The Pennsylvania State University

The Graduate School

SPATIALLY ADAPTIVE COURTYARD MODELS FOR

HIGH-DENSITY, MULTI-STORIED RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENTS IN

BANGLADESH

A Thesis in

Architecture

by

Shayama Setara Khan

 2020 Shayama Setara Khan

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements
for the Degree of

Master of Science

December 2020
The thesis of Shayama Setara Khan was reviewed and approved by the following:

Pep Avilés
Assistant Professor of Architecture
Thesis Advisor

Ute Poerschke
Professor of Architecture

Alexandra Staub
Professor of Architecture

Mehrdad Hadighi
Professor of Architecture
Head of the Department

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 ABSTRACT

The domestic architecture of urban Bangladesh has entered a new era of evolution since
the late 20th century, experiencing a drastic spatial transformation from earlier courtyard-
based dwellings to modern high-density, multi-storied dwellings. Modern residential
buildings and apartment layouts, for the most part, have developed responding to the
unprecedented economic development, urbanization, population growth, and increasing
housing demand of the country. The new house forms have several positive impacts on
current urban land scarcity, economy, and growing housing demand, as it is highly
compact, requires a minimum land area to achieve higher density. However, they also
reflect several undesirable outcomes, significant enough to question the living environment
that they offer urban inhabitants to fulfill their desires to live in the cities. One of the
crucial drawbacks of current urban house types of Bangladesh is the lack of adequate
private or communal outdoor spaces, which is a major prerequisite to form a habitable
living environment for dwellers.

Unfortunately, the evolution of urban house types has disregarded its beginning, where
courtyards served as an open to sky core of dwelling organizations, packed with spatial,
sociocultural, psychological, economic, and climatic advantages, required for quality
living. An underlying cause of this negligence indicates a major limitation of the typical
courtyard-based model that has restricted its integration in this typological transformation.
As an open to sky structure, a courtyard typically belongs to traditional low- density, low
rise settlements, where the constraints of land limitations, land value, and population
density are not as extreme as urban settlements. While in the urban context, such
boundaries have produced compact vertical house forms where an open to sky courtyard
has become a luxury product, almost impossible to afford by the major middle-income
residents of the cities.

Based on this observation the study hypothesizes that spatial alterations of conventional
courtyard models, modifications of contemporary middle-income residential building
forms, and apartment layouts, can provide an opportunity to improve urban living
conditions. With this hypothesis, the study aims to explore possibilities to develop
conceptual courtyard models that would be spatially adaptable for high-density, multi-
storied urban house forms. Additionally, the study also aims to identify possible strategies
to modify the current urban house form to adapt to the new courtyard concepts.

To develop new courtyard models, the study initially investigates design strategies,
elements, and attributes of traditional domestic courtyards of a northeastern city of
Bangladesh named Mymensingh. The study also provides an overview of a current high-
rise residential built form of Dhaka, explaining its spatial, sociocultural, and ecological
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shortcomings caused by inadequate outdoor connections. With this analysis, the study
proposes a spatially adaptive stackable courtyard concept for multi-storied residential
buildings along with its possible typologies, design considerations, strategies, and
examples. To develop such a revised proposal, the study primarily focuses on the functional
aspects of a courtyard more than its conventional spatial organization. The proposed
conceptual models that the study offers, can facilitate spatial integration of private and
semi-private open spaces in future urban residences within the constraints of urban land
scarcity and high-density.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLES viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Preface 1
1.2 Research Question 2
1.3 Aim and Objectives 2
1.4 Research Methodology 3
1.5 Limitations of the Research 3
1.6 Future Research Suggestions 4
1.7 Structure of the Thesis 4

Chapter 2: Domestic Courtyards of Bangladesh: An Endangered Regional Archetype in the

Dense Urban Context

2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 What is the Courtyard? 7
2.3 What is the Domestic Courtyard? 8
2.4 Domestic Courtyard: A Universal Dwelling Component 10
2.5 Bengali Courtyard-based Dwellings and Their Chronological Transformation 13
2.5.1 Indigenous Courtyard-based Bengali Dwelling 13
2.5.2 Urban Adaption and Evolution of Indigenous Bengali Dwellings 15
2.5.2.1 Early Pre-Mughal and Mughal Period 16
2.5.2.2 Colonial Period 19
2.5.2.3 Post-independent Period 23
2.6 Problem Statement 24
2.7 Conclusion 28

Chapter 3: Surveying Urban Courtyards of Bangladesh

3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Mymensingh City: Background and Contemporary Residential Developments 29
3.3 The Design of Case Study: An Overview 34
3.4 Spatial Characteristics of the Urban Courtyard Houses 38
3.4.1 Courtyard Structure 38
3.4.2 Spatial Arrangement of Urban Courtyards 40
3.4.3 A Detailed Description of Eight Courtyards: Spatial and Physical Elements 45
3.5 Six Attributes of Courtyards 47
3.5.1 Functional Attributes 47
3.5.2 Environmental Aspects of Urban Courtyards 56
3.5.3 Enhancement of Community Attachment 58
3.5.4 Reflection of Religious and Cultural Ideals 59
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 3.5.5 Psychological Comfort 60
3.5.6 Economic Benefits 61
3.6 Current Challenges and the Forces Contributing to the Process of Disappearance of
Domestic Courtyards 62

Chapter 4: Spatial Reinterpretation of Courtyards in High-Density Residential

Developments

4. 1 Introduction 64
4. 2 Redefining Traditional Courtyards: Spatially Adaptable Urban Courtyards 64
4.2.1 Spatially Adaptable Urban Courtyards Typologies 65
4. 3 Spatial Design Considerations for Urban Adaptable Courtyards 69
4. 4 Design Considerations to Improve Functionality 69
4.4. 1 Determination of Courtyard Size 70
4.4. 2 Enclosure and Privacy Mechanisms 74
4.4. 3 Position, Activity-Space Relationship, Accessibility, and Visual
Connectivity 83
4.4. 4 Enhancing User Engagement 86
4.5 Design Considerations to Address Climatic Factors 88
4.5.1 Courtyard Configuration 90
4.5.2 Enclosure and Opening Design 91
4.5.3 Shading Devices and Rain Protection 93
4.5.3 Vegetation 94
4.5.5 Comparative Analysis of Urban Top, Mid, and Bottom Level Courtyards
96
4.6 Courtyard Design Examples 98
4.6.1 Communal Courtyard Examples 101
4.6.2 Domestic Courtyard Examples 106

Chapter 5: Conclusion 108

Appendices A: Case Study Building Plans 111

Appendices B: Site density and Future Estimation 119
Appendices C: Interview Questinaire 120
Appendices D: IRB Approval for Human Subject Research 123
Appendices E: CITI Certificates 125
Bibliography 126

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2. 1_Early African Courtyard Houses 12

Figure 2. 2_Ancient Chinese, Japanese, Indus-Valley, and Mesopotamian courtyard houses 12
Figure 2. 3_Courtyards of classical Greece, Rome, L Shaped courthouses of Europe 12
Figure 2. 4_Geographic distribution of courtyards in the world 12
Figure 2. 5_Organizational model of the contemporary Bengali house and the position of the
courtyard 14
Figure 2. 6_A typical rural courtyard-based dwelling 14
Figure 2. 7_Early courtyard-based plot divisions of Dhaka 16
Figure 2. 8_The early introvert courtyard-type houses 17
Figure 2. 9_Shophouses with internal courtyards 18
Figure 2. 10_Extrovert typologies. From left colonial bungalows, composite and consolidated
house types 20
Figure 2. 11_Introvert courtyard-based mansion plans and internal courtyard images 22
Figure 2. 12_Courtyard-less consolidated house type 22
Figure 2. 13_Multi-storied stair-core and corridor-core walk-ups 23
Figure 2. 14_A Contemporary high-rise apartment plans and images 25

Figure 3. 1_The city of Mymensingh 29

Figure 3. 2_Urban growth of Mymensingh city (left) and Dhaka city (right) 31
Figure 3. 3_Mymensingh Strategic Development Plan project, 2011–2031 32
Figure 3. 4_View and plan of apartments in Mymensingh city 33
Figure 3. 5_Courtyard shape and enclosure 43
Figure 3. 6_Different airflow patterns in a courtyard building, 56

Figure 4. 1_Building shape design alternatives. 77

Figure 4. 2_A diagram showing possible enclosure breakdowns 78
Figure 4.3_The possible locations of private attached courtyards in a typical apartment plan84
Figure 4. 4_Conceptual interconnection of communal and domestic courtyards in a high-rise 86
Figure 4. 5_Conceptual diagram showing courtyards of different levels 86
Figure 4. 6_Climatic data of Mymensingh City 88
Figure 4. 7_Site image and map 98
Figure 4. 8_Estimated future density of the site 98
Figure 4. 9_Chronological site development from 2000 to 2040(estimated). 99
Figure 4. 10_Example 1: Residential clusters with ground-level communal courtyards 101
Figure 4. 11_Example 2: Ground-, mid-, and top-level communal courtyards 103
Figure 4. 12_Example 3: Interconnected courtyards 104
Figure 4. 13_Example 4: Elevated plaza as courtyards 105
Figure 4. 14_Example 5: Domestic top-level open to sky courtyards 106
Figure 4. 15_Example 6: Top-level duplex apartments with open to sky courtyard 107

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3. 1_General Information of the courtyard houses and the residents. 36

Table 3. 2_Physical features of the study courtyards 45
Table 3. 3_Daily activities 48
Table 3. 4_Weekly, Seasonal, Economic and Religious Activities 50
Table 3. 5_Courtyard activities based on family members. 52
Table 3. 6_Changes in activity pattern 54

Table 4. 1_Courtyard typologies based on the degree of openness and location. 65

Table 4. 2_Possible activities of domestic courtyards. 72
Table 4. 3_Possible activities of community courtyards. 73
Table 4. 4_Residential block shapes and cluster possibilities with courtyards. 77
Table 4. 5_Communal courtyard possibilities and vertical distribution 79
Table 4. 6_Apartment layout possibilities and comparison. 81
Table 4. 7_Courtyard design objectives and variables 89
Table 4. 8_Comparative analysis of urban top, mid, and bottom level courtyards 96
Table 4. 9_Setback Estimation 100

viii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis advisor Assistant

Professor Pep Avilés for his constant support and guidance. Especially I am grateful to his
inspirations that had helped me realize my passion and emotional attachment for this thesis
topic. He had always called my thesis a “love letter” and that has served as my main
motivation the whole time to overcome work-stresses and finally made my master's an
enjoyable journey for me.

I am also indebted to my committee members Professor Ute Poerschke and Professor

Alexandra Staub to provide me critical feedback and advice on my research.

I am grateful to the Penn State Graduate School and Professor Mehrdad Hadighi, the head
of the architecture department, to provide me the opportunity to study at Penn state with
complete financial support.

I would also like to extend my sincere appreciation to Professor Khandaker Shabbir

Ahmed, the dean of the faculty of architecture and planning, Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology, for his valuable feedback and guidelines on this thesis.

I would also like to thank my friends at Stuckeman School. I am especially thankful to

my research participants, local architects, and all those people who have helped me
during my field survey and data collection. I am indebted to the study families for their
valuable time and to share valuable knowledge, information, and experience on
courtyards.
Lastly, I am immensely grateful to my father Hafizur Rahman Khan, and mother Panna
Morshed for being the best support and inspiration of my life and career. I am indebted to
their contribution to this study for collecting additional information on courtyards on my
behalf while I was at Penn state. Thanks to my brother to be my best aide whenever I
needed, and my husband, to be my motivator to pursue graduate studies and to be with
me the whole time as my support.

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 Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Preface

Courtyards are deeply embedded in the domestic architecture of Bangladesh since the
known beginning of its architectural history. A courtyard-based dwelling represents the
country’s major agrarian economy, local climate, culture, lifestyle, family structure, social
behaviors, and religious ideologies. Although, in different scales and spatial treatments
previously an introvert courtyard house was the main dwelling type of both urban and rural
Bangladesh. Historical documents of early Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh also
demonstrates different patterns and of courtyard dwelling developed in different eras for
low income to elite class residents of the city. In the late 20th century, when urban
Bangladesh was at its peak of development, various forces such as overpopulation,
commercialization, modernization, and land shortage, accelerated the decline of courtyard
house types from its cities. Despite this neglect of dense urban cities, an introvert courtyard
house with the courtyard at its heart, surrounded by walls, fences, or plants is what is still
found when someone departs from urban density. As a stranger no one can catch a glimpse
of what is going on in the internal courtyard but surely can imagine a family living,
working, celebrating, and socializing in their protected little world where there is plenty of
flora, fauna, fresh air, daylight, and shade. Rapid urbanization could not incorporate
courtyards in its highly dense vertical residences as it is a low-density, low-rise, spacious
building component that does not exactly fit in the contemporary overcrowded
environment. As a result, modern middle- and high-income urban dwellers hardly could
have their private open to sky spaces as the residents of the other rural, suburban, or
underdeveloped areas of the country still have. As modern Bengali cities are growing and
developing rapidly, the urban-dwellings are getting more compact and unhealthy, serving
as a mere shelter to accommodate the maximum population with a decline of open spaces
like courtyards that is an already established form of spatial, socio-cultural, climatic, and
psychological advantages.

The dwelling has always been a multifaceted space, more complex than a basic shelter, that
fulfills humans’ social, economic, environmental, psychological, physiological, and
anthropological needs (Soen 1979, 129-34). Author Amos Rapoport defines an ideal
dwelling form and its environment by stating:

“The house is an institution, not just a structure, created for a complex set of
purposes…If a provision of shelter is the passive function of the house, then its

1
 positive purpose is the creation of an environment best suited to the way of life of
a people—in other words, a social unit of space.” (Rapoport 1991,46)

Rapoport adds that a house form is an amalgamation of physical forces, local climatic
conditions, construction methods and technique, local materials and technology, and the
built environment and that it reflects the indigenous way of life in terms of sociocultural
forces, religious beliefs, family and social structure, social organization, economy, and
social relations among individuals (Rapoport 1991,47). American professor and author
Clare Cooper outlines a spectrum of occupants’ basic requirements, from more basic needs
to more specialized needs, which includes the need for shelter and security, physiological
needs, social needs, and aesthetic needs. She adds that until their very basic needs are
satisfied, occupants are not aware of their specialized needs (Marcus, 1975, 209-11). In
contemporary Bengali cities, when incoming dwellers struggle to fulfill their basic needs
of shelter, they remain unaware of the advanced needs that traditional courtyard-based
dwellings previously fulfilled. Furthermore, the shelter they can hardly afford provides
them a vertical living environment that excludes all the socio-cultural and climatic forces
and native design elements and techniques.
At this point in the densification and land limitation of the country, multi-storied residential
buildings are the only land-efficient ways to accommodate the maximum population. From
this point of view, the study hypothesizes that formal and spatial adjustments of multi-
storied residential buildings and apartments can bring traditional design elements, such as
courtyards, back into the cities, along with providing numerous spatial advantages, which
could provide urban residents a habitable living environment in a vertical setting. With that
hypothesis, the study begins with a research question, and to obtain the answer, its aim,
objectives, and methodology were developed and are described later in this chapter.

1.2 Research Question

How can the domestic courtyard, as an archetypical dwelling design element of

Bangladesh, be reinterpreted into the design of middle-income, multi-storied urban
residential buildings of Bangladesh to improve the habitability of these buildings?

1.3 Aim and Objectives

This research aims to discuss and develop spatial design strategies to incorporate
courtyards into the design of contemporary high-density, multi-storied urban
residential buildings along with their dwelling units. To achieve this aim, the following
two objectives have been developed:

Objective one: To investigate and identify spatial design strategies, functionality, and
attributes of traditional urban courtyards of Bangladesh.

2
Objective two: To develop a set of courtyard design strategies and proposals applicable to
the contemporary urban lifestyle and dense residential development by adapting and
modifying traditional design strategies.

1.4 Research Methodology

The research followed a mixed methodology of three steps:

Step 1: Historical Research

This step aimed to shape and corroborate the problem statement of the study. This part
focused on a literature review to gather knowledge and information on the origin and
chronological evolution of Bengali house forms and their typologies. The literature review
helped to illuminate the spatial significance of the courtyard as a native building design
element of Bangladesh and the factors influencing the process of its disappearance from
contemporary multi-storied housing designs based on secondary sources such as
journal articles and books, architectural drawings, and photographs. This part also
involved research on the aspects of a habitable living environment from secondary
sources. Lastly, it included a comparison of the findings with an example of
contemporary high-density housing in Dhaka in terms of its socio-cultural and
climatic sustainability as an uninhabitable living condition, which was based on
primary sources.

Step 2: Qualitative Case Study Research and Data Analysis

This step primarily consisted of a field survey on endangered urban courtyard houses in
Mymensingh. However, before the field survey, data were analyzed from secondary
sources such as journal articles, statistics, and district records to gather background
information on the city. Later, the field survey was conducted on eight courtyard houses
and followed by a set of case selection criteria. The field survey aimed to gather primary
data on the courtyards to analyze their spatial layouts, configurations, functions, and
attributes. A detailed description of the survey methods and data analysis is further
discussed in Chapter 3.

Step 3: Design as Research

Finally, based on the findings of step 2, the study focused on developing a new concept to
spatially incorporate courtyards into modern urban dwelling designs. Additionally, a set
of design strategies was suggested based on the previous findings to serve as courtyard
design guidelines. To develop the guidelines, modern dwelling cultures, spatial
constraints, residents’ needs, and residents’ lifestyles were also assessed to make
these strategies feasible for modern domestic life and dwelling pattern.

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1.5 Limitations of The Research
The study was impeded to some extent due to several limitations. First, as the survey was
conducted during the author’s short visit to Bangladesh in the summer of 2019, the number
of case study buildings was limited to eight because of the limited time available to conduct
an in-depth site visit. Second, due to the time limit, it was not possible to observe and
photograph seasonally varying courtyard activities; only daily activities were observed
during the survey. In discussing the seasonal activity pattern, the study is mostly dependent
on the responses of the residents. However, in discussing the socio-cultural, economic,
environmental, and psychological roles of the courtyard spaces, the study is completely
dependent upon on-site observation and interviews, and no data measurement tools were
used during this process. Only the spatial benefits were able to be studied by preparing
drawings and photographs in this short amount of time. The study mainly addressed the
spatial, sociocultural, and climatic aspects to derive new urban courtyard models; economic
factors— another major design consideration—were not included in the design process due
to time and resource limitations.

1.6 Future Research Suggestions

An important area that can be explored in future research on domestic courtyards is the
preservation of the traditional courtyard houses of Mymensingh city. The Climatic
performance of domestic courtyards can be further analyzed by using data measurement
tools such as HOBO Data loggers, Raytek gun, velocity stick, and anemometer to record
detailed temperature, humidity, and wind speed pattern of courtyards. Besides, more
research can be done on revising the planning regulations and building codes of
Mymensingh city to spatially incorporate the courtyard spaces into the design of future
multi-storied residential buildings.

1.7 Structure of The Thesis

This section provides an overview of each of the following five chapters.

Chapter One: Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the thesis. With a brief introduction of the thesis
issue, it summarizes the aim, objectives, research methodology, and limitations of the study
to provide readers an initial understanding of the work.

Chapter Two: The Bengali Domestic Courtyard: An Endangered Regional Archetype

in the Dense Urban Context of Bangladesh

This chapter focuses on the historical research part of the thesis to provide a background
knowledge base of this study. The chapter demonstrates that the evolution of Bengali
housing originated from a classic courtyard-based low-rise dwelling and has ended with a
4
modern compact high-rise dwelling trend with no provision of outdoor connection. The
findings of the chapter show that the spatial design of Bengali dwellings excluded
courtyards as it evolved to fit into the dense urban setting, which was influenced by the
extreme population growth, spatial constraints, and the profit-based housing market of the
country. The chapter ends with the problem statement of the study explaining the
uninhabitable living conditions of a contemporary high-rise dwelling in Dhaka city
focusing on its poor connection to the outdoor environment.

Chapter Three: Endangered Urban Bengali Courtyards

This chapter focuses on the second methodology, which is the case study and analysis of
the case study’s outcomes. The outcomes provide an understanding of the spatial layout of
traditional courtyards and their role as a dwelling design element to support various
activities of Bengali culture and lifestyle. The study findings also demonstrate the positive
impacts of courtyards on the overall spatial, ecological, sociocultural, economic, and
psychological well-being of the residents living in the courtyard-based built environment.

Chapter Four: Spatial Reinterpretation of Courtyards in High-Density Residential

Developments

This chapter contains the design-based research that aims to combine tradition and
modernity to develop courtyard-based dwellings for vertically growing cities so that future
urban dwellers can take spatial advantage of courtyards to improve their living
environment, similar to their ancestors. As the concluding part of this thesis, this chapter
processes the knowledge and findings of Chapter 3 to produce spatial principles,
suggestions, and design examples that illustrate the possibilities of reincorporating
courtyards into contemporary dense, multi-storied residential designs.

Chapter Five: Conclusion

The concluding chapter summarizes the research findings, design proposals, possible
attributes, and limitations.

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 Chapter 2

Domestic Courtyards of Bangladesh:

An Endangered Regional Archetype in the Dense Urban Context

2.1 Introduction

The courtyard dwelling is one of the oldest and leading domestic developments of the
world, with distinctive regional variations. Bangladesh, a subtropical southeast Asian
country, has developed its prototypical courtyard housing shaped by its unique contextual
forces, such as climate, culture, social values, domestic structure, religion, economy,
available resources, and construction techniques. A Bengali courtyard house symbolizes
the foundation of Bengali residential architecture from which all other Bengali house forms
have been produced over time. Until the late 20th century, the courtyard has served as the
spatial core of Bengali dwellings both in rural and urban settlements. Later, during the pre-
and post-independent period, when urban Bangladesh, faced rapid economic development
and urbanization, urban housing sectors began to be overburdened with housing shortage
due to mass migration and overall population growth. As a result, both the urban public
and private housing sectors started to eliminate courtyards from dwelling designs to
produce compact, high-density multi-storied residences. In this process, the courtyard,
regardless of its preeminent position in Bengali house-form, was simply abandoned from
the urban context, as it was perceived as a low-density, low-rise spatial element, unsuitable
for the overcrowded cities. Since Bangladesh has a small geographic area with an
uncontrolled population, multi-storied residential development is perhaps the last choice to
stabilize the on-going housing crisis. However, the resulting high-density housing, apart
from its land efficiency, and affordability, has consciously or unconsciously established a
debatable housing model as it lacks proper provision of outdoor spaces with a poor indoor-
outdoor connection to cope with urban land limitation and overpopulation.

With this observation, the study aims to develop alternate spatial techniques to revive
domestic courtyards in the contemporary dense urban residences of Bangladesh. To begin
with, first, it is crucial to have a proper understanding of the traditional domestic courtyards
of Bangladesh. In this regard, this chapter provides background knowledge on the domestic
courtyards of Bangladesh, explores their origin, spatial significance, and chronological
transformation. Additionally, it also explores contemporary compact high-rise housings in
the capital city, Dhaka, to understand their overall negative impacts on residents’ lifestyles
that are relevant to this study. The chapter intends to establish the research problem of this
study that states that, eliminating courtyards from the design of urban high-rise residences
of Bangladesh has developed a dwelling model that negatively impacts urban resident’s
mental health, personal development, social relations, and cultural values.

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2.2 What is the Courtyard?

The courtyard is generally perceived as an open-to-sky enclosure or space. However, its

definition as a building type remains an ill-defined one. Robert Nelson, an Australian
professor, argues in his article “The Courtyard Inside and Out: A Brief History of an
Architectural Ambiguity” that the definition of the word “courtyard” is still vague and
ambiguous. He added to his claim that,

“We can easily say what buildings contain but it is much harder to say what they
feel like in anything but a subjective way, which may be insightful and even
seductive but possibly eccentric and capricious, dependent upon a personal point of
view, and hence tainted with arbitrariness.” (Nelson 2014, 8)

Standard definitions of courtyards are as generic as they are elusive: The Oxford Dictionary
of Architecture defines the courtyard as an open space partially or completely enclosed on
all four sides, that is, as “an open area surrounded by walls.” The Oxford Advanced
Learners Dictionary instead defines it as “an open space that is partly or surrounded by
buildings.” The most general definition is the one provided by the Cambridge Dictionary:
“an open area of ground surrounded by walls or buildings.”

However, the definitions of courtyards are elusive, as Nelson argued, it is difficult to define
the courtyard only by the concept of enclosure because the binary of in and out is itself
challenging. He believes that in a courtyard, we are in the dualism of both “in” and “out,”
as we are enclosed within an enclosure but at the same time outside, in the sense of open
to the sky. Despite these generic definitions, the field has emphasized the relevance of those
spaces for the sensorial qualities of architecture. For instance, John S. Reynolds, professor
emeritus of architecture at the University of Oregon, has referred to the courtyard as the
most beautiful place in a building that provides people with daily contact with nature. He
also emphasizes the dualism of the courtyard, as he says,
“Courtyards are special places that are outside yet almost inside, open to the sky,
usually in contact with the earth, but surrounded by rooms” (Reynolds 2002).
Nelson (2014) argues that the internal courtyard has a practical and moody consequence
aside from its physical properties. From a phenomenological perspective, Nelson describes
the courtyard as follows:
“The “void” at the core, the presence which is made of absence, somewhat like
space itself but peculiarly dedicated, almost enshrined, as an architectural
institution of the elements of light and air, a stage, a closely guarded platform, both

7
 shy and ostentatious, retiring and courtly, both protected and outgoing and a zone
for gregarious behavior, as we shall see.” (Nelson 2014, 9)
Rojas, Marin, and Fernandez Nieto describe the courtyard as an “unbuilt space which is
delineated by interior facades of the buildings, or those spaces which are situated within
the interior alignments of a plot” (Rojas, Marin, and Fernandez Nieto 2012, 2832). El-
Shorbagy, an Arabian professor, in his definition, emphasizes the spatial and seasonal role
of the courtyard within a house. He defines the courtyard as a room without a roof that
serves as an internal open space and works as a secondary living area in summer (El-
Shorbagy 2009, 17). More comprehensively, Hasan Fathy, an Arabic architect, considers
courtyards much more than architectural tools to provide privacy and protection. In his
view, a courtyard is like a dome that simulates the universe and the sky like a roof of the
courtyard. His definition gives the courtyard a symbolic and spiritual meaning in addition
to its environmental and social one (Fathy 2000).

Hitherto, any kind of outdoor space partly or completely enclosed by walls or buildings
can be considered a courtyard. However, the definition should go beyond the courtyard’s
physical appearance. Referring back to Nelson (2014, 10), a courtyard could be intimate or
public, a space to work or relax, a relief in an extreme summer, or a physical resemblance
of a theater where the story of life begins in the middle of an enclosed built form. The
courtyard’s functions are neutral and nodal, collaborative, or seclusive, where a person
could be static or active. Being qualitatively and etymologically different from front yards,
backyards, or gardens, courtyards are multifaceted, serving as platforms of domestic life,
social cohesion, business, entertainment, light, and air. Authors may debate the definition
of courtyards to begin their discussions, but the courtyard as a building design element can
be defined as a physical enclosure that has a special spatial, socio-cultural, environmental,
economic, religious, and spiritual value that shapes their distinguished regional identity.

2.3 What is the Domestic Courtyard?

Courtyards as design elements have been widely used in different building types, such as
commercial buildings, educational buildings, hospitals, hotels, industrial buildings, and
many more. However, as history depicts, courtyards originated from domestic
developments, adding physical, cultural, environmental, climatic, and even political
identities. The need for a secured dwelling gave birth to courtyards, and later, the courtyard
became the image of the dwelling and, in a broader sense, the image of an entire
architectural style.
What characteristics differentiate a domestic courtyard? Austrian architect Johannes Spalt,
in his book Atrium: Five Thousand Years of Open Courtyards, describes the domestic
courtyard as a part of the house shut by walls or, at least, a partially open room within the

8
house. It appears in various shapes, such as round, square, rectangular, or curved in outline
as desired (Blaser, 1985). Canadian architects Schoenauer and Seeman (1962), in their
book The Court-Garden House, use the term “courthouse” to refer to an inward single-
family dwelling unit consisting of one or more courts partially or fully surrounded by living
areas (Schoenauer and Seeman 1962,3). Attilo Petruccioli, an Italian architect and
historian, has also written about the courtyard’s introverted nature, formed either by a
monocellular unit or a collection of cellular units around a central space marked by an
enclosing wall (Petrucciolo 2006, 3-20).
Author Guy Petherbridge, however, demonstrates an extroverted version of domestic
courtyards. He distinguished two varieties of courtyard-house types: “The introvert one,
where the house encloses a courtyard and the exterior courtyard house where the courtyard
borders the house providing protected area, contiguous with the dwelling units but not
enclosed by them” (Petherbridge 1978 193-208). Italian architect Vittorio Gregotti defines
the spaces of the courtyard with a more anthropological approach. He describes the
importance of courtyards by saying,
“The enclosure not only establishes a relationship with a specific place but is the
principle by which a human group states its very relationship with nature and the
cosmos. Besides, the encloser is the form of the thing; how it presents itself to the
outside world; how it reveals itself” (Gregotti Vittorio 1979,6).
Petruccioli also highlights that a courtyard dwelling is a simultaneous response to cosmic,
cultural, and climatic forces (Petruccioli 2006, 3-20). Amos Rapoport, in his article “The
Nature of the Courtyard House: A Conceptual Analysis,” discusses five attributes of
courtyard housing. The first one is the privacy mechanism of courtyards. In his view, a
courtyard as a private domain is linked with the public domain, where the nature of privacy
mechanisms or the linkage varies with different architectural elements, such as walls,
fences, doors, porches, hallways, gates, paths, and steps. The second attribute characterizes
a courtyard as either a system of a setting or a subsystem of a primary setting, within which
specific activities occur as part of a larger activity system. By the larger system, he refers
to the dwelling itself. The third attribute highlights the courtyard as a central space and
circulation or transitional space. The fourth attribute highlights the courtyard’s efficiency
and flexibility, and, finally, the fifth attribute relates to climatic efficiency and
regulation (Rapoport 2007, 57-72).
The definitions of the domestic courtyard summarize it as an introverted open space, part
of a private domain, technically linked and separated from the outer world, a functional
space supporting a system of activities, a path or corridor, spatially flexible, spiritually and
culturally rich, and, lastly, a climate regulator. By definition, the word “courtyard” has the
same meaning in different places; however, by nature, they vary from place to place and
culture to culture by representing an individual region and its inhabitants.

9
2.4 Domestic Courtyard: A Universal Dwelling Component

The search for the courtyard’s origin leads back to early human establishments, where
humans needed a secured and protective private enclosure from wild animals or other
natural forces (Schoenauer and Seeman 1962, 15).
Schoenauer and Seeman, in their book The Court-Garden House, consider prehistoric
encampments and fenced-in compound dwelling types to be early courtyard houses
because of their defensive enclosures to protect the inhabitants from the climate and wild
animals (Schoenauer & Seeman 1962, 9-14). Paul Oliver, in his book Dwellings: The
House Across the World, also supports evidence of 5,000-year-old courtyards, found at
Kahun in Egypt (Oliver 1987, 136). According to Schoenauer and Seeman, the earliest
forms of human habitats were arranged around central courtyards; examples have been
found in the North African town of Daura, an early nomadic encampment; archeological
surveys of Mesopotamia in 2000 B.C.; and early Asian civilizations of further east, such
as the Indus Valley Civilization. Early Chinese, Japanese, and Indonesian civilizations also
exhibit courtyard-type houses as their dominant house forms (Figure 2.1; Blaser, 1985).

Classical Greeks also used courtyard houses as their dominant dwelling type, which was
later followed by the Romans in their atrium houses. In Greek dwellings, the courtyard
(oikos) was considered a source of daylight and a private space to carry out numerous
domestic activities while enjoying seclusion from the outside world. The Greeks even had
altars in their courtyards dedicated to Zeus Herkeios, the god of the courtyard. Later, being
highly influenced by Greek peristyle dwellings and Etruscan atrium houses, Romans also
developed atrium houses with two inner courts, which contained features of both Greek
peristyles and atriums in a single house type (Schoenauer and Seeman, 1962, 23; Figure
2.2).

In the middle ages, domestic courtyards were not very popular in Europe. However, in
North African and Middle Eastern Muslim countries, courtyard houses were later
considered humble dwelling types that could meet the Islamic demands of female seclusion
of restricting women within a private territory and limiting their physical and visual contact
with strangers. Hence, the North African urban courtyard house “Dar” was an integral part
of Muslims’ way of life, sheltering them as well as giving them privacy, isolation from the
outside world, and protection from extreme climatic conditions (Schoenauer and Seeman
1962, 25). Apart from these Moroccan house types, which were simple Arab courtyard
houses, luxurious double-court Damascus houses were the common urban-dwelling types
for Muslims that reflected the Islamic principles of privacy and seclusion (Schoenauer and
Seeman 1962, 29). The courtyard-based urban dwellings of Mesopotamian countries in
that period adapted to the hot climate of their region by adding underground spaces as

10
cellars or storage for food and water. These courtyards were also used for sleeping at night
on the hot days of the year. Muslims adopted the courtyards in their houses as oases, “where
there exist[ed] an intentional contrast between the stark, bright, heat of the outside and the
intimate confinement, shade, and coolness of the interior” (Hinrichs 1989, 3).

In northern areas around the Mediterranean Sea, especially in southern Spain, two
courtyard dwelling types were formed, one with gardens and the other with a patio inspired
by Roman atrium houses. Later in the colonial period, this Spanish courtyard-type house
was adopted in Latin America and still presents as the region’s prominent dwelling type.
For example, a typical Mexican courtyard house is the center of family life around which
the home is built (Schoenauer and Seeman 1962, 37).

In North America, courtyard-type dwellings first appeared in the late 19th century,
introduced by the Spanish in southern California (Polyzoides et al. 1992, 12). Later, after
the Great Depression, the typology moved to the East Coast. Eastern courtyards had a
distinct function; conceptually, they facilitated the separation of the living and sleeping
spaces of the house by being in the middle of the dwelling. Courtyard houses also gained
much popularity in Europe in the early 20th century. In Europe, the single-storied mass
courtyard house served as an ideal house type for lower-income working-class people.
Later, it inspired Bauhaus architects Hannes Meyer and Ludwig Hilberseimer to modify
the quadrangular courtyard house into an L-shaped courtyard house plan, making it a
popular house form in both Germany and England (Macintosh 1973, 8; Figure 2.3).

The widespread prevalence and chronological and regional development of domestic

courtyards demonstrate the acceptance and usability of the courtyard as a significant
dwelling design component. This history reveals that courtyard house forms are the oldest
and most universal forms of domestic architecture that appeared in many parts of the world
and were shaped by those parts’ distinct lifestyle, religious, economic, social, and climatic
differences (Figure 2.4).

11
 Figure 2. 1_Early African Courtyard Houses
(Source: Schoenauer and Seeman 1962)

Figure 2. 2_Ancient Chinese, Japanese, Indus-Valley, and Mesopotamian courtyard houses

(From left, Source: Schoenauer and Seeman 1962; Al-Dawoud A, 2006)

Figure 2. 3_Courtyards of classical Greece, Rome, L Shaped courthouses of Europe, (From left) (Source: Schoenauer
and Seeman 1962)

Figure 2. 4_Geographic distribution of courtyards in the world (Source: Vellinga, Oliver, and Bridge 2007)

12
2.5 Bengali Courtyard-based Dwellings and Their Chronological Transformation

2.5.1 Indigenous Courtyard-based Bengali Dwelling

The typological transformation of Bengali dwellings originates with the rural courtyard
house. A typical rural Bengali house is an arrangement of several closely spaced single-
story or double-story, one- to two-roomed rectangular dwelling cells around a square or
rectangular courtyard locally known as an uthan. According to Mawla (2016), the “uthan
was the basic module for the organization of living spaces in the indigenous culture”
(Mawla 2016, 16). The uthan is the core of the cluster that holds individual cells around it,
where each cell acts as a room to accommodate specific domestic functions.

A typical Bengali house follows a spatial division of multiple domains determined by the
level of privacy and accessibility. According to Imamuddin (1982), the organizing
principles of Bengali dwellings follow a binary pair of domestic zones such as front and
back, public and private, formal and informal, dry and wet, and dirty and clean (Imamuddin
1982, 2.23-2.30). Such types of bi-polar partition are attained through the central courtyard,
as it acts as a zoning divider within the organization (Figure 2.5).

As a domain divider, the courtyard comes after the formal or public zone of a house. In a
dwelling cluster, the front cell serves the main entrance as a living room and often has an
additional frontcourt, especially in well-off households. The courtyard comes next to buffer
the inner house. This zone often has a secondary indirect entrance only for family members.
The bedroom units gather around the court, usually facing the prevailing wind direction
(north south) and avoiding the direction of direct sunlight (east, north, or south) to ensure
maximum passive cooling. Service units such as kitchens, toilets, storage units, or
cowsheds receive less priority and are positioned at the rear end of the court, facing west.
The cells are dispersed rather than unified by any sort of covered circulation, so the central
courtyard gets the additional task of internal transition and circulation. Dwelling units also
seem to have shaded courtyard-facing verandahs, open or partially enclosed, to provide
smooth indoor and outdoor transition, shade, security, and privacy to the inner spaces.
Another important courtyard function is to provide a domestic work zone, an entertainment
center, and the spiritual and social ground of the house.

Courtyard size, quantity, and aesthetics vary according to family income and structure. In
a rural settlement, each courtyard represents an individual household, and a multi-court
housing cluster indicates a wealthy, joint, or extended family (Rahman and Hoque 2001,
57-69). Usually, rural houses grow incrementally; when a family extends or becomes
solvent, it adds new cells on the periphery, making the court smaller and enclosed over

13
time. A further complex arrangement of interconnected courtyards is formed when the
second generation of the family attaches its court-based cluster to the mother form and
maintains a physical and visual connection between the inner courts (Figure 2.6).

Hasan (1987) and Islam et. al (1981) studied four types of courtyards in the traditional
houses of Bangladesh. The first type is a simple cluster consisting of a single dwelling unit
with an outdoor kitchen. When it expands, the second type forms with multiple dwelling
units around a courtyard. Further expansion generates the third type, a much more complex
courtyard, as new houses are added gradually as the family grows. It acts as a common
courtyard connecting a group of houses. The fourth type is a series of interlocking
courtyards, formed by the horizontal expansion of multiple households. These are the rural
courtyard types with soft boundaries; however, urban courtyards are often brick-walled to
ensure maximum security. However, in hilly tribal communities, courtyards are more open
and independent, as their concept of privacy is much more flexible than that of flat-land
dwellers.

Figure 2. 5_Organizational model of the contemporary Bengali house and the position of the courtyard

(Drawn by the author based on the model derived by A.H. Imamuddin 1982, 2.30)

Figure 2. 6_A typical rural courtyard-based dwelling (Source: Ahmed 2012, 47-57)

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2.5.2 Urban Adaption and Evolution of Indigenous Bengali Dwellings

“House form changes with changes in society, culture, and need; however, some forms
of spatial arrangement may survive repeated periods of change. The courtyard is one
such element in Bengali architecture.” (Rahman and Hoque 2001, 57-69)

Originally, the urban house form of Bangladesh imitated the rural courtyard-based model
and was shaped by urban contextual factors such as the urban lifestyle, concept of privacy,
economy, land value, and density. The original urban courtyard-based typology still serves
as the fundamental dwelling type in under-developed urban areas of the country that
haven’t yet experienced urbanization, high density, and land crisis. While major and
secondary cities of the country are growing rapidly, a large part of the country is still rural
and suburban in nature. Additionally, most of the country’s current or former urban
population comprises rural, suburban migrants who move to the city in search of a better
life. These migrants are the original carriers of native socio-cultural beliefs, lifestyles, and
indigenous domestic architecture, who in their urbanization introduced an urban version of
rural-dwelling into the cities (Imamuddin 1982, 2.23-2.30; Ahmed 2012, 47-57; Rahman
and Hoque 2001, 57-69). Although at the initial stages, urban house forms strictly followed
the native housing model, they gradually generated new typologies to cope with urban
challenges. To discuss the transformation of the Bengali dwelling, this study focuses on
the housing transformation of the capital, Dhaka, which is the origin of the evolution and
serves as the role model for the entire country.

The spatial organization of urban house forms in Dhaka has undergone a dramatic
transformation over the last few decades. Dhaka’s dwelling development is significantly
influenced by its major political phases. Initially started as a small rural settlement, Dhaka
has a history of over 400 years of expansion and growth. First, it became the capital of
Mughal’s empire in 1610 and then came under British rule in 1757. Dhaka became the
provincial capital of East Pakistan in 1947, and finally, in 1971, it became the capital of
independent Bangladesh and initiated the urbanization and economic growth of the country
(Kabir and Perloin 2012,7).

Following political eras, the entire house form transformation of Dhaka is divided into four
major phases, that is the Early Pre-Mughal and Mughal period (pre-colonial period), the
Colonial period, Pre-independence period, and Post-independence period.

15
2.5.2.1 Early Pre-Mughal (before 1608) and Mughal Period (1608–1764)

During the Mughal administration, Dhaka became the trading center of all of southeast
Asia (Kabir and Perloin 2012,7). Its rapid economic rise and sociopolitical changes
initiated the early urban development of Dhaka city, which eventually produced
compressed courtyard-based urban residential typologies, by shaping the rural courtyard-
based house-forms with early urban contextual forces. Urban introvert courtyard houses
and shophouses of old Dhaka were two early courtyard-based house types of the region.

According to a study (Khan 1982, 107-109), the early urban development of Dhaka was
based on market squares (locally known as chawks) and housing clusters around a market
square or a street (locally known as the mahalla). These housing clusters were either
followed by a compact deep-narrow plot division or a loosely arranged oblong or regular-
shaped plot division. However, during this period, courtyards were not only a part of house
forms but also a part of the early urban planning of Dhaka city (Figure 2.7).

Figure 2. 7_Early courtyard-based plot divisions of Dhaka (Drawn by author, original source: Rahman 1996, 81)

16
I. Early Introvert Courtyard House Types

According to Imam Uddin (1982), introvert courtyard houses were the earliest urban house
types developed in Bangladesh and were denser versions of their rural counterparts. Their
spatial layout followed the indigenous binary pairs of front-back, outer-inner, male-female,
and clean-dirty zones, where courtyards were still an inseparable design element
facilitating zoning, space division, privacy, and the domestic activities of the house. These
introvert typologies have two variants: detached type and enclosed type.

Detached type Enclosed Type Enclosed Courtyards Variants

Figure 2. 8_The early introvert courtyard-type houses (Drawn by author, original source: Imamuddin 1982, 2.11)

Detached Courtyard Houses

As a first attempt of urbanizing the rural housing model, the detached typology was not
very different from its origin. It precisely followed the loose rural clustering of dwelling
units around single or multiple courtyards. However, these types of arrangements required
a larger land area, so eventually, the detached typology developed a second typology, the
enclosed introvert house, as a compact version of rural origin (Imamuddin 1982, 2.10-2.15;
Figure 2.8).

Enclosed Courtyard Houses

This was the first compact enclosed typology of Bengal and an early attempt to fight
urbanization, densification, land shortage, socioeconomic changes, technical advancement,
and changes in the concept of privacy and security. In these enclosed urban houses, a front
public part served as the living room (locally termed a drawing room) and provided a

17
formal entrance and a space to receive guests and accommodate formal activities. The inner
zone still maintained the basic courtyard-centered grouping. This court was, again, the
spatial divider, a junction of domestic spaces connected through colonnaded verandahs.
The concepts of gender division and protected domestic working zones were still evident
in the inner courts of these houses. If possible, separate entrances were provided to the
inner courtyards to avoid the front male-dominated parts. However, the native indoor-
outdoor relationship, privacy, and spatial progression seem to have been well maintained
in these enclosed typologies (Figure 2.8; Imamuddin 1982, 2.10-2.15). Ecological aspects
of courtyards were also addressed in the design, facilitating cross ventilation and sun
shading. Being of an enclosed compact variety, these houses effectively managed to
incorporate a breathing space for the family and the community by linking the house form
with nature in the early urban context.

II. Shophouses with Internal Courtyards

During the pre-Mughal and colonial periods, shophouses were developed as a distinct
typology in many parts of Bangladesh, including the pre-urban core of old Dhaka. The rise
of home-based handicraft industries in old Dhaka developed this unique house form to
provide dwellers the opportunity of living, working, and having entertainment in the same
place. This type of shophouse is still found in many parts of old Dhaka (Khan F.A 1999,
66-67).

Figure 2. 9_Shophouses with internal courtyards (Source: Hazra 2019, 79)

18
Both linear and oblong-shaped shophouses followed a blend of living and working
environments, where internal courtyards marked the distinction between the gradual
progression of public commercial zones into private residential zones. The street front part
of the house was used as a shop and followed by a semipublic courtyard. The next stage
provided private residential space with a service yard at the end of the house. Shophouse
courtyards acted both as buffers and connections to form spatial layers. In multi-court
shophouses, the front courtyard was considered a male-dominated space used for the
manufacturing, sorting, and storing of products. The inner courtyard was a female-
dominated one and supported household activities (Imam Uddin, Hasan & Alam 1990, 47).
Additionally, the courtyards were social spaces. In larger shophouses, courtyards were
surrounded by porches or balconies acting as thresholds between the indoors and outdoors
and separation between the domestic and commercial zones of the house. From an
environmental perspective, courtyards penetrated daylight in the deep-narrow house plan,
enhanced natural ventilation, and provided shade (Ahmad & Rasdi 2000, 47; Figure 2.9).

2.5.2.2 Colonial Period (1764–1947)

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, colonial influence on Bengali architecture gave
rise to two hybrid house typologies by adapting European concepts into local climate and
culture. These are the extrovert bungalow-type houses and the introvert courtyard-based
mansions.

I. Colonial Extrovert Bungalows

The colonial bungalows were single- or multi-storied residences that followed the
archetypal spatial arrangement of traditional Bengali houses, excluding the courtyard
(Figure: 2.10). Two types of courtyard-less extrovert houses were developed in colonial
Bengal: the composite type and consolidated type. This was a sharp contrast with the
Bengali way of living, primarily influenced by European lifestyle and architecture. They
were mainly built for the European settlers, the country’s emerging elite, and upper-
middle-class society. Contrary to introvert dwellings, these typologies were rather
intertwined compositions of domestic spaces with a spatial division different from the
typical binary zoning (public-private, male-female, or clean-dirty zones) of Bengali
dwellings. The dwellings were divided into two primary zones to accommodate two
different occupancy types, the master or the homeowner and the servants. The front zone
was designed to serve the homeowners and the rear zone was to serve the servants. This
spatial layout was not a genuine reflection of Bengali's domestic life as they combined the
service and living areas. For example, the kitchen and toilets of the main house were
attached to the main living rooms without any spatial buffer like the classic Bengali

19
dwellings. These house forms were an architectural expression of colonial cultural
influences on the overall Bengali society and lifestyle. That is why another hybrid typology
was developed simultaneously during that period that combined both the Bengali lifestyle
and European architecture.

Figure 2. 10_Extrovert typologies. From left colonial bungalows, composite and consolidated house types (Drawn by
author, original source: Imamuddin 1982, 2.16)

II. Introvert Courtyard-based Mansions

During the colonial period, a hybrid typology in the form of single- or multi-court mansions
(Figure 2.11) was developed that combined both colonial architecture and classic Bengali
spatial layout along with the courtyards. These typologies demonstrated a grand
duplication of traditional courtyards to serve Bengali landowners (zamindars), local elites,
and middle-class societies as a statement of their colonial power and admiration for native
traditions.

In colonial multi-court mansions, courtyards regained their central position to facilitate

zoning and privacy. Similar to single-courtyard houses, each court was surrounded by a
cluster of rooms where spaces were connected through long verandahs serving both as
thresholds and areas of circulation. This arrangement also followed the typical flow of

20
public to semi-public to private spaces, with each court serving a different function. The
outer court served as the formal public court, the first inner court served as the semi-private
domestic center, and the rear court accommodated services. Other than facilitating the
lighting, ventilation, and thermal comfort of the house, these multi-court organizations also
played a significant socio-cultural role for Bengali people.

For example, during that period, Bengali elites, both Muslims and Hindus, started to
patronize and celebrate various Bengali seasonal, sociocultural, and religious festivals. The
frontcourt became an image of Dhaka’s cultural life, serving as the ground of large public
gatherings, important community announcements, community meetings, ceremonies,
major Hindu religious festivals like Durga Puja (worship of the goddess of war) and
Lakshmi Puja (worship of the goddess of wealth), and even leisure activities like cock and
goat fighting. These courtyards also supported secular social activities such as weddings,
birthdays, and funerals. The preparations for these kinds of events required larger spaces
with gender divisions; in this regard, multiple courtyards facilitated the segregation of
female and male members of the society (Rahman and Hoque 2001, 57-69).

Plan of a colonial multi-court mansion

Spatial enclosure and zoning of public, private, and service courtyards of courtyard-based mansions

21
 Figure 2. 11_Introvert courtyard-based mansion plans and internal courtyard images
((Plans are drawn by author, original source: Rahman and Hoque 2001, 57-69)

Post-colonial socioeconomic development, demographic changes, and the rise of

government-initiated public housing projects directed Bengali house types into the process
of early modernization. This period marked a sharp transition in the domestic layout where
courtyards were left behind for the sake of mass housing. Dhaka’s first master plan of 1959
stirred the transition from traditional to modern house types by adopting the concept of
multi-story, multi-family living to cope with the increasing housing demand followed by
mass rural-urban migration in that period.

Courtyard-less Consolidated House Types

Post-colonial house types were a further consolidated typology that integrated the living
and service spaces of a dwelling, where central corridors or dining spaces replaced
traditional courtyards to connect all the domestic spaces. Although the layout still
maintained the three distinct zones—formal, informal, and service—internal spaces
became highly compartmentalized through the extensive use of corridors. The absence of
courtyards confined domestic activities indoors with no relationship to the outdoors (Figure
2.12). In the new urban setting of Dhaka, this tight and stackable typology proved
affordable for the middle-income groups. Later, its efficiency to achieve higher density
attracted both the private and public housing sectors of Dhaka and made it the pioneer of
modern-day compact dwellings.

Figure 2. 12_Courtyard-less consolidated house type (Drawn by author, original source: Gomes 2014, 110)

22
2.5.2.3 Post-independent Period

Post-independent Dhaka has undergone a dramatic transformation, as it became the capital

of newly independent Bangladesh in 1971. Post-independent urbanization, economic
development, mass migration, and population increase started to pressure the country’s
housing sector to find more compressed high-density dwelling models. As a result, the new
housing resolution further tightened the former model dwelling model and developed two
house types, they are early multi-storied walk-up houses and contemporary high-rise
apartments.

I. Multi-storied Walk-Up House Types

The earliest development of this period started with mid-rise walk-up apartments, where
eight to 10 flats were arranged vertically around a central staircase (Figure 2.13). These
walk-ups were either stair-core types, stair-corridor types, or mixed types. To make urban
living more affordable, rooms became smaller and were arranged in a condensed manner
where dining or living spaces were used to connect the surrounding rooms (Rashid 2000,
131). As the dining became the core of the layout, with rooms all around, this space often
had to sacrifice windows for daylight, ventilation, and view, making it the darkest space of
the house (Gomes and Nilufar 2014, 149-156).

Figure 2. 13_Multi-storied stair-core and corridor-core walk-ups

(Drawn by author, original source: Rashid 2000, 113)

II. Contemporary High-rise Apartments

The high-rise residential building (up to 20 stories or more) is the most prevalent housing
form of modern Dhaka as well as the whole country (Alam & Ahmad 2011, Seraj and Alam
2009). As a river-locked city, Dhaka has no room to expand horizontally but does have
room to expand vertically. Other cities are already built up, and as they expand, they take
over the limited agricultural land of the country. Every year, Dhaka itself needs 100,000

23
new housing units for its in-migrants (Seraj and Islam 2013, 1-11). To provide adequate
and mass shelter to the ever-growing population within the limited land area, high-rises are
the only solution for the region (Alam 2014; Alam & Ahmad 2011; Chowdhury & Faruqui
2009; Seraj & Alam 2009). Although the spatial layout and form these high-rise buildings
follow may achieve the desired density someday, the buildings are highly problematic and
unable to provide a dweller-friendly, ideal living atmosphere for their inhabitants.

2.6 Problem Statement

A Contemporary high-rise housing: Lace City Conchord Housing, Dhaka

Daylight conditions of Living Room, Bedrooms and kitchen (from left) from 1.00 to 2.00 pm

24
 Typical Floor Plan (Not in Scale)

Figure 2. 14_A Contemporary high-rise apartment plans and images (Source: Author)

Figure 2.14 depicts a typical floor plan of a middle-income private housing project of
Dhaka surveyed by the author in 2012. From a spatial, ecological, sociocultural, and
psychological perspective, the apartment layout reflects several problematic issues. A
proper analysis of these problems is important to search for further design modification, as
it represents the current housing trend of the country.

From an ecological standpoint, the designs of the apartments depict less consideration of
the local climate for passive cooling and lighting. Because of tight side-by-side and back-
to-back clustering, the middle apartments are stuck with only one outdoor façade to bring
air and daylight indoors. Hence, a dilemma arises: which space should be placed on the
outer edge? Usually, bedrooms are given the privilege of receiving natural light and air,
making all other indoor spaces shadowy, dark, and humid (Figure 2.16). The corner units
of the cluster usually have an additional outer façade, but the proximity of the neighboring
buildings leaves no chance to take advantage of it. This leads to another common flaw of
the design—windows are less functional and cooperative in providing inner privacy,
illumination, and thermal comfort. The same goes for the pocket-sized peripheral
verandahs, which were supposed to be breathing spaces of the household but eventually
turned into extra storage for the dwellers.

Likewise, the whole 15-storied solid rectilinear building mass that holds 195 households
has no provision of social gathering spaces and small-scale cultural celebrations.
Circulation is provided through an H-shaped double-loaded corridor and an elevator lobby
in the middle of the form. All the dwelling units are jam-packed around the corridor, which
also depends on artificial illumination. Ground floors of the form are occupied with
parking, and for private housing, ground floors are highly valuable for commercial
purposes. For both private and public housing, roof access is usually restricted by leasing

25
documents for miscellaneous purposes. Usually, private owners are reluctant to share the
roof with tenants or structural elements that take up the whole space for further vertical
addition.

Such a compact build form and apartment layout limits every possibility to provide an
ecologically sustainable and habitable living environment to its residents by confining them
into an envelope without any clue of their society, culture, and outer world. For example,
the children of these apartments do not have any designated space to play and interact with
the community. Without a proper link to the outdoor environment, it is hard for them to get
fresh air, sunlight, and learn from nature and its elements. Such spatial compaction and
elimination of outdoor spaces limit children’s freedom of movement as they grow up in a
tight introverted home environment. Isolation from the surrounding nature and society
restricts their overall personal development and cause them additional psychological
distresses. On the other hand, urban parents, as they also remain socially dethatched, feel
insecure to let their children meet with the neighbors, which eventually lowers their
chances of making community friends. As a result, urban children become less interested
in the outdoor environment and develop an addiction to electronic gadgets. These reasons
ultimately contribute to the higher juvenile crime rates of tall buildings, as author Edmund
P. Fowler argues; regardless of the residents’ socioeconomic condition and ethnic identity,
high-rise neighborhoods have proven to have higher rates of crime rate than other housing
types (Fowler, 2008).

Furthermore, during the study, it was also found that lack of social spaces lowers resident’s
casual communication and cultural practices. Additionally, when residents are not
noticeable to each other and have no chance to get acquainted, they become more skeptical
and distrustful of each other, which ultimately affects their social relations. Social isolation
also negatively affects the mental health of residents. According to Gifford (2007), high
rise living environments may secure the privacy of the dwellers by limiting unwanted social
interactions, however, such limitations also reduce the probabilities of social contacts and
community bonding (Gifford, 2007). Furthermore, without any exposure to the natural
environment, this environment leads residents to long-term depression, anxiety, and stress.
While nature has proven to be the best therapy by maintaining desired hormonal levels,
heart rate, blood pressure, and overall physical and mental well-being, urban residents
remain detached from it most of the time. A 2015 study found a lower satisfaction level
among apartment dwellers of Dhaka, as they felt less connected to nature with no
recreational, social, or children’s play spaces in their dwelling (Mridha 2015, 42-54).

According to (Kamruzzaman and Ogura, (2003), these multi-storied apartment typologies

were initially developed by the formal private sectors in the early 80s in Dhaka city. Later
informal housing suppliers such as real estate companies, small-scale developers, or

26
individual homeowners began to dominate the housing market of the city. According to
this 2003 study, Dhaka’s informal housing market owns 85% of its 1 million housing units,
and half of this 85%, belong to the middle-income apartment typology. One of the major
reasons for such expansion is the increasing housing demand caused the vast rural-urban
migration, which is around 300,000 to 400,000 each year (Seraj and Alam 2009, 1-11;
Alam & Ahmad 2011; The World Bank, 2007). Although apartment living is a popular
housing form as it is affordable and land efficient, its sustainability and habitability is an
issue of debate among Bengali scholars and architects. They argue that this type of housing
development is unacceptable as an ideal living environment and a threat to indigenous
dwelling culture. They view it as an imitation of western architecture, as it is fundamentally
dissimilar to local contextual forces such as climate, social-cultural needs, and lifestyles.
Additionally, the profit-oriented housing market, insensible urbanization, and housing
planning are also responsible for this misleading housing trend (Mowla 2016, 1-29;
Kamruzzaman and Ogura, 2003).

Overall, dwelling design is a complex and multidisciplinary task, and the end product
requires careful synthesis of numerous shaping factors. Amos Rapoport, in his book House
Form and Culture, states that climate and culture are the most important aspects in shaping
the physical character of a house form (Rapoport A.1969). Apart from physical features, a
habitable living environment also ensures that the sociocultural and psychological needs
of human beings are met. Sociocultural needs are considered prerequisites that develop a
sense of community and belonging and promote the spirit of sharing and caring among
dwellers. Psychological needs are also significant in establishing a positive relationship
between human beings and their surrounding environment. These positive responses
include feelings of safety and security, happiness, and relaxation, which altogether build a
habitable living environment to improve personal development, family relations, and
community bonding among dwellers (Soen 1979). According to Dempsey et al. (2011,
289-300), an environment is socially sustainable when it includes social interaction,
community participation, community stability, a sense of place, and a feeling of safety and
security. Cultural sustainability is attained when the built environment becomes responsive
to the tangible and intangible cultural values of a society (Duxbury 2012). The discussions
indicate that the contemporary high-rise buildings of the country, with no social spaces,
indigenous cultural reflection, or connection to nature undoubtedly create a built
environment that lacks social-cultural and ecological sustainability and affects residents'
mental health and social relations.

27
2.7 Conclusion

This chapter concludes with the understanding that the courtyard has previously served as
a sustainable spatial component of Bengali dwellings, which was later eliminated from the
urban housing types as courtyard dwellings were not perceived as a spatially efficient
model for dense urban cities. However, the pressure to accommodate the increasing urban
population within the already built-up cities, urban housing models gradually become
spatially compact by sacrificing socio-cultural spaces and outdoor connections. Such
spatial compaction also has several negative impacts on urban residents' life. In this regard,
the study aims to explore spatial possibilities to design high-density courtyards that will be
able to serve urban residents as well as multi-storied housings developments of
Bangladesh,

28
 Chapter 3
Surveying Urban Courtyards of Bangladesh

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the study investigates existing urban courtyard houses of Bangladesh
through a physical survey to analyze the spatial organization, structural elements, and
contributions of courtyards. Courtyard attributes are analyzed by being divided into six
major categories: functional, environmental, socio-cultural, religious, economic, and
psychological. The analysis and survey findings provide a guideline to formulate design
principles to generate new courtyard models for contemporary residences. Although
existing urban courthouses are endangered due to current urbanization, modernization,
population density, and profit-oriented housing markets, the chapter also analyzes the
challenges and forces that are accelerating the process of courtyard demolition from the
user’s perspective.

To conduct the case study and physical survey, the study selected a northern city of
Bangladesh named Mymensingh. The reason behind selecting the city is that, compared to
the capital Dhaka, Mymensingh still carries traditional courtyard-based residential
dwellings in many of its parts, although these dwellings are in a state of endangerment, as
the city is also urbanizing rapidly, like Dhaka. With this observation, the study also
analyzes the spatial layout of these present-day Highrise dwelling units of Mymensingh,
which is no different from contemporary Dhaka typology.

3.2 Mymensingh City: Background and Contemporary Residential Developments

Figure 3. 1_The city of Mymensingh _ (Image from https://en.wikipedia.org/)

29
Location and Climate
Mymensingh city is the capital of the Mymensingh Division of Bangladesh and lies on the
bank of the Old Brahmaputra River, located about 120 km (75 mi) north of the Bangladesh
capital of Dhaka. The district lies between 24°15´ and 25°12´ of northern latitudes and
90°04´ and 90°49´ of eastern longitudes. The area of the city covers around 4,396.53 square
kilometers, mostly low-lying flat land with several small valleys between high forests
further north (BBS,2011; Figure 3.1).
In general, the climate of the city is a tropical monsoon one, with an average
temperature ranging from 34° to 18°C and an annual rainfall of around 2,541
millimeters, and humidity is 68% (a further detailed description and analysis of the
city’s climate are discussed in Chapter 4).
Historical Background
Mymensingh city has a rich political and administrative history. It has been an active part
of every political era of its region, from the early Indian subcontinent to pre- and post-
colonial India to independent Bangladesh. The earliest history of Mymensingh dates back
to the ancient Kamrupa kingdom of the Classical Indian subcontinent that lasted from the
fourth century to the mid-12th century. Later, the city was under Mughal rule until the year
1765, when the British East India Company acquired Mymensingh from the Mughals with
the Dewani Grant to collect revenues and decide civil cases. The city attained further
administrative importance in 1787 when the British East India Company established it as
a former district of British India (BBS, 2011). The city has served as a district of the Dhaka
Division in both pre- and post-independent Bangladesh. Very recently, in 2015, the city
achieved additional administrative power and significance, as it was declared the eighth
administrative divisional headquarter of Bangladesh.
Demography and Economy
In 2011, the city had over 5 million people, with a population density of
4,458/km2 (115,150/sq mi), which makes it the second-most densely populated city in
Bangladesh. It has an annual population growth rate of 1.82%, and by the year 2037, the
city’s population is expected to reach more than 6.5 million people. Within the
population of the city, 95.79% mostly comprises Muslims, 3.58% comprises Hindus,
and the rest practice Christianity and other religions. Mymensingh is a major financial
center of north-central Bangladesh that also serves as a vital center of in-migration. The
economy is mostly agriculture-based; additionally, the city’s workforce mostly
comprises government employees, businessmen, teachers, and service workers.

30
Contemporary Urbanization and Changing Residential Pattern

As the capital of the Mymensingh Division, Mymensingh city is one of the fastest-growing
cities of Bangladesh mostly due to its proximity to the capital Dhaka, developed
transportation system, and notable educational institutions.

Colonial Mymensingh was a small linear town that stretched approximately 1.5 miles east
to west, settled laterally along the north bank of the Old Brahmaputra River. Morphological
studies show that the early growth of the city followed a riverbank development (Figure
3.2). The southern Brahmaputra and a parallel historic rail track in the north had limited
the city’s early north-south growth during the colonial period (Aziz 2016). In the late 18th
century, a change in the river’s course detached the northeastern part of the city from the
river. Partly because of that, the later post-independent expansion of the city followed the
southwest direction rather than following early linear development. The river Brahmaputra
had always limited Mymensingh’s northward expansion until 2017, when the government
of Bangladesh introduced the Mymensingh Strategic Development Plan, estimating the
city’s growth over the next 20 years, and proposed an expansion of the city further south,
acquiring the other side of river Brahmaputra (MSDP 2017; Figure 3.3).

Figure 3. 2_Urban growth of Mymensingh city (left) and Dhaka city (right)

31
 Figure 3. 3_Mymensingh Strategic Development Plan project, 2011–2031

(Source: MSDP)

The nature of the recent urbanization of Mymensingh city resembles the early development
period of the capital Dhaka (Figure 3.4); however, the difference is that Mymensingh is
expanding both vertically and horizontally by capturing peripheral agricultural lands and
demolishing traditional developments. The residential architecture of the city is also
rapidly shifting toward high-rise developments.

The land-use-distribution graph of Mymensingh from 1994 to 2014 shows an increase in

residential areas of 6% with a decrease in agricultural land of 25%. According to a study
(Aziz 2016), until the 1980s, the city’s residential landscape was mostly characterized by
one-storied buildings, which later rose to four-storied buildings with the help of housing
loans provided by the House Building Finance Corporation.

32
 Figure 3. 4_View and plan of apartments in Mymensingh city (Source: Author)

At the beginning of the 21st century, the central part of the city had residential apartments
of mostly up to five or six stories; in the last 20 years, high-rises of up to twenty stories or
more have changed the skyline of the area radically. According to interviews with local
architects, at present, city homeowners and private developers prefer to build high-rise
apartments of up to around 22 stories, and floor areas of individual apartments vary from
around 600 to 2,200 square feet. Most of the structures along the commercial road are
mixed-use types, where the first two or three floors are provided for commercial activities
and the top is designed as a residential zone, and the buildings also include basement
parking. A physical survey conducted during the study observes that most of the early
courtyard-based residential neighborhoods near the town center, such as Amlapara,
Baghmara, and Kachijhuli, have been replaced by several high-rise apartments. Migrated
residents mostly prefer to live within the city center, close to educational institutions,
markets, and hospitals. However, due to land shortage within the city center, the same trend
has been seen in peripheral locations as well. Similar to Dhaka, Mymensingh’s current
high-rise residences have a solid non-porous building mass with a compact floor plan
(Figure 3.4), mostly with one or two bedrooms arranged around central dining. As a result,
the same consequences of poor daylight, poor ventilation, poor indoor-outdoor
connections, lack of community, and lack of play space for children are observed in these
buildings.

33
3.3 The Design of Case Study: An Overview

This study’s researchers adopted a case-study method to analyze sample courtyard houses
of Mymensingh city. The survey was conducted in the summer of 2019. To conduct the
investigation, first, eight traditional courtyard houses were selected for observation and
examination of the present condition of their domestic courtyards. Secondly, formal
interviews were conducted with the selected courthouse family members, including the
father, mother, and children (aged 18 and above). During the interview, a short open-ended
questionnaire was used to collect primary data, and after that, an open-ended discussion
was conducted. The discussion helped the researchers to understand the courtyard and its
value from the perspective of a user. Lastly, the dwelling units and their inner courtyards
were physically measured to prepare drawings, and photographs were also taken with the
prior permission of the families. Additionally, courtyard activities were physically
observed for better data collection.

Study Area Selection

First, as the population of the city comprises largely Muslims (97%) and marginally Hindus
(3%), to examine courtyard houses of two different lifestyles and religions, six Muslim
houses (Group 1: Houses 1–6) and two Hindu houses (Group 2: House 7, 8) were selected
for the study.

Secondly, Group 1 houses belonging to the western part of the city, known as Akua, which
was a peripheral area of the early city. However, in the last 15 years, the area has shown
development with modern multi-storied buildings, commercial development, and
increasing numbers of migrant residents. Group 2 belongs to a more eastern part of the city
known as the Kewatkhali area, which was an old Hindu residential neighborhood that is
now also showing modernization. Although both study areas are rapidly urbanizing, the
process of replacing old buildings with new high-rises is slower in these neighborhoods,
as they currently lack wide roads to connect them with the main city. Because of that, the
selected study areas still have a few groups of courtyard houses left. Although these
courtyards are expected to be demolished within few years, they are still active and play a
vital role in the lives of the residents, which makes them an ideal example to conduct case
studies for this research.

34
Selection of Study Courtyard Houses

The reasons for selecting the study houses are as follows:

1. They represent traditional Bengali courtyard-type houses. These houses are built
by the homeowners themselves, not by professional architects, and they have great
socio-cultural, economic, religious, ecological, and psychological value.

2. They belong to upper-middle-income single families, which is also the target group
of high-rise residents selected for the study. The yearly income range of the middle-
income group of Bangladesh is between $4036 to $12,475 (blogs.worldbank.org,
accessed in November 2020).

Data-Gathering Strategies

Data-gathering strategies adopted for this research include the following:

1. Qualitative physical survey of the case study building
2. On-site architectural drawings of the case study buildings
3. On-site photographs

The tools used to gather data include a measuring tape that measured the dwelling and
courtyard, a compass that determined the building orientation, and a camera that captured
photographs.

35
A Detailed Description of the Studied Households and Residents

Table 3. 1_General Information of the courtyard houses and the residents.

General Information of the courtyard houses and the residents

Questions House 1 House 2 House 3 House 4 House 5 House 6 House 7 House 8

Interview Husband Husband Husband Husband Husband Husband Husband Husband

participants and Wife and Wife and Wife and Wife and Wife and Wife and Wife and Wife

Age 63, 55 65, 60 59, 54 75,68 44, 38 50, 42 55, 49 43, 35

Religion Islam Islam Islam Islam Islam Islam Hinduism Hinduism

Occupation Businessman, Businessman, Bank officer, Retired Government Lawyer, School Government Businessman,
housewife housewife Housewife Government employee, a teacher employee, housewife
officer, schoolteacher Housewife
Housewife
Family type Previously Single-family Single-family Single-family Previously Previously joint Single-family Single-family
joint family, joint family, family, now single
now single now single family
family family

Family members 4 5 3 4 8 12 3 4

When the house 1968 1970 1980 1975 1975 1979 1980 1985
was built?

Participant’s Homeowner Tenants Homeowner Homeowner Homeowner Homeowner Tenants Tenants

Ownership
Migrated from Migrated from Migrated from
the rural part the rural part of the rural part of
of the city the city the city

How long you Living here They started to Living here Living here Living here Living here since They started to Living here
have been living since the live here in since the since the since the the house was live here in since the house
in the house? built 2011 was built

36
 house was 1997 after the house was house was house was
built owner died built built built

Who built it? The house was Originally built The house The family The house The house was Originally built The family who
originally built by a lawyer was originally who lives in was originally built by by a lives in the
by the father family built by the the house is originally the father of the Government house is the
of the current mother of the the original built by the current employee original builder.
homeowner current builder. father of the homeowner who family
who was a homeowner current was a lawyer by
police officer who was a homeowner occupation
of the British schoolteacher who was a
Government professor by Now the third
Now the third occupation. generation of the
Now the third generation of family living here
generation of the family Now the
the family living here third
living here generation of
the family
living here

Courtyard status Active Active Active Non active Active Active Active Active

Future possibility Will be Will be Will be Apartment Will be Will be replaced Will be Will be replaced
to be replaced by replaced by replaced by the replaced by construction replaced by by the year 2025 replaced by the by the year 2030
multistoried the year 2020 year 2020 the year 2025 going on the year 2025 year 2025
apartments

37
According to Table 3.1, all the courtyard houses were built between the 1970s and 1980s.
Except for the ones in Houses 7 and 8, all the families are originally rural migrants and
have lived in these houses for three generations. Initially, they started as joint families, later
their second and third generations grew as nuclear families with a modern lifestyle and
choices. At present, the third generations of the families own the property, who prefer to
construct modern apartments by demolishing the old courtyard houses, to secure a
financially stable future for them and their children. The families are all middle-income
ones; most of the family members are either government employees or businesspeople.

3.4 Spatial Characteristics of the Urban Courtyard Houses

This section discusses the spatial arrangement and physical features of the eight courtyard
houses based on on-site observations, photographs, and drawings. The discussion is
specifically focused on the inner courtyards of these houses to analyze the courtyards’
formation, organizational elements, spatial character, their role, and connection with the
remaining house forms and privacy mechanisms. The purpose of this section is to
understand the common spatial characteristics of these traditional courtyards to apply them
to create future design concepts.

3.4.1 Courtyard Structure

Structurally, a courtyard space is formulated by four vertical planes, a ground, and a

ceiling. These elements are considered the organizational elements of any courtyard. This
section evaluates the nature and spatial role of these organizing elements of the studied
courtyards to determine their shared qualities and characteristics.

Vertical Enclosing Devices

Each courtyard is unique in its combination of enclosing elements. The enclosing devices
of the eight courtyards are of the following kinds:

• Boundary walls
• Built forms and their facades
• Trees

The boundary walls are the primary and outermost enclosures to separate property edges
from surrounding houses, streets, and the overall urban setting. They are usually 7 ft high,
brick-built, and plain, with no openings or designs. However, according to the residents,

38
when they initially built their dwellings, property boundaries were not demarcated by rigid
walls; rather, they had bamboo fences to provide an outline. When burglary and theft
increased in the city, the residents felt the need for such protective enclosures. In earlier
times, each family had an additional uncontrolled entrance to connect with their
neighboring plots, which is still present in Houses 3, 4, and 5. Although these plots once
belonged to a single-family, as their second generation got married, plots were divided
among them to build their own houses. Usually, in urban houses, such connection among
plots is quite uncommon except for clustered housings that grow around interconnected
courtyards.

As walls outline the plots, built forms such as the main dwelling and small ancillary
structures outline the courts. Although the courts themselves are partially open (Houses 1,
2, 4, 5, and 6) or completely enclosed (Houses 3, 7, and 8), comprehensively, they are all
well enclosed by the outer walls. Lastly, a series of tall trees with wider canopies is the soft
enclosure to further privatize the inner court.

Walls, building facades, and greens as a group shield the courtyard physically and visually
from the outer world, providing the residents a private territory to enjoy satisfying security
and freedom.

Courtyard Floor

All the courtyards, except the one in House 7, have the earth as the courtyard floor. Only
House 7 has used a slightly coarse concrete floor, possibly for its smaller size and shaded
environment. The coarse concrete floor provides residents a non-slippery surface that
makes the courtyard functional all year round, including in rainy seasons.

The other ground courtyard floors are mostly untouched. None of them are covered with
grass or any hard flooring. Most often, concrete-finished courtyards are found in wealthy
households. The use of wood planks as a flooring material is very rare in traditional Bengali
courtyards because of the humid weather. However, in recent days, laminated wood
flooring seems to have gained much popularity among modern luxury households.

Additionally, traditional urban courtyard grounds sometimes have pathways connecting

the main activity areas and marking common circulation, although the courtyard ground
shows seasonal textural changes. According to the interview, during the wet season of the
year, the ground becomes muddy, slippery, and inconvenient to use. Generally, the families
who do not have hard paved ground depend on the temporary brick pavement during the
rains. However, during the summer or winter, the courtyard ground is in good condition,
and that is why the courtyard activities become more frequent at these times of the year.

39
Courtyard Roof

Traditional courtyards are open to the sky and not covered with any sort of shading element.
The presence of covered outdoor structures to shelter major activities has lowered the need
for any additional sun and rain protection. Circulation routes are also uncovered as well as
the water-pump platform. The need for shade on extremely sunny summer days is partially
fulfilled by the wide-spreading tree canopies, although the absence of proper shading has
been seen to negatively affect courtyard performance and activities from the case studies,
especially in the courts where there is no space to plant larger trees. Also, as previously
mentioned, when it rains, the courts mostly remain inactive.

3.4.2 Spatial Arrangement of Urban Courtyards

• Spatial Composition: The spatial layouts of the eight courtyard houses are composed
of three main parts:
 The main dwelling unit: living room, dining, bedrooms, kitchen, and
toilets
 A central courtyard
 Supplementary permeant-type outdoor structures: outdoor kitchen,
toilet, and storage

• House Type: Six houses (1, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7) are of the introvert type, with a courtyard
at the heart of the cluster where the main dwelling unit barricades the courtyard space
from the front and separates it from the streets. Together with the main dwelling, all
other built forms group around the inner courtyard, defining a soft boundary around it.

Houses 3 and 8 are of the extrovert type, where the courtyard is located at the front of
the main dwelling unit. These houses’ boundary walls separate the courtyards from the
street. The main dwelling is located at the rear end of the house, leaving the front
unoccupied for the courtyard. All other small structures are also pushed to the property
boundary to leave an uninterrupted courtyard space. Whether introvert or extrovert, all
the elements of a household are clustered within a walled property where the courtyard
acts as the nucleus of the entire organization.

• Spatial Zoning: All the study buildings have maintained a common spatial
organization to secure the privacy of the inner courts. Six of them have followed the
standard spatial division of a typical courtyard-based house that is discussed in the
literature review. The division of the formal-informal, front-back, and clean-dirty
concept is visible in their layout. Also, the front part of the dwelling acts as the public

40
 and formal zone, and the rear part is the private or informal zone. Courtyards are placed
within the private zone of the house except for Houses 3 and 8. However, whether
located in the middle of the house, front, or back, the courtyards’ access is always
controlled by the homeowners. All the built forms have loosely wrapped and outlined
the inner court and its edges. All the dwelling spaces, excluding the formal living space,
are courtyard oriented, connected visually, and physically with multiple doors and
windows. Other additional structures of the court are not formally connected to the
main dwelling by any shaded structure. In these cases, the central court is the junction
providing circulation among the built forms.

Muslim and Hindu courtyards are not different in their spatial layout and physical
features. The differences are the additional home temples or platforms of Hindu houses,
upon which they place their holy plants and statues of gods.

Along with inner courts, Houses 1, 2, 5, and 6 have additional yards in front of the main
dwelling units. These front yards are not like a male-dominated yard; rather, they are
public or formal in nature. Unlike a typical conservative Muslim household, these
families are more liberal toward females. Therefore, both males and females use the
front yard equally, and there are no restrictions on the females' use of it. However,
females mostly prefer the inner courtyard, and they occasionally spend time in the front
yard either for a short meeting with neighbors or to purchase items from local hawkers.
Additionally, Houses 1 and 5 also have backyards as service yards.

• Entrance: Four courtyard houses (Houses 1, 2, 4, and 5) have two entrances. The main
entrances are of two types. The introvert houses have a door at the front façade of the
main dwelling that opens directly into the living room through a veranda, and the
extrovert houses have a gate on the street-facing boundary wall that opens directly onto
the courtyard. The secondary entrances are informal, connected to the courtyard
directly, or through a narrow passage. Two houses (Houses 6 and 7) have their only
entrance at the main dwelling unit, and the courtyard is accessed through the rear end
of the main building. Houses 3 and 8 are directly entered through the courtyards. The
entrances of the eight houses are unornamented, remaining mechanically locked or
closed all the time for privacy and security. When someone comes in, they knock at the
door, and someone from the family, preferably a male member, opens it. This practice
allows the females who work in the court time to go inside the house if they don’t want
to meet a stranger. Or, if they want to meet, they use this time to prepare. The same
principle applies to the courtyards that are in front. In this way, the frontal location of
these courtyards does not invade the residents’ privacy.

41
 Entrances of a courtyard regulate and control accessibility, restrict unwanted intrusions,
and guarantee inner privacy and security. The secondary entrance is specifically
provided for the family members as alternative private access. For example, if there is
a guest in the main living room (which is usually next to the main entrance) and
residents need to bring in house supplies or groceries privately, they use the additional
entrance. Neighbors also use these secondary entrances as shortcuts to enter each
other’s courtyards.

• Size: All the courtyards are different in their sizes and proportions. There is no principle
that the residents followed to determine the sizes and shapes of the courtyards.
However, according to the residents’ point of view, the courtyard size and shape
primarily depends on the solvency of the owner, which I have also observed from the
case study: comparatively wealthy families have larger plot sizes with larger
courtyards, and sometimes they have multiple courtyards. All the Muslim houses
(Houses 1–6) have larger courtyards than the Hindu houses (Houses 7 and 8). The
reason behind this is that they all are located in the peripheral zone of the city and were
built between the 1970s and 1980s when land prices were relatively affordable for these
middle-income families. The Hindu families are migrants from nearby cities and rented
their houses as they were very close to the city center. That indicates that variations of
plot divisions have some influence on courtyard size, along with the owner’s wealth.
At the city center, plots are more highly fragmented than at the periphery, which makes
those homeowners size down the courts, sacrificing their required area. However,
smaller courtyards limit courtyard activities and sunlight penetration, and they are more
humid as well.

• Shape: Interestingly, courtyard shapes are not exactly squares or rectangles as one may
conventionally think. All the courtyards have irregular outlines. Observation shows that
courtyards themselves have their primary and secondary zones created by the built
forms, degrees of enclosure, privacy, and activity types. However, the central activity
space roughly follows a larger square or rectangular shape. It is the most well-
maintained zone of the courtyard, as it is the focal point of the court, and from the
dwellings, this part provides the most pleasant view of the courtyard. Other leftover
sub-zones of the court are not directly viewed from the dwelling or the entrance, and
because of that, they are used as service, storage, or planting and often found to be less
maintained.

However, the overall spatial organization of the courtyard houses generally follows I,
L, and U shapes to hold the central court by the built forms (Figure 3.5)

42
 Figure 3. 5_Courtyard shape and enclosure

(Source: Author)

• Orientation: The courtyards of Houses 1, 2, 4, and 6 stretches along the east-west axis,
and the other four (Houses 3, 5, 7, and 8) stretch along the north-south axis. The
orientation of the courtyards mainly depends on the orientation of the lot or property-
approach road. The dwelling layouts demonstrate that all of the main dwellings are
positioned parallelly to the main road, and later the central courtyards also followed the
parallel position of the main dwellings.

• Semi-open Space: All the courtyards are connected to the main dwelling through semi-
open spaces such as verandahs or arcades. Steps are connected to these spaces to
provide access to the court. In deep-house plans, the dining space becomes the node of
the dwelling to where all other dwelling spaces are directed, and then the dining space
facilitates the court exit directly or through an attached verandah (House 7). Some
houses follow a linear organization fronted by a continuous verandah or arcade, and
the whole arrangement wraps partially or entirely around the courtyard. This semi-open
space is an indoor-outdoor transition and threshold. Most importantly, these spaces also
function as miniature courtyards serving several activities, such as relaxing, eating,
reading, drying items after rains, playing, socializing, and many more. On rainy or
extremely sunny days, these spaces become the substitutions of the courtyards,

43
 providing shade and shelter with an indoor-outdoor view. It is a common scenario of
courtyard houses where family members or neighbors sit directly on the floor or a floor
mat and gossip, looking at the courtyard and the inner house. They are usually 1–2 ft
above the ground, depending on the waterlogged conditions of the court. In some
houses, the verandah is enclosed with metal grillwork that protects the indoor space
from potential robbery and burglary. Sometimes, the grillwork also serves as a child
gate to restrict toddlers from crawling onto the courtyard stairs. These screens are
generally made of loosely spaced iron or steel bars that guard against human or animal
intrusion. However, they are not fine enough to guard against insects or pests. However,
when verandahs are wide and protected enough, they also become the semi-open dining
spaces of the house.

• Vegetation: The vegetation of the courtyard mostly depends on the courtyard’s size,
the residents’ preference, and the lighting conditions. In general, the plants can be
divided into three types: fruit trees, timber trees, and ornamental and seasonal vegetable
plants. Generally, residents prefer to plant taller trees along the property boundary.
These types of plants include fruit trees like mango, jackfruit, lychee, blackberry,
guava, betel nut, coconut, and date palm, and timber trees like mahogany, teak, and
others. Some residents prefer trees with wider canopies in the middle of the courtyard
to shade the main activity area. Ornamental or flowering plants and different kinds of
shrubs are found either in the periphery along with the tall trees or in the middle of the
courtyard. Seasonal vegetable plants such as tomato, bean, cucumber, pumpkin, lemon,
and eggplant are often grown within a defined zone. A common planting pattern has
become evident among the eight observed courtyards. It shows that the residents prefer
to group plants according to their type and size to leave a maximum open area in the
courtyard for further use. Courtyards do not have any ground cover, as they are cleaned
and swept daily. However, if the courtyards are not well maintained, various weeds
appear on the ground, mainly in the rainy seasons.

• Additional Physical Courtyard Elements: Apart from structures such as outdoor

kitchens, outdoor storage, and outdoor toilets, additional courtyard elements typically
include outdoor mud stoves, hand-operated water-pump platforms, and waste-disposal
zones. All the houses were previously dependent on the courtyard water pump as their
main water source. In larger houses, an additional outdoor toilet is also present for the
housemaids. Other subsidiary courtyard elements include houses for pets (chickens and
ducks), dog sheds, birdcages for pigeons and other birds, garden swings, outdoor chairs
and benches for seating, concrete decks, and stairs if there is a body of water on the
property.

44
3.4.3 A Detailed Description of Eight Courtyards: Spatial and Physical Elements

Table 3. 2_Physical features of the study courtyards

Physical features of the study courtyards

Questions House 1 House 2 House 3 House 4 House 5 House 6 House 7 House 8

Courtyard East-West East-West North-South East-west North-South East-west North- North-South

orientation South

Courtyard Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Squire Rectangular

configurati
on
Courtyard 36’X30’ , 40’X40’ 36’X30’ 25’X20’ 35’X30’ 50’X30’ 25’x20’ 30x55
dimension
Main From the main From the main From the access From the main From the main From the main From From the
Entrance dwelling dwelling road dwelling dwelling dwelling the main
main dwelling
dwellin
g
Private Private entrance Private entrance No private Private entrance Private entrance Private entrance No No private
Entrance from access road. from access road. Access from the access from the access from the access private access
road road road access
Previously was Previously was Previously was Previously was
connected to the connected to the connected to the connected to the
neighbor's neighbor's neighbor's neighbor's
courtyard. courtyard. courtyard. courtyard.
Courtyard 7 feet high 7 feet high Boundary wall Boundary wall Boundary wall Boundary wall Bounda Boundary
enclosure boundary wall boundary wall and vegetation and vegetation and vegetation and vegetation ry wall wall and
and vegetation and vegetation screens screens screens screens and vegetation
screens screens vegetati screens
on
screens

45
Current Water source Water source Water source A separate Outdoor storage. Outdoor storage. Holi Holy tulsi
Courtyard within a platform. within a platform. within a platform. kitchen. Outdoor kitchen. Outdoor toilet. tulsi plant.
s features Waste disposal Waste disposal Waste disposal Water source Outdoor toilet. Water source plant. Water source
zone. zone. zone. within a platform. Pet houses. within a platform. Water within a
A central A central A central Waste disposal Water source Waste disposal source platform.
meeting/activity meeting/activity meeting/activity zone. within a platform. zone. within a Outdoor
zone. zone. zone / Children’s A central Waste disposal A central platfor storage.
Children’s play Children’s play play area. meeting/activity zone. meeting/activity m. A central
area. area. Pet houses zone / Children’s A central zone / Outdoor meeting/acti
Pet houses Pet houses (chicken, ducks). play area. meeting/activity Children’s play storage. vity zone /
(chicken, ducks). (chicken, ducks). Paved walkway Paved walkway. zone / Children’s area. Outdoor Children’s
Paved walkway Paved walkway Storage spaces. Trees: tall / fruit play area. Paved walkway. toilet play area.
Storage spaces. Storage spaces. Trees: tall / fruit (ex: mango, betel Paved walkway. Pet houses and Fruit and
Outdoor toilet. Outdoor toilet. (ex: mango, nut) / timber Trees: tall / fruit (chicken, ducks). Fruit Ornamental
Trees: tall / fruit Trees: tall / fruit jackfruit, betel (mahogany tree) (ex: mango, betel Paved walkway Plants Plants
(ex: mango, (ex: mango, nut) / timber trees mostly at nut) / timber Storage spaces.
jackfruit, lychee, jackfruit, betel (mahogany tree) the edge of the (mahogany tree) Trees: tall / fruit
coconut, betel nut) / timber trees mostly at court creating a trees mostly at (ex: mango,
nut) / timber (mahogany tree) the edge of the boundary. the edge of the jackfruit, betel
(mahogany tree, trees mostly at court creating a Ornamental/flowe court creating a nut) / timber
teak) trees mostly the edge of the boundary. ring plants, boundary. (mahogany tree)
at the edge of the court creating a Ornamental/flowe vegetables Ornamental/flowe trees mostly at
court creating a boundary. ring plants, (tomato, beans, ring plants, the edge of the
boundary. Ornamental/flowe vegetables cucumbers, vegetables court creating a
Ornamental/flowe ring plants, (tomato, beans, pumpkins, lemon, (tomato, beans, boundary.
ring plants, vegetables cucumbers, and other cucumbers, Ornamental/flowe
vegetables (tomato, beans, pumpkins, lemon, seasonal pumpkins, lemon, ring plants,
(tomato, beans, cucumbers, and other vegetables) in the and other vegetables
cucumber, pumpkins, lemon, seasonal garden. seasonal (tomato, beans,
pumpkin, lemon, and other vegetables) in the vegetables) in the cucumbers,
eggplant) in the seasonal garden. garden. pumpkins, lemon,
garden. vegetables) in the and other
garden. seasonal
vegetables) in the
garden.

46
3.5 Six Attributes of Courtyards

Courtyards attributes are categorized into the following six types:

1. Functional attributes
2. Environmental attributes
3. Enhancement of community attachment
4. Reflection of religious and cultural ideals
5. Psychological comfort
6. Economic benefits

3.5.1 Functional Attributes

A courtyard is an extended living space of a courtyard-based dwelling. As an outdoor

space, it accommodates various kinds of household activities. This section provides a
detailed description of courtyard activities observed and identified during the site survey
and interviews. To achieve a clear and concrete interpretation of numerous courtyard
activities, I have divided them into three parts—Daily, Weekly, and Seasonal—according
to the designated time and frequency of each activity. According to the activities’ nature,
they are categorized as domestic chores, leisure, religious, social, economically beneficial,
and occasional. Within the tables (3.3 and 3.4), the activities that are shared in nature and
involve family or social gatherings are marked with a different color ( ).

47
 Table 3. 3_Daily activities

Domestic
Type House 1 House 2 House 3 House 4 House 5 House 6 House 7 House 8
Most Cleaning dishes Cleaning, Cleaning, Cooking in the Cleaning, Cleaning, Cleaning, Cleaning,
frequent and other Drying Drying outdoor Drying clothes Drying clothes Drying Drying clothes and food
household items. clothes and clothes and kitchen, and food items, and food items, clothes and items, Washing clothes
Drying clothes food items, food items, Food Washing Washing clothes, food items,
And Food items Washing Washing preparation clothes, Servants use the Washing
(Ex: pickles). clothes clothes And Cutting, Servants use outdoor toilet clothes,
Washing clothes, Cleaning, the outdoor Servants
Servants use the Drying clothes toilet use the
outdoor toilet and food items, outdoor
Washing toilet
clothes
Less Eating Breakfast Eating Eating Eating Eating Eating Breakfast Household Household Small
frequent and Afternoon Breakfast Breakfast Breakfast and Breakfast and and Afternoon Small repairing works
snacks, and and Afternoon Afternoon snacks, repairing
Household Small Afternoon Afternoon snacks, snacks, Household Small works
repairing works snacks, snacks, Household Household repairing works
Household Household Small repairing Small repairing
Small Small works works
repairing repairing
works works
Domestic Cooking in the Cooking in Cooking in Cooking in the Cooking in the
Activities outdoor kitchen the outdoor the outdoor outdoor kitchen outdoor kitchen
that is no or mud stoves. kitchen. kitchen or or mud stoves. or mud stoves.
longer Food preparation Food mud stoves. Food Food preparation
done in and Cutting. preparation Food preparation and Cutting.
the Bathing and preparation and Cutting. Bathing
courtyard. Cutting. and Cutting Bathing
Bathing

48
 Leisure
Gardening, Gardening, Gardening, Gardening, Gardening, Gardening, Gardening Gardening,
Reading (books, Reading Reading Reading Reading Reading (books, Children play
newspaper, (books, (books, (books, (books, newspaper,
magazines) newspaper, newspaper, newspaper, newspaper, magazines)
Studying, magazines) magazines) magazines) magazines) Studying,
Spend time with Studying, Studying, Morning and Studying, Spend time with
pets, Spend time Spend time evening Spend time pets,
Morning and with pets, with pets, exercise with pets, Morning and
evening exercise, Morning Morning Morning and evening exercise,
Children play and and evening evening Children play
evening exercise, exercise,
exercise, Children Children play
Children play
play

Social
Meet with Meet with Meet with Meet with Meet with Meet with Not Children play,
neighbors mostly neighbors neighbors neighbors neighbors neighbors mostly spacious Meet with neighbors
in the afternoon, mostly in mostly in mostly in the mostly in the in the afternoon, enough for mostly in the afternoon
Children play the the afternoon, afternoon, these
afternoon, afternoon, Children play Children play Children play activities
Children Children
play play

Religious
Daily Daily prayer
prayer In front of the Tulsi plant
In front of
the Tulsi
plant

49
 Table 3. 4_Weekly, Seasonal, Economic and Religious Activities

Weekly
Type House 1 House 2 House 3 House 4 House 5 House 6 House 7 House 8
Weekly Weekly cleaning Weekly cleaning Weekly cleaning Weekly cleaning Weekly cleaning Weekly Weekly cleaning
cleaning of the of the courtyard, of the courtyard, of the courtyard, of the courtyard, of the courtyard, cleaning of of the courtyard.
courtyard, Weekly washing of Weekly washing Weekly washing Weekly washing of Weekly washing the
Weekly clothes of clothes of clothes clothes of clothes courtyard
washing of
clothes, Clean
Birdcage
Seasonal
Summer Enjoy the Enjoy the summer In summer when Enjoy the Enjoy the summer Enjoy the Dry food Dry food items,
summer breeze breeze sitting in the indoor is hot summer breeze breeze sitting in summer breeze items Enjoy the
sitting in the the courtyard and humid, they sitting in the the courtyard sitting in the summer breeze
courtyard mostly during the enjoy the courtyard mostly mostly during the courtyard sitting in the
mostly during time of load- summer breeze during the time of time of load- mostly during courtyard
the time of shedding, sitting in the load-shedding, shedding, the time of load- mostly during
load-shedding, Dry food items courtyard. Dry food items Dry food items shedding, the time of load-
Dry food items Dry food items shedding

Rain Enjoy rain with Enjoy rain with Enjoy the rain Enjoy the rain with Not Enjoy the rain
kids kids kids spacious with kids
enough for
these
activities
Winter Eat breakfast Eat breakfast Enjoy the sun in Eat breakfast Eat breakfast Not
the winter spacious
morning, have enough for
their breakfast these
and afternoon activities
snacks

50
 Occasional family and religious events
Birthday party, Birthday party, Birthday party, Birthday party, Birthday party, Birthday party, Not Wedding,
Funeral, Funeral, Funeral, Funeral, Funeral, Wedding, Funeral, spacious Religious
Wedding, Wedding, Wedding, Wedding, Religious Wedding, enough for programs,
Religious Religious Religious Religious programs Religious these Large meal
programs, programs, programs, programs, programs, activities preparation for
Animal Animal sacrifice in Animal sacrifice Animal sacrifice Animal sacrifice in Animal sacrifice family events or
sacrifice in Eid Eid (Muslim in Eid (Muslim in Eid (Muslim Eid (Muslim in Eid (Muslim get-togethers.
(Muslim religious festival), religious religious festival), religious festival), religious
religious Meat processing, festival), Meat processing, Meat processing, festival),
festival), Large meal Meat Large meal Large meal Meat
Meat preparation for processing, preparation for preparation for processing,
processing, family events or Large meal family events or family events or Large meal
Large meal get-togethers. preparation for get-togethers. get-togethers. preparation for
preparation for family events or family events or
family events get-togethers get-togethers.
or get-
togethers.
Economic
Selling extra Selling extra Selling extra Selling extra Selling extra Not Selling extra
garden garden produces garden produces garden produces garden produces spacious garden produces
produces (fruits (fruits and (fruits and (fruits and (fruits and enough for (fruits and
and vegetables) vegetables), vegetables), vegetables) vegetables) these vegetables)
They run a home- Clothes dyeing activities
based business of
candy making.

They have
installed a
temporary
structure in the
courtyard where
they make the
candies.

Community or shared activities.

51
Activities Based on Family Members and Age Groups

Table 3. 5_Courtyard activities based on family members.

Courtyard activities: Based on family members

Questions House 1 House 2 House 3 House 4 House 5 House 6 House 7 House 8
Father Reading, Reading, Reading, Reading, Reading, Reading, gardening, Gardening, Gardening,
gardening, gardening, gardening, gardening, gardening, repairing works, repairing repairing works,
repairing repairing repairing repairing repairing works, Exercise works Exercise
works, works, works, works, Exercise
Exercise Run the home- Exercise Exercise
based business
No of hours 14 hours and 14 hours and 14 hours and Stays at 14 hours and 14 hours and 14 hours and 14 hours and
spent at home weekends weekends weekends home weekends weekends weekends weekends
Mother Cooking, Cooking, Cooking, Cooking, Cooking, cutting, Cooking, cutting, Cooking, cutting,
cutting, cutting, cutting, cutting, washing dishes washing dishes and washing dishes
washing washing dishes washing dishes washing and clothes clothes and clothes
dishes and and clothes and clothes dishes and
clothes Run the home- clothes
based business
No of hours Stays at Stays at home Stays at home Stays at Stays at home Stays at home Stays at home Stays at home
spent at home home home
Children Reading, Reading, Reading, Reading, playing, Reading, playing, gardening gardening
Study, Study, playing, drawing Study, drawing Study,
gardening gardening drawing Study, gardening gardening
gardening
No of hours Live in 19 hours and 19 hours and Live in 19 hours and 19 hours and Live in another 19 hours and
spent at home another city weekends weekends another weekends weekends city to study weekends
to study city to
study
Grandparents Enjoy the sun Enjoy the sun in Enjoy the sun in Enjoy the sun in
in winter, read winter, read winter, read winter, read
newspapers, newspapers, newspapers, newspapers,
Wool knitting, Exercise Exercise Exercise
Exercise
No of hours Stays at home Stays at home Stays at home Stays at home
spent at home

52
The data from Table 3.5 shows that a courtyard has spatial adaptability and versatility to
serve residents of different age groups and interests.

The total amount of time spend by female heads of the family is higher than that of the
other members. Usually, most of these women’s domestic chores are courtyard based.
Simultaneously, they are always active in visually supervising their children, who play in
the courtyard. In the evening, when women are done with their domestic work, they spend
time with other female members of their neighborhood. The families who do not cook in
the kitchen or no longer use the outdoor water pump still use the courtyard to dry clothes,
and food items, a task that is also performed by the women. In Hindu courtyard houses,
female members have additional work, mostly in the morning. They do their daily prayer
in front of the holy “Tulsi” plant in the courtyard.
The male members of the family spend time in the courtyard mostly in the evening after
returning from work. They are more involved in the structural maintenance of the
courtyards.

For children, a courtyard is a safe and secure ground to play, explore nature, and learn
various life lessons. As the courtyard is an enclosed space where access and exit are both
in the control of the parents, the children feel a sense of protection from the outer world.
As all the courtyards are in an urban setting closed to the vehicular streets, the parents
always prefer their children to play in their home courtyards. Another reason for this is that
there is no playground for children in the neighborhood or surrounding areas. The
remaining playgrounds that the city currently has are solely owned by larger educational
institutions and only accessible for the students of those institutions, and those playgrounds
are not within walking distance to the courtyard houses. In courtyards, children learn about
plants, domestic animals, and birds, which helps them to learn about flora and fauna at an
early age. They are always intrigued to assist their fathers in their courtyard activities,
especially the boys, which helps them to develop their problem-solving skills. The girls
usually like to help their mothers with their work, and in the evening, rather than going
outside of the house, they like to spend time with their community friends in their private
courtyards. Other than that, they get to meet the elders of the community and learn social
skills. By visiting their neighbors’ courtyards regularly, they observe and learn about the
diversity of lifestyles and living patterns.

The elder members of the family are usually less involved in daily domestic activities. They
usually prefer to spend leisure time in the courtyard, relaxing or reading newspapers or
books. Sometimes, they sit with grandchildren or with other community children and tell
them stories or share their life stories.

53
Modernization and Spatial and Functional Changes of the Courtyards
Table 3. 6_Changes in activity pattern

Courtyard activities changed over time

House 1 House 2 House 3 House House 5 House 6 House House 8
4 7

Activities Cooking Cooking Cooking Bathing Bathing Bathing Cooking

Food Food Food
preparation preparation preparation
Cutting, Cutting, Cutting,
Cleaning Bathing Cleaning
dishes dishes
Bathing Bathing

Threatened Children Children Children Children Children Children

Activities are not are not are not are not are not are not
frequently frequently frequently frequently frequently frequently
playing in playing in playing in playing in playing in playing in
courtyards. courtyards. courtyards. courtyards. courtyards. courtyards.
Rather Rather Rather Rather Rather Rather
they are they are they are they are they are they are
more more more more more more
involved in involved in involved in involved in involved in involved in
electric electric electric electric electric electric
gadgets gadgets gadgets gadgets gadgets gadgets
and video and video and video and video and video and video
games. games. games. games. games. games.
Replaced Indoor Indoor Indoor Indoor Indoor Indoor Indoor Indoor
by kitchen kitchen kitchen toilet toilet toilet toilet toilet
And toilet And toilet And toilet

54
Table 3.6 identifies the activities that are no longer done in the courtyards. It demonstrates
that the changes mostly occurred in daily household and leisure activities. According to
residents, their teenagers, and young adults who previously used to spend most of their
leisure time in the courtyards now tend to spend more time indoors than doing any outdoor
physical activities. However, other than that, the weekly, seasonal, socio-cultural,
economic, and religious activities of the families remained unchanged. During the
interview, the respondents discussed the reasons why some of the activities are no longer
done in the courtyards. The factors can be summarized as follows:
Changing Domestic Activities: Previously, many of the courtyard-based houses had an
outdoor kitchen or stove where the residents used to cook during the day. The study area
did not have any gas connection provided by the municipality before the year 2000. During
that time, residents of the area used either kerosene stoves or electric stoves for cooking.
However, the houses that had courtyards had a cheaper alternative, which was the wood-
burning mud and clay stoves that the residents had installed in the outer kitchens of their
courtyards. It was cheaper because the residents could get the wood at a less expensive
rate, and sometimes, they could get it from their dead courtyard plants. In the daytime, they
used to cook their breakfast and lunch in the outer kitchen. The kerosene stoves that they
had indoors were mostly used at night. After the year 2000, when they were provided with
cooking gas by the municipality, they started to cook in the kitchen inside, which they
found more convenient.
Apart from cooking, most of the families no longer use the hand-operated water pump
because of the availability of the electric water pump. Some of the houses still have the
platform where the previous hand-operated pump was replaced with the electric pump.
Because the toilets the residents have inside their houses are often smaller in size, they still
use the platform to wash clothes or dishes and other household items that require a larger
area to be washed. However, as the inner courtyard is no more private than it was before,
they feel a little uncomfortable working in that area.
Privacy: In recent days, several multistoried buildings were built in plots adjacent to these
houses, which eventually affected the privacy of the inner courtyard. Because of that, most
of the families feel uncomfortable being in the courtyards, especially the females, who
always feel that they are being observed by people in the surrounding residences.

Changes in Spatial and Physical Characteristics: In the drawing of the chronological

development of the case-study courtyards, the spatial and physical changes can be seen.
Initially, the courtyards were larger, but as the families grew over time, they extended the
main dwelling, and the courtyards became smaller in size. The Muslim courtyards were

55
not interlocked with each other, but they were previously connected by secondary
entrances. The reason behind this is that most of the houses were built around the same
time, and there was a strong community bond between the early builders, which
encouraged them to connect each other’s courtyards through secondary entrances. Another
change can be seen over time: previously, the families were more dependent on the outdoor
kitchen and toilet, but the earlier structures were later changed into outdoor storage spaces
or sometimes demolished.

3.5.2 Environmental Aspects of Urban Courtyards

Comfortable Indoor Environment: In the hot, humid climatic condition of the city,
courtyards play a significant role in maintaining a comfortable indoor thermal environment
by minimizing direct-surface heat gain, facilitating air circulation within the building to
promote wind-driven ventilation, and lowering the humidity level of the indoor spaces.

According to (Rajapaksha, 2007), a courtyard-based dwelling shows three different kinds

of airflow patterns such as upwind funnel, horizontal plus upwind, and top vortex,
depending on the changing opening condition of a dwelling. Besides, the courtyard sky
opening acts as a negative pressure zone, while most of the building openings such as doors
or windows act as a positive pressure zone. This pressure difference initiates air movement,
into the building as the openings act as a suction zone to draw the cooler outer air into the
building—air that then travels through the indoor spaces and finally gets discharged to the
sky by the courtyard top. Rajapaksha has termed these air movements as an upwind air
funnel and horizontal plus upwind air pattern.

Figure 3. 6_Different airflow patterns in a courtyard building,

A. Air enters the building through the longitudinal axis openings, B. Air enters through both axis openings
C. Openings are closed. (Rajapaksha, 2007)

56
He also added, indoor and outdoor air movement mainly depends on the opening condition
of the building’s surfaces. Typical traditional swing doors and windows have larger
openings to discharge maximum warmer air to the outdoors. Also, these traditional houses
have additional high windows that also help to discharge indoor warmer air to the courtyard
space. When all the façade openings are closed, the courtyard creates an air vortex at its
top. This happens when the courtyard space draws the top-level cooler air into it, and the
air finds no side opening to pass through. The incoming air then uses the same air entrance
as a departure to discharge the air by creating an air vortex (Rajapaksha,2007). He also
argued that the performance of a courtyard as an air funnel to discharge warmer air into the
sky is more advantageous than a courtyard acting as a suction zone to induce cooler outdoor
air to the building. Other than that, at nighttime, the courtyard helps low-level warmer air
to rise and discharge into the sky by a stack effect, and the air is then replaced by the cold
air coming from the top.
When there is a small pressure difference between the indoors and outdoors, the courtyard
helps to refresh the contaminated indoor air by replacing it with outdoor air. The loose
connection of built forms also facilitates the air movement within the courtyard space
which eventually regulates the humidity level of the indoor spaces.

Courtyard vegetation, through evapotranspiration, helps to maintain a lower

temperature. According to a study by Sandifer et al. (2002), the temperature in and
underneath the plant foliage can be lowered by 7°–10°C compared to its
surroundings. However, in these traditional courtyards, occasional humidity increase
due to dense vegetation is minimized by the continuous airflow within the space.
Apart from ventilation, courtyard verandahs help to reduce direct solar heat gain from the
attached facades. The verandahs, along with roof extensions and shading devices, cast a
shadow on the courtyard floor and façade openings. From the site observations, it has been
seen that the ground close to the northern side of the building always remains moister and
more shadowy than other sides. The growth of vegetation on these sides is slower than in
other parts of the courtyard, as this part has a continuous shadow throughout the day. The
tall trees and small structures create a shadow on the courtyard floor according to the sun's
position during the daytime. Eventually, the plants also help to minimize heat gain by the
courtyard surfaces and maintain a comparatively cooler environment under their wider
canopies. The observation shows that the residents have a clear understanding of their
courtyard shading conditions, which they properly utilize during their activities. When it
comes to drying clothes or other items, they prefer the sunniest spots of the courtyards. All
of their clothes-drying ropes seem to hang in the sunniest parts of the courtyards. Most of

57
their activity or relaxing spaces are within the shady parts of the courtyards. Even the
concentration of vegetation is higher in the sunniest parts of the courtyards.

Although the study shows that traditional courtyards are not very strict in maintaining a
north-south orientation to take maximum advantage of regional wind direction, the
presence of tall trees with a wide canopy system and additional shading from semi-open
spaces and built forms helps to minimize the heat gain and contributes to achieving a
comfortable thermal condition within the building and the courtyard itself.

Lighting: Courtyard vegetation, especially plants with dense foliage, creates a top screen
over the courtyard that protects the courtyard floor and adjacent facades from extreme mid-
day sunlight and UV radiation. The courtyard helps to improve the daylight conditions of
the houses when the courtyard floor reflects the inbound daylight to the indoors through
façade openings.

Noise Control and Air Purification: Courtyard plants reduce glare, dirt, and dust by
filtering direct polluted air. It also helps to reduce the noise level of the courtyards when
they are located close to the streets. Eight of the houses are close to vehicular roads where
five of them are indirectly attached to a major highway. The peripheral boundary walls and
screens of plants help to keep these houses from receiving the dusty air of the road. The
impermeable courtyard boundary, dense vegetation, and inward-facing dwelling layout
protect the houses from noise and air pollution. For example, in House 4 (which has a major
vehicular road attached to its south façade), the vegetation on the southern side was
completely covered with dust particles received from the road.

3.5.3 Enhancement of Community Attachment

The community bonding seen in Houses 1–6 is more noteworthy when compared to Houses
7 and 8. A probable reason could be that Houses 7 and 8 are the only courtyard-based
houses in their neighborhood situated in the context of multi-storied residential
developments. Additionally, the residents of these neighborhoods are less likely to interact
with each other, probably because the community lacks any designated community space
for them, and they are all newly moved migrants. On the other hand, Houses 1–6 is in the
same neighborhood where each of their courtyards acts as a social hub for the community.
It provides a space for the family as well as for the entire neighborhood to meet and share
their knowledge and ideas. In these communities, female members are seen to have very

58
close relationships with each other. If a family arranges a large event (such as a birthday
or wedding), all other neighbors seem to help them in the organization and management
process. The same happens when someone dies in the community. All the neighbors
support the mourning family by showing empathy and cooking meals for them. They even
seem to financially help when someone from the community is in an economic crisis. It is
also seen that residents are more comfortable with each other when they are of the same
age group or gender. For example, interviewing the young adults and children of the
community, it is seen that some of them consider each other to be their best friends and
feel more comfortable spending time with them than with their elders. Such a remarkable
friendly relationship grew in this community because the residents have been neighbors for
over 40 years, which is a long time for such strong bonding. In modern multistoried
buildings, residents usually do not get such a long time with each other to develop a sense
of mutual comfort. However, the role of having such social platforms as courtyards behind
this friendly bonding cannot be overruled, either. Having a designated and safe ground for
mutual interaction and activity seems to enhance the chance of a collaborative and sociable
community.

3.5.4 Reflection of Religious and Cultural Ideals

In Muslim houses (House 1–6), the introvert dwelling layouts along with introvert
courtyards successfully provide the desired female privacy demanded by conventional
Muslim lifestyle and Islamic ideals. The three layers of courtyard enclosure, such as the
walls, buildings, and plant screens all together ensure both physical and visual privacy to
the female members of a Muslim family. Other than that, courtyards are also used
occasionally in Islamic religious festivals. They provide spaces for animal sacrifice and
meat processing in the period of Qurbani Eid, which is one of the two major Muslim
religious festivals. Usually, Muslims do not have any designated space for religious
activities in their courtyards; however, the first few steps of a Muslim funeral (such as
collective bathing and covering of the dead body) always seem to be performed in the
private courtyards. Sometimes, neighboring houses that do not have courtyards use other
courtyards to complete their funeral rituals. If a community does not have any courtyard-
like space, it is a struggle for the family to find a bathing space for the dead, especially if
the body belongs to a female. They either manage the rituals indoors or find adjacent
masjids in which to complete the activity. However, Muslims also do collective funeral
prayers, and most of the time, those are performed in the courtyard space.

59
Courtyards also play a significant role in Hindu houses (Houses 7 and 8). Hindu courtyards
can be easily recognizable by the holy Tulsi (basil) planted in the middle of the courtyard.
The female members of the Hindu family water and worship the plant regularly.
Sometimes, small family temples are also found in the courtyards of wealthy families. For
Hindu religious festivals, wealthy Hindu families arrange the worship event in their
courtyards or the courtyards’ temples. If they do not have a home temple, they usually build
a temporary platform on which to place the deity, and other Hindu families from the
neighborhood come to perform their rituals there. In recent times, as urban Hindu
courtyards are disappearing and being replaced by multistoried apartments, the ground
floors of those houses have been used to place temples and the holy Tulsi plants, which are
used by the whole community. Along with spaces for the temple and the holy plant, Hindu
courtyards also have separate spaces for animal sacrifice and water supply.

3.5.5 Psychological Comfort

Johannes Spalt, in his book Atrium: Five Thousand Years of Open Courtyards, writes,
“Man needs a place of peace, seclusion, as a part of greater hostile, the amorphous world
outside, space which all the same, receives its share of day and night, sun and moon, heat
and cold and rain. This space which is subservient to the passage of the days and years and
to the rules that order existence, is the “courtyard” (Blaser, 1985). Schoenauer and Seeman,
in their book, describe the courtyard as a “paradise in the wilderness.” According to them,
the first factor that contributed to the popularity of the courtyard was its congruousness
with humans’ mental image of heaven (Schoenauer and Seeman, p.15).

In his book A Theory of Human Motivation, Abraham Maslow, a famous American

humanistic psychologist, divides human demands into five hierarchies: physiological
(coziness of survival and health), safety (protectiveness, privacy, fear, etc.), belonging and
loving (love, sex, sentiment, friendship, and independence), respect (reputation, authority,
appraisal, success), and self-realization (Maslow, 2013). A recent study (Cui et al, 2015)
shows that courtyard spaces successfully meet the demands of coziness, protectiveness,
safety, privacy, belonging, territory, and self-realization. Courtyards as enclosed spaces of
these eight houses mark symbols of territory that meet residents’ demand for recreation,
entertainment, communication, and spiritual benefit. It provides residents a sense of
security, privacy, and seclusion from the outer world. For these eight households, whether
large or small, courtyards are the most cherished spaces for residents of all age groups. As
the only space of the house directly connected to the outer environment, courtyards are a

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constant source of fresh air and light and a space that provide residents a connection to
nature and wildlife.

3.5.6 Economic Benefits

By observing the economic activities in the sample courtyards, it is clear that courtyards
are economically beneficial in many ways. In larger courtyard houses, such as Houses 1–
6, the central courtyard space is used to arrange various family events such as birthday
celebrations, wedding ceremonies, and family get-togethers. Families like these, who have
enough space in their courtyards, prefer not to book commercial community halls to
arrange different family events, as those halls are very expensive. Additionally, the trees
and plants from the courtyard provide fruits and vegetables to the family, which they can
either sell or consume. Today, when prices of fruits and vegetables are increasing in the
market and market products contain higher amounts of chemicals and preservatives, these
families prefer to grow their fruits and vegetables in their courtyards. The courtyard space
is also beneficial to the families who run home-based small businesses, such as in House
2, the courtyard provides them enough outdoor space to carry out their home-based candy
factory, where they also have a temporary shaded structure to store their ingredients, stoves
and other equipment that they use to make candies.

From the field observation, it has been seen that courtyard houses are also efficient
regarding energy consumption. Courtyards act as sources of daylight during the daytime;
the rooms around the court are well illuminated during the daytime, which makes
inhabitants less dependent on artificial lighting. As courtyards naturally ventilate the indoor
environment and are efficient in keeping the indoor temperature comfortable, they also
reduce the cooling costs of the houses.

Das (2006) discussed that adjacent courtyard houses, by sharing walls, reduce construction
and maintenance costs as well as reduce the amount of surface area that is vulnerable to
heat gain, which may help to reduce the air conditioning inside the house. She also states
that courtyard houses are efficient in land usage, as they do not need to leave setback areas
between buildings, thus allowing the inhabitants to use the maximum floor area possible.

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3.6 Current Challenges and the Forces Contributing to the Process of
Disappearance of Domestic Courtyards

Kamruzzaman and Ogura (2007) has identified several key contributing factors behind the
emergence of apartments in Dhaka city. The factors include population growth, increasing
land prices and housing demand, a profitable commercial market for apartments for both
landowners and developers, available housing construction loans, fragmentation of land
ownership due to inheritance laws, residents’ inclination to apartment living due to western
influence, personal security, and desire to live within the city center. Much like the capital
Dhaka, the city of Mymensingh has entered an era of rapid modernization, urbanization,
and population growth, which has had a dramatic effect on its residential architecture. Over
the last two decades, multistoried apartments have been gradually forming the new skyline
of the city, replacing its traditional courtyard houses, which made up a fundamental
dwelling type of the city from the very beginning. In the field survey, residents of courtyard
houses discussed many of the reasons that forced them to demolish the courtyards to build
apartments instead. The factors they pointed out that contribute to the conscious and
unconscious disappearance of the courtyards are correlated.

Privacy: Contemporary issues affecting residents of courtyard houses are mostly related
to privacy, given the adjacent multistoried buildings. These buildings have windows
overlooking the courtyards, which makes the residents of courtyard-based houses
uncomfortable doing their domestic activities in the court. Usually, courtyard houses are
one- to two-storied buildings, so the residents always have the feeling of being watched by
their neighbors when they spend time in the court.

Security: Another concern of the residents is security. Courtyards are open spaces enclosed
by peripheral walls of 7–10 ft in height, making them vulnerable to theft and robbery.
However, residents have their own set of security mechanisms to deal with the problem:
sometimes they raise the height of the wall or use barbed-wire fencing on the tops of the
walls for further security.

Increasing Land Prices: Due to rapid urbanization and commercial development, land
prices in the city have increased dramatically over the past few years. In this context,
having a courtyard within the house has become a luxurious choice of the residents, and to
achieve optimal profit, most of the earlier courtyard houses have been demolished to
construct new, compact apartments. Today, it is hard to find older domestic courtyards
within the city center. However, a few courtyard houses are still seen in the peripheral areas

62
of the city, much like the study buildings, which are endangered and will soon be
demolished to construct new apartments.
Land Limitation and Population Growth: From the literature survey, it was found that
the Bengali courtyard houses grow as the family grows. Initially, the houses start with
larger courtyards, which gradually become smaller with the extension of the main dwelling
units. The interview with the residents has revealed that, in modern times, the former
process has been changed due to increasing land price, population growth, and land
limitation. Rapid urbanization has changed the population structure of the city, and the
need for high-density compact-type apartments is ever increasing. In these circumstances,
low-density single- or double-storied courtyard houses fall short of meeting the new
housing demands of the city. Today, residents mostly prefer to demolish existing courtyard
houses to construct new compact-type tall buildings. The recent emergence of private
developers within the city has accelerated the process of compact-type construction more
than ever before. Additionally, due to the rapid population increase of the city, the need for
new apartments is higher than in earlier times, so it is a now profitable business to invest
money in new apartment construction.

Land Fragmentation: The study area is experiencing rapid land fragmentation due to the
law of inheritance of paternal property. By Islamic inheritance law, paternal property and
land are divided among sons and daughters. The study houses initially started with large
land areas when land prices were less compared to present-day land values. Later, as the
families grew, the land was divided among their children. Many of the new landowners
have already begun to replace the old courtyard houses with new high-rise apartments.
Most of them prefer private developers to construct the apartments for them followed by
legal agreements.

Socio-Cultural Changes: During the interview, the residents were asked if they believe
that changes in socio-cultural practices have changed their need for a courtyard. What they
believe is that, although most of them are attracted to modern apartment living, their social
structure and religious and cultural values have not changed over the years. In both Muslim
and Hindu houses, the courtyard is still believed to be a part of their culture and life. The
ideals of women’s privacy vary according to the different Muslim families, but the need
for family privacy in courtyards is still a prime concern for them, and this is also true in
Hindu households. The Hindu houses that were studied during the field survey are about
to be demolished to construct new apartments, but the main identifying features of Hindu
courtyards, the holy Tulsi plants, and the statues, still hold the same positions in those
courtyards. The almost disappearing courtyards of these houses still carry and reflect the
socio-cultural, traditional, and religious values of the families who live there.

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 Chapter 4

Spatial Reinterpretation of Courtyards in High-Density Residential

Developments

4. 1 Introduction

This chapter aims to explore the spatial possibilities of reintegrating traditional Bengali
courtyards into the design of modern residential built forms, focusing on the constraints of
high density and land limitation. To achieve this, the chapter envisions a new courtyard
type as an alteration of the traditional design that could be applicable in high-rise and high-
density housing. The design elements and strategies of traditional Bengali courtyards
identified previously serve as the primary guidelines in this process and will be evaluated
in terms of their strength, limitations, and modern feasibility. With the understanding of
modern Bengali lifestyle and requirements, the chapter discusses and proposes a set of
courtyard design strategies. Thus, the content of this chapter includes three major sections:
first, conceptual urban courtyard models and classifications; second, design considerations
of the proposed courtyard models; and third, conceptual examples demonstrating the
spatial possibilities of incorporating new courtyard models into residential designs.

4. 2 Redefining Traditional Courtyards: Spatially Adaptable Urban Courtyards

An urban alternative to the traditional courtyard requires spatial adjustments and

modifications to fit in a fundamentally different, dense context. To find a substitution, the
study focuses on courtyard attributes and functions more than the courtyard’s conventional
structure. The main idea of this proposal is to provide urban residents spaces with outdoor
connections that function as traditional courtyards both spatially and environmentally. In
that sense, the suggested alternative may contradict a basic understanding of courtyards to
some extent.
Classically, the courtyard is interpreted as being a partially or completely enclosed, open-
to-sky space situated on the ground. One of the limitations of this typical ground-based
model is that it is only expandable horizontally, serving only low-density neighborhoods.
This study’s concept begins with a revised definition of the courtyard, where the author is
flexible with its defining elements and standard definition to produce new urban typologies.
Based on this primary notion, new urban models were developed by altering the
courtyard’s degree of openness and ground position. Regarding openness, new courtyards

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are of two types: open to sky and semi-open, and regarding location, they are either ground
courtyards or elevated courtyards. The term “semi-open courtyard” denotes a courtyard
that replaces its sky openings with side openings, depending on the design context.
Similarly, the elevated courtyard is a type that is elevated above the ground or street level.
The two typologies suggest that similar to the typical open-to-sky ground courtyards, a
strategically designed semi-open or elevated space can also serve as a courtyard by
occupying the only available vertical spaces of growing cities.
The advantage of this new approach is that it makes courtyards able to be stackable,
sandwiched between two floors, and placed at the roof level of a building, providing a wide
range of design possibilities. Additionally, contrary to the traditional horizontal
arrangement, where a single courtyard serves a single household, these new tactics would
allow for the accommodation of multiple courtyards in a single building and serve a large
number of households within a small piece of land. As a modern alternative, they are
suitable to fit in a highly dense urban context where land is scarce and horizontal expansion
and other resources are limited. Most importantly, this approach would give urban residents
a breathing space within a highly built-up urban setting with all the functional,
sociocultural, and environmental qualities of traditional courtyard-based living.

4.2.1 Spatially Adaptable Urban Courtyards Typologies

I. Based on the Degree of Openness and Location

Table 4. 1_Courtyard typologies based on the degree of openness and location.

Consideration Courtyard Diagram Features

Type
Openness Open to sky The courtyard top is open to the
sky. Depending on the design, it
can be completely open on four
sides or may have enclosing
facades.

Spatially, they quite resemble

typical Bengali courtyards. Light
and air will be received from the
top and side facades depending
on the design. The courtyard can
regulate the indoor thermal
environment by acting as a
suction zone or as an upwind air
funnel.

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 Semi-open Topped with a structural roof,
Lateral facades will borrow light
and air inside the courtyard. The
roof provides additional shade on
the courtyard interior according
to the sun’s position. Façade
openings can regulate the indoor
thermal environment by acting as
Semi-open type 1 a suction zone.
Possible to incorporate in high-
density high-rises by stacking one
above another.

Semi-open type 2

Location Ground- Floor-type: Ground

level Side facade types: Building
Courtyards facades, low light vegetation,
boundary walls, and fences.
Ceiling type: open to sky or
structural floor

Partially enclosed by sides or

completely open to the sky.
Not possible for developments
with ground-level parking. In the
case of dense urban surroundings,
this typology may not be an
efficient model to use.

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 Intermediate Floor-type: Structural roof of
courtyards lower-level apartments
Side façade types: Adjacent
apartment facades, railings, and
mid to low light vegetation.
Ceiling type: Structural roof of
Upper-level apartments

Partially or completely enclosed

by sides or completely open type.
These are semi-open type
courtyards and suitable to locate
in any vertical location of a
building.
Top-level Floor-type: Structural roof of
courtyards lower-level apartments
Side facades: Adjacent
apartments facades, railings, and
vegetation
Ceiling type: Sky

These models can be applied to

the roof level and podium tops of
a building.

II. Based on the Degree of Privacy and Functionality

Urban Domestic and Communal Courtyard Variants

A field survey of courtyard activities and degree of privacy, accessibility, and control
indicates that a traditional courtyard as a single territory plays three distinguished roles.
First of all, it is the private domain of an individual, where a resident finds a space of their
own and utilizes it for their personal development. Secondly, it is a family space, where all
the family members collectively enjoy a private domain separated from the outer world.
Simultaneously, the same place also behaves like a social hub within the control of its
owner. This synchronization of privacy and functionality demonstrates the flexible nature
of a traditional courtyard. In traditional settings, courtyards switch their roles with the time
of the day. For example, during the early hours of a day when families are busy with
housekeeping or regular work, the courtyard acts as a family space, and during the

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afternoon, when residents are done with daily responsibilities and take leisure time, it
serves as a community space, accommodating leisure or community activities. This
versatility of courtyards implies they are private and semi-private domains serving as both
domestic and social units for a range of contrasting activities.
To ensure the maximum use of limited urban floor space and resources, urban courtyards
were separated into two broad typologies: the domestic courtyard and the communal
courtyard. The objective of this categorization is to group activities that are similar in their
privacy levels, space requirements, occupancy types, occupancy volumes, and spatial
characteristics.

Domestic Courtyards
The vertical domestic courtyard is conceptualized as a domestic-scale private courtyard,
owned by an individual household and attached to a single high-rise apartment to
accommodate both the physical and psychological activities of an individual or a family.

Communal Courtyards
Unlike a traditional neighborhood, where each dwelling contains a multi-purpose
courtyard, a modern vertical neighborhood is spatially restricted to have a courtyard
adequately sized to house communal activities. This notion has developed the study’s
communal courtyard typology, which aims to design a designated community-scale, semi-
private courtyard to group all the communal activities in a single space. However, the
accessibility is limited to high-rise residents, and the authors hypothesize that it will be
controlled at the entrances of the building, the ground-floor level, or the basement level.
Spatially, the high-rise roofs, an open floor, or a pocket space within a floor can be designed
as communal courtyards.

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4. 3 Spatial Design Considerations for Urban Adaptable Courtyards

As previously mentioned, the proposed typologies aim to incorporate all the courtyard
activities and attributes learned from the case studies. To achieve this goal, a set of design
considerations has been generated to give modern users the best possible experience of
conventional ground-level courtyards.
However, the new design considerations require a proper understanding of modern
changing lifestyles and needs. Additionally, traditional design techniques also need
evaluation to identify essential modifications and alterations. The next sections of this
chapter discuss and propose a set of spatial design considerations by analyzing the
functional and climatic factors that influence a courtyard design.
This section is divided into two major parts:

1. Design considerations to improve functionality

2. Design considerations to address climatic factors

4. 4 Design Considerations to Improve Functionality

This section is divided into four parts:

1. Determination of courtyard size

2. Design considerations and principles for enclosure and privacy mechanisms
3. Positions, activity-space relationships, accessibility, and visual connectivity of
the courtyards
4. Enhancing use engagement and associated courtyard elements

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4.4. 1 Determination of Courtyard Size

The size of modern courtyards should derive from contemporary family structure, lifestyle,
the users’ age groups, the expected amount of time that will be spent in the courtyards,
courtyard-based activity patterns, the residents’ required privacy level, and space
requirements. To determine an efficient courtyard size for both domestic and communal
typologies, this study focuses on the following three factors:
1. Number of users
2. Potential courtyard activities, user age groups, the expected amount of time spent
in courtyards, and space requirements
3. Courtyard elements

I. Number of Users
Domestic Courtyard: Extended family structures, low-tech lifestyles, and pre-
modern activity patterns generated larger courtyards in earlier dwellings. However,
contemporary Bengali families are of the nuclear type, consisting of an average of four
members that include both parents and children (BBS, 2018). This indicates that new
domestic courtyards should be designed to serve at least four persons.

Communal Courtyard: Communal courtyard size should be derived from the total
number of households accommodated by a high-rise residence. However, an upper and
lower limit of households should be fixed for each communal courtyard to ensure its
efficiency. An adequately sized communal courtyard can promote community
interaction, intimacy, ownership, and territoriality for the users. However, if it is
undersized, it can restrict its functionality and weaken the sense of community. The
same is applicable for an oversized court, which would make it harder for the community
to get to know each other and form successful social bonds. To determine a size limit
for communal courts, the authors followed a guideline provided by the architect
Ross Chaplin in his book Pocket Neighborhoods: Creating Small-Scale Community
in a Large-Scale World. In his book, he suggests a range of a minimum of four to a
maximum of 12 or 16 as the ideal number of households to develop a sense of the
neighborhood (Chaplin, 2011). To design an efficient communal courtyard, the study
also recommends a range of four to 16 households as a standard.

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 II. Potential Courtyard Activities, User age Groups, Expected Amount of Time
Spent in Courtyards, and Space Requirements

Domestic Activities: Modern-day domestic activities are different from traditional

ones due to technological advancement and changing lifestyles. For example, in urban
life, the traditional practice of outdoor cooking has changed into a trend of
occasional or recreational cooking. Modern courtyards no longer need a complete
outdoor kitchen or cooking space to accommodate daily cooking with all other cooking-
related activities, such as cutting, preparing, and washing. However, recreational cooking
such as barbecuing, and grilling is a modern way of outdoor cooking that should be taken
into consideration while designing. These cooking processes usually do not need a
washing space, but a cooking station is required with enough spaces to accommodate
cutting, preparing, and cooking. Another modern-day difference is the participation of
all the family members in outdoor cooking. In traditional households, cooking is only
done by the female head of the family, whereas the recreational form of cooking is
counted as a family activity where everyone in the family participates. This behavior also
requires additional space to accommodate all the family members, both for cooking
and eating. Similarly, other eliminated traditional courtyard activities include outdoor
bathing and laundry. There is no water source or bathing platform required in modern
courtyards. Even when the residents cook outside, the associated washing is done in the
indoor kitchen. These changes have also lowered the size requirements of domestic courts.
Furthermore, household leisure activities have changed dramatically in modern times,
especially for urban teenagers and young adults. These young people spend most of their
leisure time using computers, mobile phones, or social media, or watching television.
Excessive use of this media has already proven to harm human psychology, causing
depression, anxiety, stress, frustration, and isolation. In that sense, adequately sized
communal courtyards could be an effective initiative to incorporate attractive outdoor
activities to engage urban users to spend time enjoying nature, meeting each other, or
interacting with their society. The size should be followed by the list of activities and
creative design of the communal courtyard, which is discussed in later sections of this
chapter.
The amount of time this modern-day family will spend in the courtyard differs from the
traditional lifestyle, especially for the mother of the family. The current female
employment rate in Bangladesh is 28.4% (ILO, 2018), which is much less than that of
males. However, the recent rise of women entrepreneurship and female-headed home-
based enterprises, especially social media-based e-commerce businesses, has given birth
to a working- and living-based home environment for urban dwellers (Afrin et al, 2017).
These businesses include creating clothing, sewing, weaving, embroidery work, tailoring,
handicraft manufacturing, packaging, catering services, food preparation, and

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confectionery. Afrin et al.’s study (2017) focused on home-based enterprises and their
relationship with domestic spaces, claiming that the inadequacy of female workspaces at
home and the absence of a working-living dwelling system are some of the major
limitations that the industry is currently facing. The study also demonstrated that the
courtyard as an outdoor domestic space provides women an alternate workspace at home.
These findings add a role for new urban courtyards to perform as an alternate workspace
for home-based businesses. To do that, it is important to consider all these types of work
to be done in those courtyards as well as the courtyards’ space requirements to determine
the average size of the new courtyards. To determine its size, the courtyard should be given
the same importance as the indoor living spaces and should not be smaller than these
spaces.

Possible Activities of Domestic Courtyards

Table 4. 2_Possible activities of domestic courtyards.

Activities Activities Possible time User group

type spending
Domestic Parents and grandparents: Morning to Mother,
Household small repairing works, afternoon: father,
cooking, cleaning, cutting vegetables, drying clothes, Approximately grandparents
and food items. 8 hours , and
Children, teenagers, and young adults: Playing, children
drawing, homework, reading, studying.

Leisure Relaxing, sitting, reading for entertainment such as Afternoon and Adults and
magazines, newspapers or books, gardening, listening evening: children
to music or radio, exercising, knitting. Approximately
4-5 hours
Economic Homebased small business, Morning or Adults
Examples: clothing, sewing, weaving, embroidery Nighttime
work, tailoring, handicraft manufacturing, packaging,
catering services, food, and confectionery.
Growing vegetables, fruits, and herbs. All-day Adults and
children
Religious The daily prayer of different religions especially Varies Adults and
Hindu’s. according to children
A platform to house religious deities and Holy plants. religion.
Daily prayer, festive prayer.

Cultural Bengali cultural events such as the celebration of Morning or Parents and
Bengali new year, the celebration of the first day of Nighttime children
autumn, etc.
Family events A small family gathering, birthday party, anniversary Mostly done in
or small-scale and other special occasions and celebrations, Small the nighttime.
social events BBQ parties, etc.

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Communal Activities:
Observations and interviews from the earlier case study point to a changed behavior pattern
of modern society that might be a challenge to design modern community courtyards.
Residents feel that modern-day neighbors are less cooperative and less trustworthy, and
their sense of community is much poorer compared to that of earlier societies. A probable
reason could be, technological advancement of the modern era and poor work-life balance,
that have made urban residents more individualistic and less involved in community
activities. Modern-day high-rises where residents come from different backgrounds and
cultures also pose a challenge to plan an efficient and appropriate common space to serve
heterogeneous inhabitants. In this regard, the design of communal courtyards should be
highly innovative and user-engaging to deal with society, which is diverse in preferences
and where the sense of community bonding is in a stage of decline.
The size of vertical communal courtyards is vital in this regard and could provide enough
space and amenities to engage neighbors in outdoor activities. The diverse religious and
cultural festivals of Bengali communities should also be taken into consideration to
determine the proper size of the courtyard. In terms of size, earlier courtyards had the
advantage of a larger area to accommodate all the family and socio-cultural activities,
which, in a way, maximized the chances for residents to spend more time in the courtyard
space. In this regard, smaller urban courtyards would reduce the number of activities and
lessen user participation, which must be avoided to design a successful communal
courtyard.
Possible Activities of Community Courtyards
Table 4. 3_Possible activities of community courtyards.

Activities Activities Possible Time spending User group

type
Daily and Sitting Morning, afternoon, Adults (Male,
leisure evening, or nighttime female), children
Playing Children
Walking Adults, children
Reading Adults, children
Exercising Adults, children
Community Gardening Adults, children
Economic Homebased small business All-day Adults
Vertical farming: Growing and Adults
selling fruits and vegetable
Religious Religious festivals of a different Depends on the religion. For Adults, children
religion. example, Muslims do their
Example: Eid, Puja, etc. Eid prayers in the morning

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 Daily or festive prayer, and Hindus do their
Communal prayer worships both in the
morning and nighttime.
Funeral prayers Funeral prayers have no
fixed time, depends on
different conditions.

Cultural A ceremonial gathering place. Morning or Nighttime Adults, children

Example: Bengali cultural events,
Independence Day, Victory day
celebrations, etc.
Social Social gathering, Mostly done at nighttime. Adults, children
BBQ parties
Picnics
Large scale Wedding, Mostly done at nighttime. Adults, children
community Birthday parties
Events Social Events,
Community Meetings

III. Possible Courtyard Elements

These elements include courtyard furniture, vegetation, lighting fixtures, and other
design-related elements. Further details are discussed in Section 4.4.4.

4.4. 2 Enclosure and Privacy Mechanisms

To design an enclosure, it is important to analyze the concept of privacy and female

seclusion in modern societies from both a psychological and physical perspective. In
traditional communities, rather than a family space, the courtyard has mostly served as a
female-dominated work zone to perform various household activities. Although the
original purpose of an enclosure is to provide a protective boundary, in the traditional
lifestyle, it was more of a secluded female domain. That is why a comparatively wealthy
family of a traditional mindset preferred to have an additional front yard only to serve male
members and guests. In modern societies, the need for an enclosure is as fundamental as it
was in earlier times, but the notion of complete female segregation is less rigid in modern
households. Rather than “female segregation,” modern families are more concerned about
individual or family privacy. On top of that, many families have decided that household
responsibilities are to be shared equally among all family members. Therefore,
contemporary designers need to understand the role of the modern-day enclosure, which is
to provide proper protection and to define the court boundary rather than to be a barrier to
enclose women in a separated domain.

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Enclosure Design Considerations
I. Physical and Visual privacy

The need for a defensive enclosure is less obligatory in high-rise vertical courtyards
compared with ground-level courtyards in the sense that there are fewer chances of the
physical passing of intruders from the edge of a vertical courtyard. However, the need for
visual protection from the side facades and the courtyard top needs more attention in the
vertical courtyard design process than the traditional one.

In the past, traditional courtyards were theoretically fully enclosed, mostly by high brick
walls along the edges of the plot. This kind of rigid boundary helped to attain complete
isolation in the courtyard interior from the surroundings. From the authors’ perspective,
this kind of firm distinction was not a spatial barrier for traditional societies where residents
were more collaborative and attached to the neighborhood. In modern societies, the
enclosure could be a way to connect people with their surroundings if it is porous in nature
and provides residents a way to see their surrounding neighborhood. The concept is to take
advantage of the higher location of the courtyard to allow residents an opportunity to see
the context without being seen by others and achieve continuity between the inner and
outer domains of the courtyard. However, this concept is more appropriate for private
domestic courtyards; in semi-private communal courtyards, the more they are visually
connected, the more they increase the chances of residents’ visual contact and social
bonding. To maximize community contact, communal courtyards should be designed with
fewer visual barriers and should be more exposed to their surroundings.

An example could be a permeable enclosure such as perforated brick walls with numerous
cavity patterns, a combination of structural enclosure and vegetation, manipulations of
façade angles according to the view, manipulations of window positions, and the height of
two neighboring buildings.

II. Light, View, and Airflow

Enclosures should be designed in a way so that takes advantage of the maximum light,
view, and airflow of the context.

III. Comfortable Human Scale

An enclosure also determines the volume of the courtyard interior and its spatial quality.
To maintain a comfortable human scale, the enclosure should be proportionate to the size
of the courtyard. A narrower courtyard with a high boundary and smaller opening could
result in a dark and shadowy courtyard, psychologically uncomfortable for users. In smaller
courtyards, manipulations of vertical facades can create a sense of openness. A penetrable
enclosure of smooth and light materials or glazed facades can create a sense of expansion.

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In large-scale courtyards, the scale can be minimized through elevation treatment such as
height variation, breakdown of the long edges into small sections, or aesthetic details.
Instead of a large courtyard, a group of multi-level small-scaled courtyards can better
maintain a comfortable height-width ratio for its users.

IV. Safety and Security

Another task of a vertical courtyard enclosure is to provide a secured edge of the space to
avoid the risk of injurious falls. Additionally, another design consideration is to treat
acrophobia of residents, as they are located high above the ground level. Planter boxes
along the edges can be designed to keep residents within a safe boundary. Other than that,
vertical balustrades, safety nets, adjustable outdoor blinds, and louvers can be used to
provide safety as well as privacy and view. The railing should be built with a minimum
spacing of 4 in and a height of 36 in for safety. In the case of the railing, vertical balustrades
are preferred over horizontal ones with proper spacing to ensure child safety. Most
importantly, enclosures can be innovative and multifunctional. With proper safety features,
they could have seating arrangements or be activity walls that would make residents more
engaged with space.

Enclosure Design Possibilities

The study proposes the following configurations, depending on the degree of spatial
enclosure and openness, for designing residential units and urban blocks:

I. Clustered Residential Development

For large-scale, high-density housing, the study proposes consolidation of built forms with
minimum plot division as an efficient method of designing urban voids into functional
courtyards. Compaction of multiple built forms into a housing cluster can minimize
unusable and leftover urban voids, which could alternately serve as ground-level semi-
public courtyards. For larger plot sizes, perimeter building blocks have the potential to
define the edges of a central void. Perimeter building blocks create a physical and visual
boundary that can separate the courtyard from the surrounding context and ensure internal
privacy and control.
In this regard, typical square and rectangular residential blocks should also be reshaped to
create forms that can embrace ground-level courtyards. The study proposes dividing the
forms into two halves, sliding and rotating against each other along their longitudinal axes,
which could be effective to derive internal voids (Figure 4.1)

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 Existing residential block Proposed residential block

Figure 4. 1_Building shape design alternatives.

Table 4. 4_Residential block shapes and cluster possibilities with courtyards.

Proposed Block Cluster Possibilities

Maintaining the quality of the internal space is a challenge in high-rise housing. However,
strategic manipulations of the building mass can meet the spatial aspects and comfortable
human scale of the courtyard.
• Building up to an average of five stories could be effective to achieve desired
lighting and ventilation conditions within the courtyard. However, in a high-density
context, to avoid monumentality and overshadowing, breakdown of the form into a
combination of multiple high-rises, mid-rise, and corner towers can be an effective
solution.
• A continuous enclosure serves as the most effective boundary, clearly outlining the
courtyard within the surrounding area, but it could also create a monotonous and
unpleasant spatial experience. In that case, dividing the boundary into segments,
using stepped enclosures, or creating voids within the facades can create a visual
break for the court space (Figure 4.2).

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 • Any fragmentations of the boundary form that could negatively affect the security
and control of the internal courtyard should not be done at the ground level.
• The enclosing facade of a built form could incorporate domestic courtyards
overlooking the central ground courtyard to downsize the scale and create chances
of multi-level human interaction.
• The housing cluster could also have a podium where the podium roof can serve as
an elevated courtyard and create a vertical break in the built form.

Figure 4. 2_A diagram showing possible enclosure breakdowns

II. Porous Residential Built Form

Typical modern privately-owned residential blocks are free-standing thin-tower types. The
layout of these towers contains multiple apartment units clustered around a central
circulation core. The horizontal circulation core contains either a lobby (serving both the
stairs and the elevators) or a corridor (in linear tower layouts) connecting the dwelling
units. If the towers are designed with porosity instead of a compact solid form, they can
become functional voids as courtyards within the form. The concept of reconfiguring
monolithic urban blocks with porosity may achieve the flexibility and adaptability needed
to incorporate courtyards. Within a porous tower, the courtyard can be inserted as multiple
pocket voids, an intermediate free floor, or a rooftop space. The location of pores requires
strategic planning regarding the light, air, and view of the context. However, using valuable
floor area for courtyards is difficult in the contemporary profit-oriented real estate market.
To encourage owners or private developers to consider urban courtyards within the built
form, it is necessary to offer incentives, which may include floor area or height bonuses,
tax exemptions, or technical assistance from governing bodies.

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Communal Courtyard Possibilities and Vertical Distribution

Table 4. 5_Communal courtyard possibilities and vertical distribution

Type of Courtyard Type of Courtyard Spatial Characters

Plan / Section
Pocket type Enclosure and openness ratio = 2:2 (For middle position) and
1: 3 (For corner positions)

Suitable for top, ground, and intermediate floors. Suitable for

low-density tower type buildings. The courtyard can also serve
as the lobby on each floor

Courtyards can have light, view, and airflow from two or three
sides of a building.

As they are open on two opposite sides, they can be used to

I type enhance visual connectivity among adjacent buildings. The
scope is higher for a corner I type courtyards as they have
three open sides.

As a pocket courtyard, vertical circulation and corridors need

to be well connected to the courtyard way to provide residents
with better accessibility and visual clue of the space.
Enclosure and openness ratio = 2:2

Suitable for any building floor. Courtyards have less access to

light, view, and airflow than I type. Also, can create a better
sense of enclosure with two closed sides than I type.

Apartments on two perpendicular sides can be designed with

domestic courtyards oriented to the court. It will help to
maximize the chances of community contact and interaction
among residents.

The courtyard can also serve as the lobby on each floor

As a pocket courtyard, vertical circulation and corridors need

L type
to be well connected to the courtyard way to provide residents
with better accessibility and visual clue of the space.

Enclosure and openness ratio = 3:1

Create a better sense of enclosure than I and L type as it has

three facades as backdrops.

Apartments of three sides can be utilized to maximize

community contact if they have attached domestic courtyards
oriented onto the court at different levels.

The courtyard can also serve as the lobby on each floor and
U type suitable to fit on any floor level. However, than the previous

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 types, this court has less access to light, air, and view. It
requires careful consideration of the surrounding context to
find an appropriate location for the court.
Enclosure and openness ratio = 4:0
Only suitable for top floors. No view of the surrounding.
Require careful consideration and pocket voids to penetrate
light and air in the court space.

These courtyards are the most introverted ones; however, they

can get an apartment view from all four sides. In that way,
residents will feel closer to the court as they will evenly get a
chance to have a court view.

Apartments can utilize the central location of these courtyards

Atrium type / O type: to design their inner cross-ventilation from two opposite sides
of a dwelling layout.

Tunnel ventilation possible from the sides and top ventilation

possible if it has a free floor at the top.
Free floor
Careful Spatial design is needed to enhance the chances of
attracting residents as they have no visual connection to any
apartments and act as a free isolated court space.

Vertical circulation should be designed properly to provide

residents a clue of the courtyard’s location.

Provide 360 views of the surrounding, Well connected to the

context with maximum airflow. Suitable for podiums,
intermediate floors, and roof levels.

Combination
Provides the possibility of creating a hierarchy of courtyards

Multilevel courtyards provide maximum vertical interaction

among residents on different floor levels.

This combination type allows well distribution of the

courtyard spaces throughout the entire building.

Provide residents a view from different floor levels and

experience of different locations of vertical courtyards.

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 III. Apartment Block Shapes and Arrangements
Apartment Layout Possibilities and Comparisons
Table 4. 6_Apartment layout possibilities and comparison.
Layout Apartment unit Cluster possibilities Spatial layout
type Enclosure:
Openness
I Type Can be connected through a central
lobby with vertical circulations.
Only one façade is attached to the
courtyard. That allows Dwelling
spaces minimum chance to connect
and integrate with the courtyard
1:3
space.
Fig: Cluster of 2,3,4 and 8 units
Dwelling plans may require
corridors to connect to the
courtyard. Possibly only bedrooms
Back to back joining
or spaces at the edge of the
Radial arrangements and one
dwellings will have a courtyard
side joining
view because of its end location.
L Type Two facades are open to the
courtyard. That allows dwelling
spaces to have better connection and
integration with the courtyard space
than the I type.
2:2
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Advantages Disadvantages
Highly efficient for Efficient only for loose
2-unit apartment plan arrangement of apartment units
for tower type and stretched out floor plans.
residential blocks.
Not efficient for single aspect
When designed as apartment (having three closed
detached units such sides)
as the cluster of 2, 3,
and 4, can provide The radial cluster provides
maximum light view maximum light, view, and airflow
and airflow from but it is less land efficient when it
three outer walls than comes to land limitation. Besides,
L, U, and O type it is less efficient in high-density
dwellings. housing as it cannot be effective
for dense clustering.
Suitable for any floor
level Require light wells or building
volume extractions among
dwelling units when attached side
by side for high-density housing.
Efficient for the 4- Not efficient in linear building
unit cluster and thin blocks. In terms of linear side by
tower type building. side joining only one surface are
open to the outer environment.
Can be arranged
around a central
lobby with vertical Require light wells or building
circulations. A volume extractions among
 Fig: Cluster of 2,3,4 and 8 units
Back to back joining,
Side by side joining
Radial arrangements
U Type
3:1
Fig: Cluster of 2,3,4 and 6 units
Back to back joining
Radial arrangements
Linear arrangements and both
sides joining
O type-
Atrium
Type
4:0
Fig: Cluster of 2,3,4 and 6 units
Back to back joining
Radial arrangements
Linear arrangements and four
side joining
The dwelling has chances of better
lighting, view, and airflow than I
type.
Only two outer surfaces allow less
view and air from the surroundings
than I type.
Better spatial integration and
connectivity is possible with the
courtyard than I and L type. Better
chances of lighting and ventilation
are also possible than I and L type
for the dwelling interior.
Most introvert type of dwelling
among all types. Maintains inner
privacy from the surrounding.
All the rooms can get direct physical
and visual access to light, air.
Maximum integration and
connectivity of the courtyard are
possible with the remaining
dwelling spaces.
The central courtyard may also serve
as the circulation and transition
among dwelling spaces.
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cluster of 5 or more dwelling units when attached on
may require long the courtyard side for high-
corridors to connect density housing.
these types of
dwellings.
Suitable for any floor
level
Most efficient Only one outer surface allows less
dwelling type for view, light, and airflow of the
high-density housing. surrounding than I and L type.
It provides flexibility
in arranging dwelling
units with side by
side joints or back to
back joints
Suitable for any floor
level
Flexible for any type Applicable for top floor only.
of clustering No view of the surrounding.
4.4. 3 Position, Activity-Space Relationship, Accessibility, and Visual Connectivity

I. Domestic Courtyards
To design a modern domestic courtyard, it is most important to understand the difference
between a courtyard and a typical apartment terrace or balcony. Terraces and balconies are
both outdoor extensions of a building, where a terrace is more spacious, and a balcony is
comparatively smaller. In a typical compact dwelling, balconies or terraces are generally
positioned within the perimeter of the house and attached to a room such as a bedroom,
kitchen, dining area, or formal living space by a single door. Their position, scale, entrance
size, and spatial connectivity to the overall house plan allow them very little connection to
the daily activities of a household. On top of that, the case study has also found that,
because of the smaller size and narrower proportions of high-rise balconies, residents only
use them to dry clothes or to get a quick glimpse of the outside. Additionally, if they are
large enough, they occasionally serve as leisure spaces but not as social spaces, which
eventually leads residents to turn balconies into storage spaces. Contrastingly, traditional
courtyards are spatially defined by their central location being circumscribed by other
dwelling spaces (both living and service spaces), to which they have continuous physical
accessibility and visual connectivity. Their position, functional status, and physical and
visual connectivity maximize frequency and convenience of use. Therefore, to obtain this
traditional efficiency in modern courtyard design, the study recommends the following
design principles.

Position and Activity-Space Relationship

From the literature review and the case studies, it has been seen that Bengali dwellings
follow a binary spatial layout of front-back, formal-informal, and clean-dirty zone, and the
court is placed within the informal-private zone. Following that, modern courtyard
apartments should also reflect the spatial model of a typical Bengali courtyard-based
dwelling, where courtyards will occupy the central position and will be directly or
indirectly connected to other domestic spaces such as bedrooms, dining areas, living areas,
and service spaces. The study suggests that, at the initial stage of apartment design, it
should be subdivided into the binary zoning of public-private and formal-informal spaces,
and the courtyard should be placed within the private-informal zone of the house. The
design possibilities include the following types (Figure 4.3):

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 Figure 4. 3_The possible locations of private attached courtyards in a typical apartment plan

Accessibility and Visibility

• Thresholds and transitions should enhance residents’ perception of and desire to

use the courtyard. Elements such as walls, doors, and windows should not be
restrictive in terms of users’ interpretation of this outdoor space.

• An open-to-sky courtyard should be accessed through a semi-open space as a

smooth transition between the outdoors and indoors.

• Courtyards should be directly accessible from the main circulation route of the
dwelling. For the apartments, where the dining space is a transitional space,
courtyards should be directly connected to the dining area. Outsiders’ accessibility
and visibility should be controlled at the end of the front formal zone of the
dwelling. A secondary entry can be connected to the courtyard space without
passing through formal living zones.

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• A sudden change of floor level may create a spatial break and limit the user’s
movement. An uninterrupted floor level when connects the indoor rooms to an
outdoor court can provide a better sense of continuity. Steps can be used after
leaving an initial preparation space next to the entrance. Similarly, extending the
roof plane without any interruption can also ensure spatial continuity.

• To create a seamless transition between the indoors and outdoors, folding doors,
sliding doors, large windows, or screens could be used. Replacing solid walls with
glass partitions could enhance the visibility even when they are closed. Limiting
structural elements such as columns, door, and window frames, and mullions also
enhance visibility.

• The surrounding rooms that enclose the courtyards should have openings to allow
for access to maximum light, air, and view. Formal living rooms can have windows
arranged in a way that does not jeopardize the privacy of the inner court. Clearstory
windows can be an alternative in this case.

II. Community Courtyards

• Designers need to explore vertical socializing strategies for proposed multi-level

communal courtyards. Therefore, similar to the traditional horizontal low-rise
neighborhood, designers should take advantage of the building’s circulation system
to increase the chances of contact. For instance, communal courtyards could be
branched out along the central circulatory system of the high-rise. Having visual
access to domestic courtyards and direct physical access to central stairs, elevator
lobbies, and corridors is a must to enhance connectivity (Figure 4.4). Other than
that, defined paths and wayfinding signage can also improve accessibility and
direction. They could also contribute to a safer courtyard environment.

• Courtyards should be evenly distributed within the high-rise so that all the
apartments have equal connectivity to space. Both vertical and horizontal
placement of courtyards should be carefully designed to provide users a sense of
direction. For example, in a 15-storied building, the total community courtyard
space can be equally divided into three parts, distributed on every fifth floor rather
than scattered randomly. In this way, residents will have an idea of the courtyard

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 location, which will make it easier for them to find and reach the court space with
a minimum travel time from any location. (Figure 4.5)

• Apart from internal connectivity, the designer should focus on having maximum
visibility and connectivity in communal courtyards with the surrounding urban
context and adjacent residences. In the case of building clusters, adjacent towers
could have an alternate vertical court location to maintain visual connectivity
among different floor levels.

Figure 4. 4_Conceptual interconnection of communal and domestic courtyards in a high-rise

Figure 4. 5_Conceptual diagram showing courtyards of different levels

4.4. 4 Enhancing User Engagement

Modern lifestyle and dweller choices differ fundamentally from previous traditional
societies. According to case studies, modern residents especially teenagers and young
adults are less interested in outdoor activities and more engaged in electronic gadgets for
entertainment. The same behaviors are seen among modern adults, who also prefer
electronic media-based recreations. Other than that, modern society is diverse, highly
dense, and it is mostly comprised of migrants who come from different geographical and

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religious backgrounds, which makes it harder for residents to form a comfortable social
bonding. All these are challenges, that a modern courtyard needs to address to make it as
effective and efficient as a traditional one. That makes a modem courtyard to consider
additional design strategies to attract residents to use courtyards and also to engage them
in courtyard activities for a longer period.

• Communal courtyards should function as flexible and adaptable spaces that can be
used by diverse urban residents. Space should not be divided by ethnic diversity;
however, it should have a hierarchy of scale to allow people of all age groups to
use it in their way. The hierarchical distribution of spaces may include small event
spaces, separate areas for children, spaces for group relaxation, and others. Separate
spaces for males and females may also be helpful in this case.

• Proper provision of nighttime lighting enhances security and facilitates nighttime

use.

• Rather than monotonous and blank, enclosing facades or grounds should be

engaging and mentally stimulating. For example, undulating ground, curved edges,
and small enclaves can attract both adults and children. Children can be provided
with spatial pockets as they prefer to be in a small-scale environment.
• Safety and cleanliness also increase visit frequency.

• Natural and tactile materials (such as wood, natural fibers, etc.) could be used to
encourage people to interact with their surroundings through the sensation of touch.
• Toilet, storage spaces, and water sources should be provided with the communal
courts.

• Communal furniture, including seating (such as benches or outdoor chairs), play

equipment, water features, and group seating areas can engage more residents for a
longer time.

• Having a community garden could be more engaging for both adults and children.
It would also enhance their attachment with the community courtyard, as they
would get a space of their own that they would have the freedom to explore and
use.
• Residents should also be involved in the decision-making process of courtyard
design and maintenance and be given the authority to customize the space
according to their needs.

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4.5 Design Considerations to Address Climatic Factors

Climatic Context
To understand the climatic factors, the authors focused on the climate of Mymensingh city
as its design context. The climate of Mymensingh city is a combination of high summer
temperatures that rise to 96º F, heavy rainfall (averaging 88.5 in), and mild winters where
the temperature drops to 55º F. According to the wind direction of Mymensingh, maximum
wind flows from the southeast with maximum wind velocity (light breezes averaging 6.3
mph) from March to October, a period that contains the warmer and humid months of the
year. In the winter (from October to January), wind flows mostly from the northeast. To
maintain a comfortable temperature range (59°–77 °F) in urban courtyards, summer
cooling requires significantly more attention in design than winter heating (weather-
atlas.com, accessed in October 2020). Along with extreme solar radiation, the city
experiences rain for around nine months of the year (February to November), with
maximum rainfall in June and July. Also, in April and May, during the beginning of
summer, the city experiences extreme thunderstorms accompanied by strong gusty winds
and heavy rainfall locally known as Kal Baisakhi (Nor'westers; Figure 4.6).

Figure 4. 6_Climatic data of Mymensingh City

(Wind direction and average rainfall [from left] sources: weatherspark.com & meteoblue.com, accessed in
October 2020)

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Design Objectives

According to the annual climatic data of the city, the design challenges of adaptive
courtyards are set by high humidity, summer temperatures, solar radiation, and rainfall. In
such conditions, design strategies should have the following objectives:

• The first design objective, which is the major comfort strategy in a hot-humid
climate, is to ensure continuous cross ventilation between the courtyard and its
adjacent spaces. The design goal is to receive maximum airflow with the highest
possible air velocity and ventilate the indoor-outdoor spaces to maintain
comfortable air temperature and humidity levels.

• The second objective is to reduce the amount of solar heat gain by the courtyard
surfaces, both vertical and horizontal, and minimize the chances of incoming solar
radiation both in the court space and its adjacent indoor spaces. The design goal is
to identify the proper orientation of the courtyard with the sun and determine
external shading strategies.

Based on the hot-humid climatic condition of the city, several researchers were reviewed
who have studied the environmental performance of courtyards and their passive design
strategies: Rajapaksha (2003), Meir (2000), and Mohsen (1979). Analysis of the study’s
proposed courtyard models was summarized according to several courtyard design
strategies and variables.

Table 4. 7_Courtyard design objectives and variables

Climatic condition Design strategies Courtyard design

variables
High summer temperature Minimize incoming solar radiation Courtyard shape,
geometry, aspect ratio,
and depth
High solar radiation Maximize shading without Shading devices and
obstructing the desired daylight vegetation
conditions of the courtyard
High humidity Enhance cross ventilation Courtyard enclosure and
openings
Heavy rainfall Avoid water penetration Rain-protection devices
and courtyard drainage
system

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Courtyard Design Variables

1. Courtyard Configuration
2. Enclosure and Opening Design
3. Shading Devices and Rain Protection
4. Vegetation

4.5.1 Courtyard Configuration

Manipulation of courtyard configuration according to local climate enhances the

courtyard’s environmental performance. The manipulated parameters include courtyard
shape, aspect ratio, height, and orientation. An efficient shape, width-length ratio, and
height for a warm-humid urban courtyard primarily depend on minimizing incoming solar
radiation to avoid direct heat gain.
In terms of courtyard shape, there is no ideal profile recommended for courtyards.
Although Bengali courtyards traditionally adopted the basic rectangular or square shape,
proposed courtyards, depending on the micro climatic condition of the site, may take
circular, curvilinear, or other organic shapes. However, to achieve thermal comfort in such
climatic conditions, courtyard shapes can take advantage of regional wind-flow directions
to maximize cross ventilation. In this regard, elongated courtyards (rectilinear or free-
formed) with their longitudinal axes oriented northeast and southwest have the chance to
perform better in enhancing cross ventilation than compact ones.
A study (Almhafdy et al.,2015) shows that, in warm-humid climates, the U-shaped
rectangular courtyard (aspect ratio of 1:2) performs better than the U-shaped square
courtyard (aspect ratio of 1:1). The study explains that the wider courtyard ceiling of a U-
shaped rectangular courtyard with a windward side opening maintains a lower temperature,
better air velocity, and greater thermal comfort (which is evaluated by the Predicted Mean
Vote index) than the square one. It also recommends that the ratio of the courtyard floor
parameter and height should be between 3 to 7. A different study also proves that the
internal shading of a courtyard is directly related to its geometry and recommends a
courtyard perimeter and height ratio equal to or greater than 5 for warm-humid climates
(Muhaisen & Gadi, 2006). On the other hand, a study by A.S. Muhaisen (2006) shows that,
in hot-humid climates, the percentage of the shaded area of the internal wall surfaces
increases as the height of the courtyard increases. Supporting the same claim, in a different
study, Muhaisen and Gadi (2006) recommend deep courtyard forms rather than shallow

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ones for warmer climates to produce more internal shadow in summer to lower direct solar
heat gain. To be specific, Muhaisen, in his 2006 study, proposes three-story or 9-m-deep
courtyards of any width-length ratio for hot-humid regions, considering the higher altitude
of the sun.
These studies provide us an understanding that a courtyard’s geometry, depth, and aspect
ratio can regulate its climatic performance. However, to propose an exact geometry, depth,
and aspect ratio for our various typologies requires an experimental or simulation-based
study of courtyards, which is beyond the scope of this research. Experimental studies for
our proposed top-, mid-, and ground-level courtyards can be conducted by considering
independent variables such as the courtyard’s varying vertical location, spatial position,
enclosure and openness ratio, size, depth, and configurations and dependent variables such
as varying shade conditions and internal temperature. Also, to find an accurate depth for
courtyards, it is required to calculate the solar incident angle for a particular time of day on
a particular day of the year. The shadow analysis of the courtyards should include both the
vertical and horizontal surfaces of the courtyards, such as side facades and the court floor.
However, we can assume that, conceptually, the proposed top-level courtyards would have
more sky exposure than the mid- or ground-level ones, and the possibility is that the top-
level open to sky courtyards will require more depth and comparatively narrower aspect
ratios than the other semi-enclosed types, although it is expected that future studies will
find accurate data and measurements in this aspect.

4.5.2 Enclosure and Opening Design

A study by Meir (1995) claimed that a semi-enclosed (three- or two-sided) courtyard with
proper orientation maximizes its microclimatic performance better than a completely open
courtyard. However, this study is based on an open-to-sky courtyard model, which differs
from the proposed courtyards, as they have different facade composition and vertical
position. Nevertheless, the study shows that the degree of openness and enclosure of a
courtyard impacts its climatic performance.
A courtyard with a larger opening facilitates internal air movement and regulates humidity
levels, but it is also highly prone to direct solar heat gain. Contrastingly, a comparatively
enclosed courtyard blocks natural light, air, and view but maximizes shading on the court
surfaces, which eventually minimizes heat buildup. For the proposed courtyards, an ideal
combination of enclosure and opening requires a balance between incoming air, light, solar
radiation, and view. In the proposed models, a designer has more opportunities to
manipulate the degrees of enclosure and opening (both from the side and top) according to

91
climatic factors than in a traditional model, as the new proposals are more flexible with the
enclosing facades.
According to the climatic data of the city, north and south (specifically southeast and
northeast directions) can perform better as courtyard openings. As west is the least windy
direction with maximum solar radiation, an urban courtyard can avoid a significant amount
of heat gain if enclosed on the west, southwest, or northwest sides. In terms of natural
lighting, the south and east directions can be more beneficial than the north and west to
design openings. However, in a highly built-up urban context, a designer should analyze
the microclimate of a specific site, which may vary significantly from its general climatic
aspects. Among the proposed four types of layout patterns (I, L, U, and O), the U-type
courtyard, open in a southeast direction, can be an ideal model, with better shading and
natural ventilation than other types. Along with the dwelling layouts, design manipulation
of enclosing facades and openings can also regulate courtyard climatic performance.

Design of Enclosure
Proposed courtyard enclosures will primarily include apartment facades and other edge-
defining elements. Different types of perforated enclosures with various height, material,
and design patterns—for example, perforated concrete walls, perforated terracotta-brick
screen walls, and grillwork walls—can be used to enhance the passive ventilation and
shade of the court interior and adjacent rooms. In the top floors of high-rises with higher
air velocity, perforated walls can also be used to control the excessive wind flow with a
partial view of the surroundings.

Design of Openings
Courtyard openings include doors, windows, and an entire side facade. In this respect, to
maximize the airflow and velocity within the courtyard, the opening configuration,
location, and sizes should be carefully designed, especially for the upward and leeward
vertical surfaces of the courtyard. In this respect, a wind tunnel experimentation (Ok,
Vildan, Yasa, Enes and Özgunler, Mustafa 2008, 263-268), can be referenced here, where
the authors showed that courtyards with equal-sized openings on the opposite windward
and leeward facades showed lower wind velocity, similar to courtyards with no openings
at all. Most importantly, the study found that the increase of the air velocity of a courtyard
directly depends on the opening sizes of the two opposite windward and leeward surfaces
of the court. Specifically, they showed, courtyard wind velocity primarily depends on the
windward-side opening size, and it increases when the opening size is increased. Following

92
the experimentation, it can be assumed that the windward sides of the vertical courtyard
should incorporate larger openings than the leeward sides. However, larger opening sizes
also increase the chance of higher indoor temperatures through direct solar radiation, which
requires additional shading devices. Another recommendation includes maintaining a
variety of opening sizes for the opposite leeward and windward sides of a courtyard.
In the different apartment layouts (I, L, U, and O types), main living rooms such as the
bedrooms or dining spaces of the house should be given priority to be attached to the
courtyard space with doors, windows, or screen walls to facilitate ventilation. Additionally,
connecting transitional spaces such as corridors with larger openings to the courtyard can
also facilitate air exchange between interior spaces. In the case of low-light site conditions
or deep apartment plans, other than regular windows, clearstories or roof ventilators can
also be considered for convective cooling connected to the courtyards. In the case of
multiple courtyards, interconnection is recommended among them for maximum cross
ventilation and convective cooling of adjacent transitional spaces.
These discussions are based on a primary idea of the spatial layout of a courtyard and have
not considered adjacent building conditions and site features. However, this section also
requires experiment- or simulation-based studies to find accurate enclosure-openness ratios
and design configurations applicable to various conditions.

4.5.3 Shading Devices and Rain Protection

The courtyard’s vertical surfaces, floor, and facade openings should be shaded adequately
to reduce heat gain and glare, especially in summer months. However, shading requires
careful planning because as an outdoor room, the courtyard interior also needs enough
daylight for court activities and plants. In that case, the courtyard interior can be a
combination of shaded and non-shaded spaces to support activities and vegetation
accordingly. For communal courtyards, shaded seating and play spaces can be designed so
that extreme sun doesn’t limit courtyard functionality. Furthermore, as demonstrated from
case studies, lack of proper drainage and rain protection minimizes the usability of
courtyards to a large extent. In this aspect, additional consideration is required to protect
the court space and adjacent indoor spaces from rainwater penetration through courtyard-
facing windows or doors, with a proper draining system.
With this consideration, urban courtyards can be partially designed with sun shading and
rain protection to shelter court activities, and the rest of the court can be left uncovered to
facilitate plant growth and other activities. Additionally, a proper rainwater drainage

93
system in the form of internal drains or external gutters and downspouts should also be
installed to avoid waterlogging.

The shading and rain protection devices could include the following:

• Covered balconies or verandahs attached to the indoor spaces

• Operable horizontal and vertical louvers for the openings, depending on the
orientation
• Roof overhangs or extended roofs
• Canopies: operable fabric canopy or permeable canopies
• Pergolas
• Vegetation
• Material selection: the materials of shading devices, especially roof canopies,
should be carefully considered to lessen the amount of surface heat gain. From the
field study, we have found that a thin mud coating was traditionally applied to the
court floor to give it a shiny finish. Mud, as the main floor material, helped to absorb
and transmit less heat, and as a comparatively shiny top, it also acts as a heat barrier
by reflecting heat. Similarly, in urban courtyards, different heat reflection or
absorption mechanisms and materials can be applied to the courtyard floor to ensure
less heat buildup.

4.5.3 Vegetation

Urban courtyards should take complete advantage of vegetation to maintain lower

temperatures, minimum solar radiation, reduced glare, dirt, and noise conditions in the
courtyard space. However, vegetation can also increase humidity levels and obstruct the
natural wind flow and daylight of a courtyard, which should be considered in plant
selection. To select appropriate vegetation for urban courtyards, designers should consider
the plant’s evaporative cooling capacity, foliage geometry, disposition, height, air
permeability, the transmission of solar radiation, crown shape, and, lastly, maintenance
cost based on the top-, mid-, and ground-level courtyard typology (Ernest, Brian 2012).
The reason is that all these typologies have varying degrees of shading, lighting, noise, air
movement, and humidity because of the varying compositions of their enclosures, floors,
and ceilings and their vertical position.

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For example, in the semi-open ground- or mid-level courtyards, having vegetation along
the open side facades can minimize incoming solar radiation, rain, and noise. Tropical
evergreen shrubs or hedge plants can be used along the periphery to create a safe edge.

For the top-level open-to-sky courtyard, tall tropical trees with broad-flat crowns and wider
canopies can cast shadows on the courtyard floor during the day and reduce the chances of
heat buildup on the courtyard floor. However, open-to-sky top-level courtyards with bare
concrete floors would absorb much direct heat due to continuous higher solar exposure,
and eventually, the heat would be transferred to the lower floors of the building. That is
why, in hot-humid climates during the summer, top floors of high-rise buildings show
higher maximum indoor temperatures than the lower floors. Although traditional
courtyards do not use ground cover, the use of hard surfaces is also not very common on
the court floor. In urban top-level courtyards, instead of concrete floors, green roofs can be
efficient alternatives to reduce heat absorption.

For domestic courtyards, plant screens such as closely arranged shrubs or vines can be
natural ways to maintain privacy. Climbing trees can also be used as roof covers for these
courtyards, providing additional privacy from the upper floors of neighboring buildings.

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4.5.5 Comparative Analysis of Urban Top, Mid, and Bottom Level Courtyards

Table 4. 8_Comparative analysis of urban top, mid, and bottom level courtyards

Courtyard Light Air Flow View Sound Thermal comfort Vegetation Shading devices and
Location Condition conditions rain protection
Top Complete High-velocity A maximum Better sound Warmer than other types Vegetation is highly For the proposed top-
roof airflow because view is condition than because of direct solar recommended to level urban courtyard
exposure of the higher possible to other types heat gain by the courtyard protect from shading of the courtyard
ensures position of the achieve although it floor or surfaces. extreme sunlight, floor along with
maximum courtyard. because of the depends on direct heat gain, and enclosing walls, doors
daylight. higher location. the altitude of Less humid because of high wind speed. and windows should be
the continuous airflow. considered to avoid
courtyards. A green roof can be extreme sun, glare, and
For example, The uncomfortable an effective solution UV radiation. The
podium level condition may arise due to to lower solar heat reflective flooring
courtyards high wind speed. gain. material should be
close to selected to minimize
vehicular Suitable plant type: heat build-up.
streets may plants that require
have full sun, plants with Deep courtyards can
uncomfortabl wider canopy and provide shades on the
e noise levels. shade, fruit plants. enclosing façades.
For edges: shrubs or
boundary plants. Require more rain
protection.
Intermediate Light Less airflow Better view Depending on The shadow of the roof The choice of Proposed Mid-level
penetrates than the top- than ground the vertical creates minimizes heat vegetation is limited courtyards can be
only level courtyards level type position built up in the court. to Ground and top- efficient in shading as
through side but better however comparatively Humidity condition level types. well as in rain
facades. chances than the adjacent comfortable depends on adjacent protection as
Surrounding ground level buildings may noise level is buildings and air Section of conceptually they have
built forms type. block the view. expected than movement. vegetation depends a roof overhead. To
may block ground level on the courtyard provide shade and rain
the lighting. type. height, lighting protection from side
condition, and floor openings, horizontal or
structure. vertical louvers,

96
 permeable vegetation
Suitable plant type: can be used with proper
Different types of consideration.
shrubs or boundary
plants that require Deep plans perform
minimum to low better for comfortable
light. shading conditions.

Ground Less light Less access to Less view is Uncomfortabl Semi-open courtyards are Suitable plants type: Proposed semi-open
and more natural airflow. designed for e For ground- cooler because of less For open to sky ground level courtyards
shadowy single level traffic surface heat gain and courts larger plants require minimum
because of residential and noise additional roof shading. with a wide and shading and rain
surrounding towers in a pollution. Chances are high that deep root system is protection as
Built forms. dense urban ground courtyards would suitable such as conceptually they have
setting be more humid than the tropical fruit plants. a roof overhead.
surrounded by others because of less air For semi-open type, However, side openings
built forms. movement. less lighting require shade and rain
For Large scale condition is protection such as
housing, a expected which horizontal or vertical
cluster of requires plants that louvers.
buildings grow in low lights.
enclosing a Open to sky ground
ground-level courtyards should
courtyard can consider partial shading
have a pleasant for activity spaces or
view. furniture.
Interconnect Courtyards In the case of Flexible to be Flexible to be Buildings containing Depends on the Required by the
ed Multiple have the high-speed designed designed multiple interconnected individual courtyard individual courtyard
courtyards flexibility to wind, according to according to courtyards rather than a location. location.
be designed interconnected the view. the noise single courtyard enhance
according to courtyards may condition of the chances of cross
the light help to reduce the site. ventilation throughout the
condition of the wind speed building including
the side. and channel the individual dwelling units.
airflow Multiple courtyards also
throughout the provide the opportunity to
entire built design with different
form. enclosure and opening
ratio.

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4.6 Courtyard Design Examples

Design Context

For the design proposals, the authors of the study have chosen the site of Group 1 houses
where the field survey was conducted (Figure: 4.7). This site has a few traditional
courtyard-based dwellings, which are going to be demolished and replaced by high- or
mid-rise apartment towers in the next few years. During the time the study was conducted,
two of the courtyard houses were demolished, and the high-rise construction process has
been already initiated. During the field survey, the chronological development of the site
from 1980–2020 was analyzed, and based on residents’ interviews, the authors attempted
to estimate its future growth in terms of the built environment and population density for
the year 2040 (Figure: 4.8).

Figure 4. 7_Site image and map

(Located in the Akua neighborhood in Mymensingh; the image is taken from Google Earth)

Figure 4. 8_Estimated future density of the site

(See Appendix B for details)

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Figure 4.9 shows the chronological residential development of the site from 2000–2040
(estimated).

Year 2000

Year 2020

Year 2040
(Estimated)

Figure 4. 9_Chronological site development from 2000 to 2040(estimated).

99
Concept Formulation

Design examples have followed a form-generative method, showing alternate building

forms to incorporate courtyards into residential developments. To develop building forms,
the built forms were grouped to generate large-scale building blocks and the efficiency of
setback spaces between buildings to be used as courtyard spaces was analyzed.

According to the local building code and policies, the study estimates that the typical tower-
like residential blocks that are proposed on the site use 42% of the total site area as setback
spaces. These setback spaces in between, in front, at the rear, and on the side of buildings
are mostly considered unused, rarely maintained negative spaces. On top of that, these
setback spaces are sometimes so narrow that the proximity of two neighboring buildings
jeopardizes the buildings’ privacy with no access to natural light and air. The authors of
this study propose rethinking the conventional trend of land division and apartment designs
in terms of their efficiency and utilizing the setback spaces for an alternate use: courtyards.

Table 4. 9_Setback Estimation

Site layouts
Plot Division

Number of lots 10 4 2 1
Setback area 7394 5941 4790 2819
sq. Ft.
Buildable area 10215 11668 12819 14790
Buildable 58% 66.26% 72.8% 84%
percentage
Setback 42% 33.73% 26.2% 16%
percentage

Table 4.9 shows that the percentage of setback and buildable areas depends on various lot
division. Although according to local building code, the setback area of the site depends
on the lot size, the approach road, and the building height, to show the percentage, a setback
of 5 ft was considered for each variation. The table shows that diving the land into larger
lots increases the percentage of buildable spaces and decreases the percentage of negative
setback spaces. It shows that grouping built forms provides additional land areas that can
be alternately used as courtyards.

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Design Examples

Design examples are grouped into the following three categories based on their scale and
type:

1. Communal courtyard examples:

Housing clusters with ground-level communal courtyards (Example 1)
Porous residential blocks with the ground-, mid-, and top-level
communal courtyards (Examples 2–4)
2. Domestic courtyard examples:
Top-level domestic courtyards and modifications of terrace spaces (Examples
5 and 6)

4.6.1 Communal Courtyard Examples

Residential Clusters with Ground-Level Communal Courtyards

Example 1
Example 1 (Figure 4.10) considers the approach road along the sides, leaving one single
larger lot for experimenting on a cluster of built forms. This example envisions the
contemporary tower-like residential building as an integrated complex with the central
communal courtyard wrapped by the residential towers. In that way, the surrounding
building blocks meet the requirement of enclosing the device for the internal court space.
This case study proposes rethinking the shape of residential towers and blocks to create
spaces for urban yards at the ground level. These masses can have further voids within the
building to create multi-level vertical courtyards at different floor levels. The process
would include a series of subtractions to the original solid form of the building to create
the ground-, mid-, and upper-level courtyard spaces.

Figure 4. 10_Example 1: Residential clusters with ground-level communal courtyards

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Porous Residential Blocks with Ground-, Mid-, and Top-Level Communal
Courtyards

These proposals consider the approach road in the middle of the site, following the existing
site condition. In this way, the site is divided into two larger lots. Two linear residential
towers have been conceptualized in these lots, considering the estimated density of
2040. The concept here is to produce porous residential blocks. The design begins with the
idea of creating voids within the built form, which will accommodate the communal
courtyard spaces within the building. Residential building blocks have been envisioned as
an agglomeration of solids and voids. By accepting the relationships of solidity and voids,
the concept is to bring back the court spaces within the building where the building
resembles a perforated mass characterized by the morphology of a sponge. Recesses have
been created within the building mass of varying scale as community-scale openings. Voids
are subtracted from the larger solid mass. This affects the building form and square footage
of the building. The areas subtracted from the mass as voids are added as extra floor areas
to the building to achieve the maximum square footage required by the owners.

Example 2:

Example 2 (Figure 4.11) is a 10-storied linear porous residential block with communal
courtyards at three levels to provide a short travel time and to achieve maximum spatial
proximity with the apartments. Each of these courtyards is three to four floors high to
maintain a comfortable human scale. Courtyards are connected to the central circulation
and corridors to provide residents easy access.

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Figure 4. 11_Example 2: Ground-, mid-, and top-level communal courtyards

103
Example 3:
Example 3 (Figure 4.12) has shown the possibility of creating a series of interconnected
community courtyards that are shifted on each floor to enhance community interaction
among different floors.

Figure 4. 12_Example 3: Interconnected courtyards

Example 4:
Example 4 (Figure 4.13) is an elevated courtyard that works as a connecting plaza or a
bridge between two residential towers. The intention is to demonstrate the possibility of
using residential roads for an elevated community courtyard leaving clear height for cars
and other vehicles under the overhead slab. In the proposed design two residential towers
will act as an enclosing device for the communal courtyard. Having circulation along the
building façade or positioning windows overlooking the elevated courtyard will increase
the visual connection of residents with the courtyard space. The spatial arrangement, scale,
proportion, and accessibility of courtyards depends on the height of surrounding tower
buildings. To achieve a community scale, courtyards are distributed on different floor
levels.

104
Figure 4. 13_Example 4: Elevated plaza as courtyards

105
4.6.2 Domestic Courtyard Examples

Example 5: Domestic Top-level Open to Sky Courtyards

Example 5 (Figure 4.14) has attached private courtyards on four different floor levels. Each
of the attached courtyards is open to the sky. The location of courtyards changes on each
floor that allows them to have sky exposure. These courtyards are stacked in a vertical
direction. Courtyards in this prototype resemble traditional courtyards with an open to sky
ceiling and walls as enclosing elements. The walls provide privacy and maintain their
introverted nature. The size of the apartment decreases as it goes higher vertically.

Figure 4. 14_Example 5: Domestic top-level open to sky courtyards

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Example 6: Top-level Duplex Apartments with Open to Sky Courtyard

Example 6 (Figure 4.15) has considered the top floors as duplex apartments with open to
sky courtyards for each top apartment. The total floor area per apartment is divided into
two floors to incorporate additional courtyard spaces in the apartments. To ensure further
privacy to these introvert courtyards from adjacent apartments position of windows can be
adjusted and screens of vegetation can be used.

Figure 4. 15_Example 6: Top-level duplex apartments with open to sky courtyard

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 Chapter 5

Conclusion

The concluding chapter proves an overview of the major research findings, proposals, limitations,
and the overall contribution of the study to the existing knowledge base.

Research Findings
The study of urban courtyard houses resulted in some key findings in terms of the strength and
weaknesses in the context of modern high-rise residential development.

Strengths of Traditional Courtyards

• The three layers of the courtyard enclosure, the combination of wall, built form and
vegetation, that have been identified as an efficient design strategy. It has been observed
that this layering can provide dwellers a satisfactory spatial boundary to form their private
open-to-sky domain with controlled accessibility when it is in a low-rise settlement.
• The porous built form with adequate openings, shading devices, and the presence of
multiple courtyards facing façades are additional effective spatial components. These
characters of the dwellings take complete advantage of the central courtyard to regulate the
indoor thermal comfort.
• The central position and spatial relation of the courtyard with other domestic spaces,
maximum visual connectivity with a series of doors and windows, physical proximity, and
semi-open verandas are also beneficial organization principles. All these strategies
facilitate the courtyard to improve its functionality, smooth indoor-outdoor transitions,
users' perception, and engagement.
• The spatial division of the courtyard itself is another constructive strategy that divides the
court area into a central activity space with other secondary zones. This zoning makes the
courtyard space more flexible and multifunctional to accommodate several activities of
different natures and privacy requirements such as private or communal recreation, various
domestic chores, services, or storages. The subdivision of the court spaces into several parts
also facilitates multiple users to use the court spaces together to perform different activities.
The zoning also defines small-scale play zones for children.
• The adequate size of the courtyards: Although the studied courtyards have not been
considered with respect to the courtyard size, they are large enough to accommodate many
of the domestic and communal activities. The study indicates that an undersized courtyard
not only spatially limits the accommodation of functions but also lowers users' desire to
use the courtyard space.
• Lastly, the human-friendly scale of the courtyard space, specifically the ratio of courtyard
height, length, and width also found to be comfortable for the users.

108
Weaknesses of Traditional Courtyards
• The major limitation of the traditional courtyards is the lack of privacy from the courtyard
top. The enclosure protects and secludes the courtyard well in a horizontal settlement but
in a high-rise context, the open courtyard top fails to provide visual privacy from
neighboring tall buildings. This is a major concern about the traditional model that the
study identified and addressed in the proposal phase.

• The unpaved floor and lack of shading in traditional courtyards also seemed to limit the
courtyard efficiency in summer and rains.

Proposal Formulation and Expected Attributes

Based on findings the study formulates the proposal of spatially adaptive urban courtyards. To
develop the proposals the study has conceptualized urban courtyards from two distinct
perspectives. First, as a part of the domestic environment and second, as a part of the community
environment.

To incorporate courtyards in the modern domestic environment, the research has proposed design
modifications of modern apartments based on the spatial division of classic Bengali dwellings.
The alterations can help strengthen the spatial relations of all the domestic spaces where
courtyards will facilitate circulation, functions, daylighting, ventilation, and indoor thermal
comfort. Most importantly it will fulfill the lack of outdoor connection of modern dwellings that
is highly important for residents' mental health and psychological comfort. It creates a scope for
urban children to learn from and connect with nature that will facilitate their personal
development and growth. In the recent context, when home-based businesses and home-offices
have become a part of the domestic environment, the presence of courtyards will be highly
efficient as an outdoor expansion of living spaces. The activity list and design strategies provided
for the domestic courtyards are also an attempt to replicate the flexibility, diversity, and multi-
functional atmosphere of a traditional court.

Privacy mechanisms in domestic courtyards have been a key concern of the research as the
efficiency of this courtyard type largely depends on visual privacy in a modern context. The
spatial solution of the perforated enclosure, overhead shading, or screens of plants can be an
efficient way to overcome the challenge. In that case, a semi-open type courtyard may have a
better chance of privacy control than the completely open types. In addition, the penetration of
adequate daylighting should also be considered to achieve balanced privacy and lighting
conditions.

From a communal perspective, the study has observed that the modern societies of Bangladesh
are more diverse, dense, and vertical. The modern way of social communication is also different
from the earlier horizontal societies. As the formation of society has changed along with its
spatial characteristics, communal courtyards should also respond by adopting vertical socializing
strategies. In that sense, the proposed vertical communal courtyards with their multi-level
typologies could be efficient to increase the chances of visual contact and casual conversation

109
among high-rise residents. Although urban communities are diverse as they are mostly migrants
from different cities, the spatial requirements of the overall cultural practices are not very
dissimilar. That also increases the chances of strong community bonding when residents will have
a common platform to celebrate cultural and religious events in a residential environment.

From an ecological perspective, the proposed models as pocket voids can help regulate the
microclimate around the dwelling. Multiple courtyard enclosing facades will increase the chances
of natural lighting, cross-ventilation, and humidity control both at the apartment level and overall
building level. Additionally, the study has identified several factors that need to be considered
while designing urban courtyards. It is important to mention that the factors also require a proper
understanding of the site conditions. In that aspect, the research had developed the courtyard
typologies, discussed their comparisons, advantages, and disadvantages to facilitate the selection
of an appropriate courtyard type for a particular building and site context. Although they are
based on the primary analysis of local climate, further accuracy requires future experimental or
simulation-based research.

Challenges of the Proposed Models

A major challenge of practical implementation of these concepts is their economic feasibility and
acceptance by the informal housing sectors of the country when land value and construction cost
is higher. In that aspect, the study recommends for future research to investigate the economic
aspects of the proposals, possible changes in planning policies, and building codes to provide
incentives to housing sectors to encourage and support the implementation of courtyards.

Lastly, the research proposals and discussions expect to contribute knowledge to an improved
housing design with a healthier living environment for future urban residents of Bangladesh,
especially when its housing sector is rapidly transforming and expanding by neglecting efficient
outdoor connections and spaces in the build forms

110
Appendices A: Case Study Building Plans

Case study 01

111
Case study 02

112
Case study 03

113
Case study 04

114
Case study 05

115
Case study 06

116
Case study 07

117
Case study 08

118
Appendices B: Site Density and Future Estimation

119
 Appendices C: Interview Questinaire

Research Title: Paradise In The Urban Wilderness: The Courtyard In The Era Of Rapid Modern
Urbanism In Mymensingh City, Bangladesh
Principal Investigator: Shayama Khan
Interview Location: Mymensingh, Bangladesh. (Summer 2019)
Data Collection: Audio recording ( If participants permit), Notes on paper.

Questionnaire 1
For parents of the family
Name:
Gender:
Age:
Occupation:
No of hours spend at home:
Religion:
General questions:

1. When was your house built? Who built it?

2. Why you or the person who built your house, preferred to have a courtyard in the house when
it was built?
3. What kind of household chores you do in your courtyard (daily, weekly, monthly, and
seasonally)? When do you do this works ( dawn, morning, noon, afternoon, evening, night)?
4. Do you do any kind of work in the courtyard that helps you to earn or save money? If yes,
what are the activities?
5. Have you arranged any kind of family or community gathering, wedding, or birthday
programs in your courtyard? If yes or no, why did/didn’t you preferred your courtyard to
arrange those activities?
6. Do you meet with your neighbors in the courtyard? If you do, what kind of activities you do
in the courtyard with your neighbors?
7. Is there any kind of courtyard activities that you no longer do in the courtyard because you
have found a better place to do them? If yes, what are they? Why do you prefer some other
place to do those activities instead of the courtyard?
8. How satisfied or dissatisfied are you having a courtyard in your house?
9. Do you think the courtyard is important for your family? If yes, why do you think so?

If Muslims,

10. Do you think the courtyard in your house provides privacy to the female members of your
family? If yes or no, why do you think so?
11. Do you perform any kind of religious activity in your courtyard? What are they?
12.

120
If Hindu:

13. Do you perform any kind of religious activity in your courtyard? If yes, what are they?

For Children 18 or above

Name:
Gender:
Age:
No of hours spend at home:
Occupation:

13. What kind of activities you do in your courtyard? When do you do these ( dawn,
morning, noon, afternoon, evening, night)?
14. Do you meet with your neighbors or friends in the courtyard? If you do, what kind of
activities you do in the courtyard with your neighbors?
15. Is there any kind of courtyard activities that you no longer do in the courtyard because
you have found a better place to do them. If yes, what are they? Why do you prefer some
other place to do those activities instead of the courtyard?
16. How satisfied or dissatisfied are you having a courtyard in your house?
17. Do you think the courtyard is important for your family? If yes, why do you think so?

Questionnaire 2

Families had previously lived in a courtyard based house

For parents of the family

Name:
Gender:
Age:
Occupation:
No of hours spend at home:
Religion:
General questions:

1. What kind of household chores you did in your courtyard (daily, weekly, monthly, and
seasonally)? When did you do this works ( dawn, morning, noon, afternoon, evening, night)?
2. Did you do any kind of work in the courtyard that helps you to earn or save money? If yes, what
are the activities?
3. Had you ever arranged any kind of family or community gathering, wedding, or birthday
programs in your courtyard? If yes or no, why did/didn’t you preferred your courtyard to arrange
those activities?
4. Did you meet with your neighbors in the courtyard? If you did, what kind of activities you used to
do in the courtyard with your neighbors?
5. Where do you perform those activities now that you have mentioned earlier when you no longer
have any courtyard in your house.
6. How satisfied or dissatisfied were you having a courtyard in your house?
7. Do you think the courtyard was important for your family? If yes, why do you think so?

121
 .

If Muslims,

8. Do you think the courtyard you had in your house provided privacy to the female members of your
family? If yes or no, why do you think so?
9. Did you perform any kind of religious activity in your courtyard? What were they?

If Hindu:

10. Did you perform any kind of religious activity in your courtyard? If yes, what were they? Where
do you perform those activities now, when you no longer have any courtyard in your house.
11.

For Children 18 or above

Name:
Gender:
Age:
No of hours spend at home:
Occupation:

12. What kind of activities did you use to do in your courtyard? When did you do these ( dawn,
morning, noon, afternoon, evening, night)?
13. Did you meet with your neighbors or friends in the courtyard? If you did, what kind of activities
you did in the courtyard with your neighbors?
14. How satisfied or dissatisfied were you having a courtyard in your house?
15. Do you think the courtyard was important for your family? If yes, why do you think so?

122
 Appendices D: IRB Approval for Human Subject Research

HRP-591 - Protocol for

Human Subject Research

Protocol Title:

Provide the full title of the study as listed in item 1 on the “Basic Information” page in CATS IRB (http://irb.psu.edu).

Rethinking traditional Bengali courtyards as a sustainable building component to design future high-rise middle-
income apartments in the city of Mymensingh, Bangladesh.

Principal Investigator:

Name: Shayama Khan

Department: Architecture

Telephone: (814) 206 4331

E-mail Address: ssk211@psu.edu

Version Date:

Provide the date of this submission. This date must be updated each time the submission is provided to the IRB office
with revisions. DO NOT revise the version date in the footer of this document.
12-6-2019

Clinicaltrials.gov Registration #:

Provide the registration number for this study, if applicable. See “HRP-103- Investigator Manual, When do I have to
register my project at ClinicalTrials.gov?” for more information.

Not applicable

Important Instructions for Using This Protocol Template:

This template is provided to help investigators prepare a protocol that includes the necessary information needed by
the IRB to determine whether a study meets all applicable criteria for approval.

123
1. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:
• Prior to completing this protocol, ensure that you are using the most recent version by verifying
the protocol template version date in the footer of this document with the current version
provided in the CATS IRB Library.
• Do not change the protocol template version date located in the footer of this document.
• Some of the items may not be applicable to all types of research. If an item is not applicable,
please indicate as such or skip question(s) if indicated in any of the instructional text.
• GRAY INSTRUCTIONAL BOXES:
o Type your protocol responses below the gray instructional boxes of guidance language.
If the section or item is not applicable, indicate not applicable.
o Penn State College of Medicine/Penn State Health researchers: Delete the instructional
boxes from the final version of the protocol prior to upload to CATS IRB
(http://irb.psu.edu).
o Penn State researchers at all other campuses: Do NOT delete the instructional boxes
from the final version of the protocol.
• Add the completed protocol template to your study in CATS IRB (http://irb.psu.edu) on the “Basic
Information” page.
2. CATS IRB LIBRARY:
• Documents referenced in this protocol template (e.g. SOP’s, Worksheets, Checklists, and Templates)
can be accessed by clicking the Library link in CATS IRB (http://irb.psu.edu).

3. PROTOCOL REVISIONS:
• When making revisions to this protocol as requested by the IRB, please follow the instructions
outlined in the Study Submission Guide available in the Help Center in CATS IRB (http://irb.psu.edu)
for using track changes.
• Update the Version Date on page 1 each time revisions are made.

If you need help…

University Park and other campuses: College of Medicine and Penn State Health:
Office for Research Protections Human Research Human Subjects Protection Office
Protection Program 90 Hope Drive, Mail Code A115, P.O. Box 855
The 330 Building, Suite 205
University Park, PA 16802-7014 Hershey, PA 17033
Phone: 814-865-1775 (Physical Office Location: Academic Support Building
Fax: 814-863-8699 Room 1140)
Email: irb-orp@psu.edu Phone: 717-531-5687
Email: irb-hspo@psu.edu

124
Appendices E: CITI Certificates

125
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