce both translational and
rotational response about a vertical axis.

Figure 1.48: (a) Eccentric structure system (b) Regular structure system
To account for potential amplification in seismic response due to torsion, eccentricities of

seismic forces are usually prescribed by building codes using static eccentricity. Based on this,
ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.3.2 specified that in addition to the actual eccentricity, in order to
cover uncertainties in the location of masses and in the spatial variation of the seismic motion,
the calculated center of mass at each floor 𝑖 shall be considered displaced from its nominal
location in each direction by an additional accidental eccentricity:
𝒆𝒂𝒊 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝑳𝒊
Where 𝒆𝒂𝒊 Accidental eccentricity of story mass i from its nominal location, applied in the same
direction at all floors and 𝑳𝒊 floor dimension perpendicular to the direction of the seismic action.
Re-entrant corners
If in plan set-backs (re-entrant corners or edge recesses) exist, regularity in plan may still be
considered as being satisfied, provided that these setbacks do not affect the floor in-plan stiffness
and that, for each set-back, the area between the outline of the floor and a convex polygonal line
enveloping the floor does not exceed 5% of the floor area (refer ES EN 1998:2015 section
4.2.3.2).

Figure 1.49: Building with re-entrant corners
If the above specification is not satisfied, the best solution is separation of the plan by using
construction joints.
Figure 1.50: Desirable plan geometry of buildings
Diaphragm discontinuity
In buildings, floors (including the roof) play a very important role in the overall seismic behavior
of the structure. They act as horizontal diaphragms that collect and transmit the inertia forces to

the vertical structural systems and ensure that those systems act together in resisting the
horizontal seismic action. The action of floors as diaphragms is especially relevant in cases of
complex and non-uniform layouts of the vertical structural systems, or where systems with
different horizontal deformability characteristics are used together (e.g. in dual or mixed
systems).
Floor systems and the roof should be provided with in-plane stiffness and resistance and with
effective connection to the vertical structural systems. Particular care should be taken in cases of
non-compact or very elongated in-plan shapes and in cases of large floor openings, especially if
the latter are located in the vicinity of the main vertical structural elements, thus hindering such
effective connection between the vertical and horizontal structure.
Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness including those having cutout or
open areas greater than 50% of the gross enclosed diaphragm area or changes in effective
diaphragm stiffness of more than 50% from one story to the next.
Figure 1.51: Diaphragm discontinuity
Out-of-plane offsets
Discontinuities in a lateral force resistance path, such as out-of-plane offsets of the vertical
elements.

Figure 1.52: Out-of-plane offsets
Non-parallel lateral force-resisting systems
The vertical lateral force-resisting elements are not parallel to or symmetric about the major
orthogonal axes of the lateral force resisting system.
Figure 1.53: Non-parallel lateral force-resisting systems
Criteria for regularity in plan (ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.2.3.2)
For a building to be categorized as being regular in plan, it shall satisfy all the conditions listed
in the following.

 With respect to the lateral stiffness and mass distribution, the building structure shall be
approximately symmetrical in plan with respect to two orthogonal axes.
 The plan configuration shall be compact, i.e., each floor shall be delimited by a polygonal
convex line. If in plan set-backs (re-entrant corners or edge recesses) exist, regularity in
plan may still be considered as being satisfied, provided that these setbacks do not affect
the floor in-plan stiffness and that for each set-back, the area between the outline of the
floor and a convex polygonal line enveloping the floor does not exceed 5% of the floor
area.
 The in-plan stiffness of the floors shall be sufficiently large in comparison with the lateral
stiffness of the vertical structural elements, so that the deformation of the floor shall have
a small effect on the distribution of the forces among the vertical structural elements. In
this respect, the L, C, H, I and X plan shapes should be carefully examined, notably as
concerns the stiffness of the lateral branches which should be comparable to that of the
central part, in order to satisfy the rigid diaphragm condition.
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
 The slenderness 𝜆 = ⁄𝐿 of the building in plan shall be not higher than 4 where
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 are respectively the larger and smaller in plan dimension of the building
measured in orthogonal directions.
Vertical Layout of Buildings (Elevation)
The earthquake forces developed at different floor levels in a building need to be brought down
along the height to the ground by the shortest path; any deviation or discontinuity in this load
transfer path results in poor performance of the building.
Buildings with vertical setbacks (like the hotel buildings with a few story wider than the rest)
cause a sudden jump in earthquake forces at the level of discontinuity.

Figure 1.53: Vertical layout of buildings
Criteria for regularity in elevation (ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.2.3.3)
For a building to be categorized as being regular in elevation, it shall satisfy all the conditions
listed in the following.
 All lateral load resisting systems such as cores, structural walls or frames shall run
without interruption from their foundations to the top of the building or if setbacks at
different heights are present, to the top of the relevant zone of the building.
 Both the lateral stiffness and the mass of the individual storeys shall remain constant or
reduce gradually, without abrupt changes, from the base to the top of a particular
building.
 In framed buildings, the ratio of the actual storey resistance to the resistance required by
the analysis should not vary disproportionately between adjacent storeys.

When setbacks are present, the following additional conditions apply:
 For gradual setbacks preserving axial symmetry, the setback at any floor shall be not
greater than 20% of the previous plan dimension in the direction of the setback (see
Figure 1.54a and Figure 1.54b);
 For a single setback within the lower 15% of the total height of the main structural
system, the setback shall be not greater than 50% of the previous plan dimension (see
Figure 1.54c). In this case the structure of the base zone within the vertically projected
perimeter of the upper storeys should be designed to resist at least 75% of the horizontal
shear forces that would develop in that zone in a similar building without the base
enlargement;
 If the setbacks do not preserve symmetry, in each face the sum of the setbacks at all
storeys shall be not greater than 30% of the plan dimension at the ground floor above the
foundation or above the top of a rigid basement, and the individual setbacks shall be not
greater than 10% of the previous plan dimension (see Figure 1.54d).
Figure 1.54: Criteria for regularity of buildings with setbacks

1.5. Base shear force determination (Equivalent static analysis approach)
1.5.1. Ground conditions and seismic action (ES EN 1998:2015 section 3)
Appropriate investigations shall be carried out in order to identify the ground conditions in
accordance with the types. The construction site and the nature of the supporting ground should
normally be free from risks of ground rupture, slope instability and permanent settlements caused
by liquefaction or densification in the event of an earthquake.
Ground investigations and/or geological studies should be performed to determine the seismic
action depending on the importance class of the structure and the particular conditions of the
project.
Identification of ground types (ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.1.2)
Ground types A, B, C, D and E described by the stratigraphic profiles and parameters given in
Table 3.1 and described hereafter may be used to account for the influence of local ground
conditions on the seismic action.
Table 3.1: Ground types

The site should be classified according to the value of the average shear wave velocity 𝑉𝑠 , 30 if
this is available. Otherwise the value of 𝑁𝑆𝑃𝑇 (number of blows in the standard penetration test)
should be used.
30
𝑉𝑠 , 30 =
ℎ𝑖
∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑣𝑖
Where ℎ𝑖 and 𝑣𝑖 denote the thickness (in meters) and shear-wave velocity (at a shear strain level
of 10−5 or less) of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ formation or layer in a total of 𝑁 existing in the top 30𝑚.
Seismic zones (ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.1and Annex D)
For the purpose of ES EN 1998, national territories shall be subdivided into seismic zones
depending on the local hazard. By definition, the hazard within each zone is assumed to be
constant. For most of the applications of ES EN 1998, the hazard is described in terms of a single
parameter, i.e. the value of 𝑎𝑔𝑅 the effective peak ground acceleration (PGA) in rock of firm soil
(on type A ground), henceforth called “design ground acceleration”.
The reference peak ground acceleration chosen for each seismic zone, corresponds to the
reference return period TNCR of the seismic action for the no-collapse requirement (or
equivalently the reference probability of exceedance in 50 years, PNCR). An importance factor
𝛾𝐼 equal to 1.0 is assigned to this reference return period. The design ground acceleration on type
A ground 𝑎𝑔 is equal to 𝑎𝑔𝑅 times the importance factor 𝛾𝐼 (𝑎𝑔 = 𝛾𝐼 ∗ 𝑎𝑔𝑅 ).
The design ground displacement 𝑑𝑔 corresponding to the design ground acceleration, may be
estimated by means of the following expression:
𝑑𝑔 = 0.025 ∗ 𝑎𝑔 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ 𝑇𝐶 ∗ 𝑇𝐷
With 𝑎𝑔 , 𝑆, 𝑇𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝐷 are as defined in ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.2.2.
Importance classes and importance factors 𝛾𝐼 (ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.2.5)
Buildings are classified in 4 importance classes depending on the consequences of collapse for
human life, on their importance for public safety and civil protection in the immediate post-

earthquake period and on the social and economic consequences of collapse. The importance
classes are characterized by different importance factors 𝛾𝐼.
Table 4.3 Importance classes for buildings
Importance Buildings description Importance

class factors 𝛾𝐼
I Buildings of minor importance for public safety, e.g. 0.8
agricultural buildings, etc.
II Ordinary buildings, not belonging in the other categories. 1.0
III Buildings whose seismic resistance is of importance in 1.2
view of the consequences associated with a collapse, e.g.
schools, assembly halls, cultural institutions etc.
IV Buildings whose integrity during earthquakes is of vital 1.4
importance for civil protection, e.g. hospitals, fire stations,
power plants, etc.
For the purpose of this standard, the country has been subdivided in accordance with Figure D1,
D2 and Table D2 into seismic zones depending on the local hazard. The design ground
acceleration chosen in Figure D1, D2 and Table D2 for seismic zone corresponds to a reference
return period of 475 years (10% probability of exceedance in 50 years). To this reference return
period, an importance factor 𝛾𝐼 equal to 1.0 be assigned. The seismic hazard map is divided into
5 zones where the ratio of the design bedrock acceleration to the acceleration of gravity g = 𝛼0
for the respective zones is indicated in Table D1.
Table D1: Bedrock acceleration ratio 𝛼0

Figure D2: Ethiopia’s Seismic hazard map in terms of peak ground acceleration



Basic representation of the seismic action (ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.2)
Within the scope of ES EN 1998, the earthquake motion at a given point on the surface is
represented by an elastic ground acceleration response spectrum, henceforth called an “elastic
response spectrum”. The shape of the elastic response spectrum is taken as being the same for
the two levels of seismic action for the no-collapse requirement (ultimate limit state – design
seismic action) and for the damage limitation requirement.
The horizontal seismic action is described by two orthogonal components assumed as being
independent and represented by the same response spectrum. For the three components of the
seismic action, one or more alternative shapes of response spectra may be adopted, depending on
the seismic sources and the earthquake magnitudes generated from them.
The selection of the shape of the elastic response spectrum to be used is found in the National
Annex. In selecting the appropriate shape of the spectrum, consideration should be given to the
magnitude of earthquakes that contribute most to the seismic hazard defined for the purpose of
probabilistic hazard assessment, rather than on conservative upper limits (e.g. the maximum
credible earthquake) defined for that purpose.
When the earthquakes affecting a site are generated by widely differing sources, the possibility
of using more than one shape of spectra should be considered to enable the design seismic action
to be adequately represented. In such circumstances, different values of 𝑎𝑔 will normally be
required for each type of spectrum and earthquake.
Horizontal elastic response spectrum 𝑺𝒆 (𝑻) (ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.2.2)
For the horizontal components of the seismic action, the elastic response spectrum 𝑆𝑒 (𝑇) is
defined by the following expressions:
𝑇
0 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐵 : 𝑆𝑒 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑔 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ [1 + 𝑇 ∗ (2.5𝜂 − 1)]
𝐵
𝑇𝐵 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐶 : 𝑆𝑒 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑔 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ 2.5𝜂
𝑇
𝑇𝐶 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐷 : 𝑆𝑒 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑔 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ 2.5𝜂 [ 𝑇𝐶 ]
𝑇𝐶 ∗𝑇𝐷
𝑇𝐷 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 4𝑠𝑒𝑐: 𝑆𝑒 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑔 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ 2.5𝜂 [ ]
𝑇2

Where 𝑆𝑒 (𝑇) is the elastic response spectrum;
𝑇 is the vibration period of a linear single-degree-of-freedom system;
𝑎𝑔 is the design ground acceleration on type A ground (𝑎𝑔 = 𝛾𝐼 ∗ 𝑎𝑔𝑅 );
𝑇𝐵 is the lower limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch;
𝑇𝐶 is the upper limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch;
𝑇𝐷 is the value defining the beginning of the constant displacement response range of the
spectrum;
𝑆 is the soil factor;
𝜂 is the damping correction factor with a reference value of 𝜂 = 1 for 5% viscous damping
Figure 1.55: Shape of the elastic response spectrum

The values of the period 𝑇𝐵 , 𝑇𝐶 and 𝑇𝐷 and of the soil factor 𝑆 describing the shape of the elastic
response spectrum depend upon the ground type.
The values to be ascribed to 𝑇𝐵 , 𝑇𝐶 , 𝑇𝐷 and 𝑆 for each ground type and type (shape) of spectrum
to be used is found in the National Annex. If deep geology is not accounted for the ground types,
the recommended choice is the use of two types of spectra: Type 1 and Type 2. If the
earthquakes that contribute most to the seismic hazard defined for the site for the purpose of
probabilistic hazard assessment have a surface-wave magnitude 𝑀𝑠 not greater than 5.5, it is
recommended that the Type 2 spectrum is adopted.
For the five ground types A, B, C, D and E the recommended values of the parameters 𝑇𝐵 , 𝑇𝐶 , 𝑇𝐷
and 𝑆 are given in Table 3.2 for the Type 1 Spectrum and in Table 3.3 for the Type 2 Spectrum.
Figure 1.56 and Figure 1.57 show the shapes of the recommended Type 1 and Type 2 spectra,
respectively, normalized by 𝑎𝑔 for 5% damping.
For ground types 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 , special studies should provide the corresponding values of 𝑇𝐵 , 𝑇𝐶 , 𝑇𝐷
and 𝑆.
Table 3.2: Values of the parameters describing the recommended Type 1 elastic response spectra

Table 3.3: Values of the parameters describing the recommended Type 2 elastic response spectra
Figure 1.56: Recommended Type 1 elastic response spectra for ground types A to E (5%
damping)

Figure 1.57: Recommended Type 2 elastic response spectra for ground types A to E (5%
damping)
Vertical elastic response spectrum 𝑺𝑽𝒆 (𝑻) (ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.2.3)
The vertical component of the seismic action shall be represented by an elastic response
spectrum 𝑺𝑽𝒆 (𝑻) derived using expressions:
𝑇
0 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐵 : 𝑆𝑉𝑒 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑉𝑔 ∗ [1 + 𝑇 ∗ (3.0𝜂 − 1)]
𝐵
𝑇𝐵 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐶 : 𝑆𝑒 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑉𝑔 ∗ 3.0𝜂
𝑇
𝑇𝐶 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐷 : 𝑆𝑒 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑉𝑔 ∗ 3.0𝜂 [ 𝑇𝐶]
𝑇𝐶 ∗𝑇𝐷
𝑇𝐷 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 4𝑠𝑒𝑐: 𝑆𝑒 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑉𝑔 ∗ 3.0𝜂 [ ]
𝑇2
The values to be ascribed to 𝑇𝐵 , 𝑇𝐶 , 𝑇𝐷 and 𝑎𝑉𝑔 for each type (shape) of vertical spectrum to be
used is found in the National Annex. The recommended choice is the use of two types of vertical
spectra: Type 1 and Type 2. As for the spectra defining the horizontal components of the seismic

action, if the earthquakes that contribute most to the seismic hazard defined for the site for the
purpose of probabilistic hazard assessment have a surface-wave magnitude, 𝑀𝑠 not greater than
5.5, it is recommended that the Type 2 spectrum is adopted. For the five ground types A, B, C, D
and E the recommended values of the parameters describing the vertical spectra are given in
Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Recommended values of parameters describing the vertical elastic response spectra
1.5.2. Method of analysis (ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.3.3)
The seismic effects and the effects of the other actions included in the seismic design situation
may be determined on the basis of the linear-elastic behavior of the structure. Depending on the
structural characteristics of the building one of the following two types of linear-elastic analysis
may be used:
a) The lateral force method of analysis for buildings meeting the criteria for
regularity in elevation
b) The modal response spectrum analysis which is applicable to all types of
building.
As an alternative to a linear method (a) and (b) a non-linear method may also be used such as:
c) Non-linear static (pushover) analysis is a non-linear static analysis carried out

under conditions of constant gravity loads and monotonically increasing
horizontal loads.
d) Non-linear time history (dynamic) analysis- the time-dependent response of the
structure may be obtained through direct numerical integration of its differential
equations of motion, using the accelerograms to represent the ground motions.

With regard to the implications of structural regularity on analysis and design, separate
consideration is given to the regularity characteristics of the building in plan and in elevation (ES
EN 1998:2015 Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Consequences of structural regularity on seismic analysis and design
a
If the condition of lateral force analysis is also met (see ES EN1998:2015 4.3.3.2.1(2) ).
b
A separate planar model may be used in each horizontal direction (see ES EN1998:2015
4.3.3.1(8) ).
Linear-elastic analysis may be performed using two planar models one for each main horizontal
direction, if the criteria for regularity in plan are satisfied (see ES EN 1998:2015 section
4.2.3.2).
Depending on the importance class of the building, linear-elastic analysis may be performed
using two planar models, one for each main horizontal direction, even if the criteria for regularity
in plan ES EN 1998:2015 in section 4.2.3.2 are not satisfied provided that all of the following
special regularity conditions are met:
i. The building shall have well-distributed and relatively rigid cladding and partitions;
ii. The building height shall not exceed 10𝑚;
iii. The in-plane stiffness of the floors shall be large enough in comparison with the lateral
stiffness of the vertical structural elements, so that a rigid diaphragm behaviour may be
assumed.
iv. The centres of lateral stiffness and mass shall be each approximately on a vertical line
and in the two horizontal directions of analysis, satisfy the conditions: 𝑟𝑥2 > 𝑙𝑠2 +

2 2
𝑒0𝑥 ; 𝑟𝑦2 > 𝑙𝑠2 + 𝑒0𝑥𝑦 where the radius of gyration 𝑙𝑠 , the torsional radii 𝑟𝑥 and 𝑟𝑦 and the
natural eccentricities 𝑒0𝑥 and 𝑒0𝑦 are defined as ES EN 1998:2015 in section 4.2.3.2(6).
In buildings satisfying all the conditions of this sub-clause with the exception of 𝑖𝑣), linear-
elastic analysis using two planar models, one for each main horizontal direction may also be
performed but in such cases all seismic action effects resulting from the analysis should be
multiplied by 1.25.
Buildings not conforming to the criteria of linear-elastic analysis, it shall be analyzed using a
spatial (3D) model. Whenever a spatial model is used, the design seismic action shall be applied
along all relevant horizontal directions (with regard to the structural layout of the building) and
their orthogonal horizontal directions. For buildings with resisting elements in two perpendicular
directions these two directions shall be considered as the relevant directions.
Non-linear analyses should be properly substantiated with respect to the seismic input, then
constitutive model used, the method of interpreting the results of the analysis and the
requirements to be met.
Earthquakes often induce non-linear response in structures. However, the most practical seismic
design continues to be based on linear analysis. The effect of non-linearity is generally to reduce
the seismic demands on the structure and this is normally accounted for by a simple modification
to the linear analysis procedure.
a) Lateral force method of analysis/ Equivalent static analysis (ES EN 1998:2015 section
4.3.3.2)
This type of analysis may be applied to buildings whose response is not significantly affected by
contributions from modes of vibration higher than the fundamental mode in each principal
direction. They have fundamental periods of vibration 𝑇1 in the two main directions which are
smaller than the following values:
4𝑇
𝑇1 ≤ { 𝐶
2.0𝑆
Where 𝑇𝐶 and 𝑆 is given in Table 3.2 or Table 3.3

Base shear force 𝑭𝒃 (ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.3.3.2.2)
The seismic base shear force 𝑭𝒃 for each horizontal direction in which the building is analyzed
shall be determined using the following expression:
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇1 ) ∗ 𝑚 ∗ 𝜆
Where 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇1 ) is the ordinate of the design spectrum (see ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.2.5) at
period 𝑇1 ;
𝑇1 is the fundamental period of vibration of the building for lateral motion in the direction
considered;
𝑚 is the total mass of the building above the foundation or above the top of a rigid basement
computed in accordance with ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.4 (2);
𝜆 is the correction factor, the value of which is equal to: 𝜆 = 0.85 if 𝑇1 < 2𝑇𝐶 and the building
has more than two storeys or 𝜆 = 1.0 otherwise.
Note: The factor 𝜆 accounts for the fact that in buildings with at least three storeys and
translational degrees of freedom in each horizontal direction, the effective modal mass of the 1st
(fundamental) mode is smaller, on average by 15% than the total building mass.
For the determination of the fundamental period of vibration 𝑇1 of the building, expressions
based on methods of structural dynamics (for example the Rayleigh method) may be used. For
buildings with heights of up to 40𝑚 the value of 𝑇1 (in sec) may be approximated by the
following expression:
3⁄
𝑇1 = 𝐶𝑡 ∗ 𝐻 4
Where 𝐶𝑡 is 0.085 for moment resistant space steel frames, 0.075 for moment resistant space
concrete frames and for eccentrically braced steel frames and 0.050 for all other structures;
𝐻 is the height of the building, in 𝑚 from the foundation or from the top of a rigid basement.
Alternatively, the value 𝑪𝒕 for structures with concrete or masonry shear walls may be taken as:
0.075
𝐶𝑡 =
√𝐴𝑐

𝒍𝒘𝒊⁄ 𝟐
With 𝑨𝒄 = ∑ [𝑨𝒊 (𝟎. 𝟐 + ( 𝑯) )]
Where
𝑨𝒄 combined effective area of the shear walls in the first story of the building in 𝑚2 ,
𝑨𝒊 cross-sectional area of the shear wall 𝒊 in the first story of the building 𝑚2 ,
𝒍𝒘𝒊 length of the shear wall 𝒊 in the first story in the direction parallel to the applied forces in
𝒍𝒘𝒊⁄
meter with the restriction that 𝑯 shall not exceed 0.9.
Alternatively, the estimation of 𝑻𝟏 (in sec) can be made by the following expression:
𝑻𝟏 = 𝟐√𝒅
Where 𝑻𝟏 fundamental period of building in seconds,
𝒅 lateral displacement of the top of the building in meter due to the gravity loads applied
horizontally.
Design spectrum for elastic analysis 𝑺𝒅 (𝑻𝟏 ) (ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.2.5)
The capacity of structural systems to resist seismic actions in the non-linear range generally
permits their design for resistance to seismic forces smaller than those corresponding to a linear
elastic response.
To avoid explicit nonlinear structural analysis in design, the energy dissipation capacity of the
structure, through mainly ductile behavior of its elements and/or other mechanisms is taken into
account by performing a linear analysis based on the building's fundamental period and a
response spectrum, reduced with respect to the elastic one henceforth called "design spectrum".
This reduction is accomplished by introducing the behavior factor 𝑞.
Behavior factor 𝑞 used for design purposes to reduce the forces obtained from a linear analysis in
order to account for the non-linear response of a structure. The behavior factor 𝑞 is an
approximation of the ratio of the seismic forces that the structure would experience if its
response was completely elastic with 5% viscous damping to the seismic forces that may be used
in the design, with a conventional elastic analysis model, still ensuring a satisfactory response of

the structure. The values of the behavior factor 𝑞 which also account for the influence of the
viscous damping being different from 5% are given for various materials and structural systems
according to the relevant ductility classes (see ES EN 1998:2015 section 5.2.2.2). The value of
the behavior factor 𝑞 may be different in different horizontal directions of the structure, although
the ductility classification shall be the same in all directions.
For the horizontal components of the seismic action, the design spectrum 𝑺𝒅 (𝑻), shall be
defined by the following expressions:
2 𝑇 2.5 2
0 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐵 : 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑔 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ [ + ∗( − )]
3 𝑇𝐵 𝑞 3
2.5
𝑇𝐵 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐶 : 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇) = 𝑎𝑔 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ 𝜂 ∗ 𝑞
2.5 𝑇
𝑎𝑔 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ 𝑞 [ 𝑇𝐶 ]
𝑇𝐶 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝐷 : 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇) = {
≥ 𝛽 ∗ 𝑎𝑔
2.5 𝑇𝐶 ∗𝑇𝐷
𝑎𝑔 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ [ 𝑇2 ]
𝑇𝐷 ≤ 𝑇: 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇) = { 𝑞
≥ 𝛽 ∗ 𝑎𝑔
Where 𝑎𝑔 , 𝑆, 𝑇𝐵 , 𝑇𝐶 and 𝑇𝐷 are as defined in ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.2.2;
𝑆𝑑 (𝑇) is the design spectrum;
𝑞 is the behavior factor;
𝜂 is the damping correction factor
𝛽 is the lower bound factor for the horizontal design spectrum.
Note: The value to be ascribed to β for use is found in the National Annex. The recommended
value for 𝛽 is 0.2.
The value of the damping correction factor 𝜂 may be determined by the expression:
10
𝜂 = √(5+𝜉) Where 𝜉 is the viscous damping ratio of the structure, expressed as a percentage.

For the vertical component of the seismic action, the design spectrum is given by expressions
with the design ground acceleration in the vertical direction 𝑎𝑣𝑔 replacing 𝑎𝑔 , 𝑆 taken as being
equal to 1.0 and the other parameters as defined in ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.2.3.
Behavior factors for horizontal seismic actions 𝒒 (ES EN 1998:2015 section 5.2.2.2)
Concrete buildings shall be classified into one of the following structural types according to their
behavior under horizontal seismic actions:
a) Frame system;
b) Dual system (frame or wall equivalent);
c) Ductile wall system (coupled or uncoupled);
d) System of large lightly reinforced walls;
e) Inverted pendulum system;
f) Torsionally flexible system.
The upper limit value of the behavior factor 𝑞 to account for energy dissipation capacity
(ductility classes) shall be derived for each design direction as follows:
𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑘𝑤 ≥ 1.5
Where 𝑞0 is the basic value of the behavior factor, dependent on the type of the structural system
and on its regularity in elevation;
𝑘𝑤 is the factor reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems with walls.
For buildings that are regular in elevation in accordance with ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.2.3.3,
the basic values of 𝑞0 for the various structural types are given in Table 5.1.
Energy dissipation capacity and ductility classes (ES EN 1998:2015 section 5.2.1)
The design of earthquake resistant concrete buildings shall provide the structure with an
adequate capacity to dissipate energy without substantial reduction of its overall resistance
against horizontal and vertical loading. In the seismic design situation adequate resistance of all
structural elements shall be provided, and non-linear deformation demands in critical regions
should be commensurate with the overall ductility assumed in calculations.

Earthquake resistant concrete buildings shall be designed to provide energy dissipation capacity
and an overall ductile behavior. Overall ductile behavior is ensured if the ductility demand
involves globally a large volume of the structure spread to different elements and locations of all
its storeys. To this end, ductile modes of failure (e.g. flexure) should precede brittle failure
modes (e.g. shear) with sufficient reliability.
Concrete buildings designed with ductility demands are classified in two ductility classes DCM
(medium ductility) and DCH (high ductility), depending on their hysteretic dissipation capacity.
Both classes correspond to buildings designed, dimensioned and detailed in accordance with
specific earthquake resistant provisions, enabling the structure to develop stable mechanisms
associated with large dissipation of hysteretic energy under repeated reversed loading, without
suffering brittle failures.
To provide the appropriate amount of ductility in ductility classes M and H, specific provisions
for all structural elements (beams, columns and ductile walls) shall be satisfied in each class (see
ES EN 1998:2015 section 5.4-5.6). In correspondence with the different available ductility in the
two ductility classes, different values of the behavior factor q are used for each class (see ES EN
1998:2015 section 5.2.2.2).
Concrete buildings may alternatively be designed for low dissipation capacity and low ductility,
by applying only the rules of ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 for the seismic design situation, and
neglecting the specific provisions given in this section, provided that in primary seismic elements
(see ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.2.2), reinforcing steel of class B or C shall be used.
Table 5.1: Basic Value of the behavior factor, 𝒒𝟎 for systems regular in elevation
For buildings which are not regular in elevation, the value 𝒒𝟎 should be reduced by 20%.

Where 𝛼1 is the value by which the horizontal seismic design action is multiplied in order to first
reach the flexural resistance in any member in the structure while all other design actions remain
constant;
𝛼𝑢 is the value by which the horizontal seismic design action is multiplied, in order to form
plastic hinges in a number of sections sufficient for the development of overall structural
instability while all other design actions remain constant. The factor 𝛼𝑢 may be obtained from a
nonlinear static (pushover) global analysis.
When the multiplication factor 𝛼𝑢 ⁄𝛼1 has not been evaluated through an explicit calculation, for
buildings which are regular in plan the following approximate values of 𝛼𝑢 ⁄𝛼1 may be used.
a) Frames or frame-equivalent dual systems
− One-storey buildings: 𝛼𝑢 ⁄𝛼1 = 1.1;
− Multi-storey, one-bay frames: 𝛼𝑢 ⁄𝛼1 = 1.2;
− Multi-storey, multi-bay frames or frame-equivalent dual structures:𝛼𝑢 ⁄𝛼1 = 1.3.
b) Wall or wall-equivalent dual systems.
− Wall systems with only two uncoupled walls per horizontal direction: 𝛼𝑢 ⁄𝛼1 = 1.0;
− Other uncoupled wall systems: 𝛼𝑢 ⁄𝛼1 = 1.1;
− Wall-equivalent dual or coupled wall systems: 𝛼𝑢 ⁄𝛼1 = 1.2.
For buildings which are not regular in plan, the approximate value of 𝛼𝑢 ⁄𝛼1 that may be used
when calculations are not performed for its evaluation are equal to the average of (a) 1.0 and of
(b) the value is used.
The factor 𝑘𝑤 reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems with walls shall be
taken as follows:
1.00, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 − 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑠

(1 ) ⁄
𝑘𝑤 = { + 𝛼0 3 ≤ 1, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 0.5, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 − 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 }
𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑠
Where 𝛼0 is the prevailing aspect ratio of the walls of the structural system.

𝐻𝑤
If the aspect ratios ⁄𝑙 of all walls 𝑖 of a structural system do not significantly differ, the
𝑤
prevailing aspect ratio 𝜶𝟎 may be determined as follows:
∑ 𝑯𝒘𝒊
𝜶𝟎 =
∑ 𝒍𝒘𝒊
Where 𝑯𝒘𝒊 height of wall 𝒊,
𝒍𝒘𝒊 length of the section of wall 𝒊.
For the vertical component of the seismic action, a behavior factor 𝒒 equal to 1.0 up to 1.5
should in general be adopted for all materials and structural systems. The adoption of values for
𝑞 greater than 1.5 in the vertical direction should be justified through an appropriate analysis.
The design spectrum as defined above is not sufficient for the design of structures with base
isolation or energy-dissipation systems.
Total mass of buildings (𝑚)
Combinations of the seismic action with other actions (ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.4)
The design earthquake value 𝐸𝑑 of the effects of actions in the seismic design situation shall be
determined in accordance with ES EN1990:2015 section 6.4.3.4. The inertial effects of the
design seismic action shall be evaluated by taking into account the presence of the masses
associated with all gravity loads appearing in the following combination of actions:
𝑚 = ∑ 𝐺𝑘,𝑗 + ∑ 𝜓𝐸,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖
Where 𝜓𝐸,𝑖 is the combination coefficient for variable action 𝑖 (see ES EN 1998:2015 section
4.2.4)
The combination coefficients 𝜓𝐸,𝑖 take into account the likelihood of the loads 𝑄𝑘,𝑖 not being
present over the entire structure during the earthquake. These coefficients may also account for a
reduced participation of masses in the motion of the structure due to the non-rigid connection
between them. Values of 𝜓2,𝑖 are given in ES EN 1990:2015 and values of 𝜓𝐸,𝑖 for buildings or
other types of structures are given in the relevant parts of ES EN 1998.

Combination coefficients for variable actions (ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.2.4)
The combination coefficients 𝜓2,𝑖 (for the quasi-permanent value of variable action 𝑞𝑖 ) for the
design of buildings (see 3.2.4) shall be those given in ES EN 1900:2015 Annex A1.
The combination coefficients 𝜓𝐸,𝑖 for the calculation of the effects of the seismic actions shall be
computed from the following expression:
𝜓𝐸,𝑖 = 𝜑 ∗ 𝜓2,𝑖
Table 4.2: Values of 𝜑 for calculating 𝜓2,𝑖
Table A1.1 - Recommended values of 𝜓2,𝑖 factors for buildings (Source: Adopted from ES EN
1992-1-1:2015)

Distribution of the horizontal seismic forces (ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.3.3.2.3)
The fundamental mode shapes in the horizontal directions of analysis of the building may be
calculated using methods of structural dynamics or may be approximated by horizontal
displacements increasing linearly along the height of the building. The seismic action effects
shall be determined by applying to the two planar models, horizontal forces 𝐹𝑖 to all storeys.
𝑆𝑖 ∗ 𝑚𝑖
𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹𝑏 ∗
∑ 𝑆𝑗 ∗ 𝑚𝑗
Where 𝐹𝑖 is the horizontal force acting on storey 𝑖;
𝐹𝑏 is the seismic base shear;
𝑆𝑖 , 𝑆𝑗 are the displacements of masses 𝑚𝑖 , 𝑚𝑗 in the fundamental mode shape;
𝑚𝑖 , 𝑚𝑗 are the storey masses computed in accordance with ES EN 1998:2015 section 3.2.4(2).
When the fundamental mode shape is approximated by horizontal displacements increasing

linearly along the height, the horizontal forces 𝐹𝑖 should be taken as being given by:
𝑍𝑖 ∗ 𝑚𝑖
𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹𝑏 ∗
∑ 𝑍𝑗 ∗ 𝑚𝑗
𝑍𝑖 , 𝑍𝑗 are the heights of the masses 𝑚𝑖 , 𝑚𝑗 above the level of application of the seismic action
(foundation or top of a rigid basement).
The horizontal forces 𝐹𝑖 determined in accordance with this clause shall be distributed to the
lateral load resisting system (the main concern of chapter two of this course) assuming the floors
are rigid in their plane.
Base shear force 𝑭𝒂 for non-structural elements (ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.3.5)
Non-structural elements (appendages) of buildings (e.g. parapets, gables, antennae, mechanical

appendages and equipment, curtain walls, partitions, railings) that might in case of failure cause
risks to persons or affect the main structure of the building or services of critical facilities shall
together with their supports be verified to resist the design seismic action. For non-structural
elements of great importance or of a particularly dangerous nature, the seismic analysis shall be

based on a realistic model of the relevant structures and on the use of appropriate response
spectra derived from the response of the supporting structural elements of the main seismic
resisting system.
The effects of the seismic action may be determined by applying to the non-structural element a
horizontal force 𝑭𝒂 which is defined as follows:
(𝑆𝑎 ∗ 𝑊𝑎 ∗ 𝛾𝑎 )
𝐹𝑎 =
𝑞𝑎
Where 𝐹𝑎 is the horizontal seismic force acting at the center of mass of the non-structural
element in the most unfavorable direction;
𝑊𝑎 is the weight of the element;
𝑆𝑎 is the seismic coefficient applicable to non-structural elements;
𝛾𝑎 is the importance factor of the element see 4.3.5.3;
𝑞𝑎 is the behavior factor of the element see Table 4.4.
The seismic coefficient 𝑆𝑎 may be calculated using the following expression:
3(1 + 𝑧⁄𝐻 )
𝑆𝑎 = 𝛼 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ − 0.5 ≥ 𝛼 ∗ 𝑆
𝑇 2
(1 + (1 − 𝑇𝑎 ) )
[ 1 ]
Where 𝛼 is the ratio of the design ground acceleration on type A ground 𝑎𝑔 to the acceleration of
gravity 𝑔;
𝑆 is the soil factor;
𝑇𝑎 is the fundamental vibration period of the non-structural element;
𝑇1 is the fundamental vibration period of the building in the relevant direction;
𝑧 is the height of the non-structural element above the level of application of the seismic action;
and
𝐻 is the building height measured from the foundation or from the top of a rigid basement.

For the following non-structural elements the importance factor 𝛾𝑎 shall not be less than 1.5:
− Anchorage elements of machinery and equipment required for life safety systems;
− Tanks and vessels containing toxic or explosive substances considered to be hazardous to the
safety of the general public.
In all other cases the importance factor 𝛾𝑎 of non-structural elements may be assumed to be 𝛾𝑎 =
1.0.
Upper limit values of the behavior factor 𝑞𝑎 for non-structural elements are given in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Values of 𝑞𝑎 for non-structural elements

Chapter-1 Part-2 Earthquake Load Lecture Note

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Department of Civil Engineering Structural Design

Chapter 1: Lateral Loads on Structure

Figure 1.32: Arrival of seismic waves at a site

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 1

Figure1.33: Inside the earth

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 2

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 3

Figure1.34: Motions caused by body and surface waves

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 4

1.4.2. Recording Earthquakes

The vibratory motion produced during an earthquake could be measured in terms of

Figure 1.35: Ancient Chinese Seismograph

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 5

Horizontal component of earthquake

Vertical component of earthquake

Figure 1.36: Modern Seismograph

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 6

1.4.3. Intensity and Magnitude of Earthquakes

 Distance from the epicenter,

Relationships correlating earthquake intensity to peak ground velocity is given by

Where 𝑽𝒈 is the peak ground velocity in 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐.

Relation reported by Wald et.al, (1999) based on Californian earthquake database is

𝑀𝑀𝐼 = 3.47𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑉𝑔 ) + 2.35

Empirical relationships correlating peak ground acceleration to MMI

𝑀𝑀𝐼 = 3.66𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝑔 ) − 1.66

Where 𝒂𝒈 Peak Ground Acceleration in cm/sec/sec

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 7

Measurement scale of Intensity of Earthquakes

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 8

Similar to intensity scales, a number of approaches for measurement of magnitude of an

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 9

Figure 1.37: A graphical form of the Richter magnitude scale procedures

1.4.4. Determination of Hypocenter or Earthquake Focus

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 10

Figure 1.38: Various distance measurements associated with earthquake

The distance from hypocenter to observation point is given by

Where 𝑇 = difference in time of arrival of P and S waves at an observation point;

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 11

1.4.5. Basic aspects of Earthquake resistant design

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 12

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 13

i. Seismic structural configuration,

i. Seismic structural configuration

Seismic structural configuration entails three main aspects, namely:

(a) Geometry, shape and size of the building,

(a) Geometry, shape and size of the building

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 14

Figure 1.41: Simple plan shape buildings do well during earthquakes

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 15

(b) Location and size of structural elements

If the building configuration is symmetrical or quasi-symmetrical, a symmetrical layout of

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 16

Figure 1.43: Weak or Flexible storey

Figure 1.44: Slope ground

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 17

Figure 1.45: Floating column

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 18

Horizontal Irregularities– refers to asymmetric plan shape or discontinuous in the horizontal

Guidelines to planning and detailing of earthquake resistive structural systems

Horizontal Layout of Buildings (Plan)

Figure 1.47: Horizontal layout of buildings

Chapter-1 Earthquake loads Lecture Note Page 19

Horizontal (plan) irregularities include: