Term 2 Mathematics Garde 12

Term 2 Mathematics Garde 12
Module 11: Algebra 1

11.1 Signposting video: Algebra 1
Learning outcomes
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
 Use factorisation to solve quadratic equations.

 Solve quadratic equations with the quadratic formula.
 Solve quadratic equations by completing the square.
 Solve equations simultaneously.
 Use the k-method to solve a quadratic equation.
11.2 Lesson 1: Factorising

1. Introduction
By now, you know that algebra is an important topic in Mathematics, as it is the

basis of so many concepts that we have learnt in high school Mathematics. In
Grade 12, we place an emphasis on understanding topics covered in previous
years, so this module will be dedicated towards this.
We need to ensure that we understand all algebra concepts, as the final

examination consists of algebra topics that are not taught as new content in
Grade 12. It is usually expected that we have mastered the content in previous
years, but here we want to ensure that all the gaps have been filled. This is an
opportunity to achieve true mastery in the topic of algebra!
We will start with the basics in this lesson, which is quadratic equations, as this
can be tested in Paper 1. We will be breaking down the definition of each
algebraic concept, explaining why and when it is used, and providing examples
of how each concept works. Let's get started!
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
2. Factorising
2.1 Revision of definitions
Before we dive straight into the Learning outcomes for this lesson, let's get back
to basics. It can be easy to forget the algebra terminology that was covered in
Grade 7 and and Grade 8. Let's go over some definitions.
 Variable – A symbol that represents an unknown value, such as x.

 Expression – One term or a group of terms that consist of numbers, basic
operators and variables.
 Equation – A mathematical statement which shows that two expressions
are equal.
 Coefficient – The number that is multiplied by the variable in an
expression.
 Univariate expression – An expression that only has one variable.
 Identity – A mathematical relationship which indicates that one
expression is equal to another.
 Root/zero – The value of x such that f(x)=0 is satisfied.
It is also important to identify the type of expression that you are working with:
 A polynomial is an expression which involves one or more variables that

have different exponents and coefficients, e.g. 5 x y 2 + x 3. All exponents
must be elements of the set of natural numbers.
 A monomial is a polynomial with one term, e.g 2 x 2 y .
 A binomial is a polynomial that has two terms, e.g 2 x 2 y +5 x .
 A trinomial is a polynomial that has three terms, e.g. a x 2 +bx +c
 A degree/order of a univariate polynomial is the value of the highest
exponent in the polynomial, e.g. x 2 y + x y 5 has a degree of 5.
2.2 Quadratic polynomials

In previous grades, we learnt how to factorise algebraic expressions using the
following methods:
 Taking out the common factor

 Difference of two squares
 Grouping in pairs
 Factorising the sum and difference of two cubes
 Factorising trinomials
Factorisation is essentially the reverse of multiplying out brackets. We need to be

able to factorise equations using the following strategies to solve for the
unknown variable(s). Quadratic equations are equations of the second degree. It
has at most two solutions, which are also referred to as roots. However, it is
possible for a quadratic equation to have one or no solution.
Worked Example 1
Solve for x:
Step 1: Note the restrictions.
In this equation, we have fractions, so we can see that x≠−2 and x≠−1,
otherwise the equation will be undefined.
Step 2: Find the lowest common denominator (LCD).
The LCD will be (x+2)(x+1). We will need to manipulate the equation by

multiplying each term by the LCD in the next step.
Step 3: Multiply each term by the LCD and simplify.
We can now cancel out the denominators.
3 x (x+ 1)+(x+2)( x +1)=4 ( x +2)

We then multiply out the brackets.
Now we add the like terms.
When we simplify and divide by 2, we get 2 x 2+ x−3=0 . We now have a

quadratic equation that can be factorised to get to the final answer.
Step 4: Factorise and solve for x
Conclusion
In this lesson, we revised the various methods for solving quadratic equations,
which we learnt in previous grades. These concepts are essential to understand so
that you may feel confident in answering the first set of questions given in the
final Paper 1 examinations.
Let's recap the important concepts to take away from this lesson:
 Quadratic equations are equations of the second degree.

 There are three general methods for solving a quadratic equation:
1. Factorisation
2. Quadratic formula
3. Completing the square
11.3 Lesson 2: The quadratic formula

1. Introduction
The quadratic formula is arguably one of the most useful formulae that will be on
your formula sheet in high school Mathematics. We use this formula to solve
quadratic equations under special circumstances. In this lesson, we revise when
and how to use the quadratic formula.

2. The quadratic formula
The quadratic formula is a formula derived from the steps involved in
completing the square, which is
We can use the formula to solve any quadratic equation, but we mostly use the
quadratic formula when the expression cannot be factorised.
As soon as you find that you cannot take out a common factor to factorise, reach
for the assistance of this formula.
3. Worked Example
Worked Example 1
Solve for x:
Step 1: Check whether the expression can be factorised.

It cannot be factorised by any of the usual factorisation strategies, so we use
the quadratic formula.
Step 2: Substitute the coefficients into the quadratic formula.

Conclusion
In this lesson, we revised how to solve a quadratic equation by using the
quadratic formula. This formula was derived from completing the square and
was introduced to you in Grade 11.
We should now be able to confidently apply the quadratic formula to any

equation. It could even be used as a hack for when you need the solutions for the
equation to answer another part of a question, and you are struggling to factorise.
This could save you some valuable time in an assessment. Just remember to
check if factorising the equation forms part of the mark allocation – then you
would not be able to use this hack.
11.4 Lesson 3: Completing the square

1. Introduction
By now we should know how to identify and factorise a difference of two
squares. This concept leads to another method for solving a quadratic equation,
and that is completing the square.
What this method does is it manipulates the left side of the equation into a
perfect square trinomial. Completing the square is useful when we are trying to
find the roots of the quadratic equation. We will be revising this method and
work through some examples.
1. Introduction
By now we should know how to identify and factorise a difference of two
squares. This concept leads to another method for solving a quadratic equation,
and that is completing the square.
What this method does is it manipulates the left side of the equation into a
perfect square trinomial. Completing the square is useful when we are trying to
find the roots of the quadratic equation. We will be revising this method and
work through some examples.
2. Completing the square

Completing the square is a strategy that allows us to rearrange a quadratic
equation, which makes it easier to solve. The steps to completing the square of a
quadratic equation is as follows:
1. Write the equation in the standard form of a x 2 bx+ c

2. Let the coefficient of the x 2 term =1 by dividing the whole equation by a.
3. Take half of the coefficient of the term for x then square it. Next, add and
subtract it from the equation to ensure that the value of the equation
remains unchanged.
4. Write the left-hand side as a difference of two squares.
5. Factorise the equation in terms of a difference of two squares and solve
for x.
3. Worked Example
We have recapped the steps to completing the square.
Worked Example 1
Solve for a:
Step 1: Write the equation in the standard form of ax2+bx+c
Step 2: Ensure that the coefficient of a2=1
Step 3: Take half of the coefficient of the a term, then square it, then add and
subtract it from this equation.
The coefficient of the a term =−10. When we half this, it
becomes −5 and (−5)2=25. The equation will now be:
Step 4: Write this trinomial as a perfect square.
Now, there are two ways that this equation can be solved from here.
Step 5: Method 1
Take square roots on both sides of the equation.
Step 6: Solve for a.

a=−1 or x=11
Step 7: Method 2
Factorise the equation as a difference of two squares.

Step 8: Solve for a.
Activity 1
1. Solve the following equations by completing the square:
Conclusion
In this lesson, we revised how to solve a quadratic equation by completing the
square. This method was derived from the quadratic formula so it ties in with the
previous lesson.
The more you practise completing the square, the better you will become at
finding the solutions for the equation, no matter how complex.
11.5 Lesson 4: Simultaneous equations

1. Introduction
In the previous lesson, we started off revising algebraic concepts by going over
quadratic equations. This lesson is all about simultaneous equations.
We will revise what simultaneous equations are and how to solve them step by
step. In Paper 1, a question on solving a simultaneous equation could appear, so
we should master this concept in this lesson.
We will go through a variety of examples, going from simple linear equations to

more complex quadratic equations. Simultaneous equations also play a role in
interpreting functions, and we will discuss this later.
2. Simultaneous equations
Simultaneous equations are two or more equations that share the same variables.
For example, 6x+y=18 and 4x+y=14. We call them simultaneous equations
because we solve these equations at the same time.
You may be wondering why simultaneous equations play a role in interpreting
functions. If we consider the two functions x+y=6 and −3x+y=2, when we
display them graphically, we can see that the two functions intersect at a point.
Figure 1: The functions x+y=6 and −3x+y=2 intersect at a point.
The point of intersection actually gives the solution to the simultaneous

equations. In the figure, the point is (1;5)∴x=1,y=5
There are three ways of solving simultaneous equations:
1. Solving by substitution
2. Solving by elimination
3. Solving by using a graph
2.1 Solving by substitution

When we solve a simultaneous equation using the substitution method, we
manipulate one of the equations and substitute it into the second one. What do
we mean by this? Let's break down the process before we apply it to an example.
1. Take the simplest equation of the two given equations and express one of
the variables in terms of the other (isolate one of the variables in the
equation).
2. Substitute this 'new' equation into the second equation. When we do this,
there is only one variable in the equation, which we can now solve for.
3. Solve for the first variable.
4. We can use the solution of the first variable and substitute it back into the
first equation. Now we can solve for the other unknown variable.
2.2 Solving by elimination

When we solve two equations simultaneously through the process of elimination,
we are essentially making the two equations equal to each other, then solving for
the first value and eventually the second value. The steps are as follows:
1. Isolate one of the variables to make it the subject of both equations.

2. Let these two equations equal to each other, so that there is only one
variable in the equation.
3. Solve the unknown variable.
4. Substitute your solutions back into the simplest original equation to find
the second variable.
2.3 Solving by using graphs

When we solve simultaneous equations in the context of graphs, the solutions to
the equations are actually the points where the two graphs intersect each other.
The steps to solving a simultaneous equation graphically are as follows:
1. Let y be the subject of each equation.

2. Sketch the graph of each equation on the same set of axes.
3. The points of intersection, which are the final solutions, are indicated on
the sketch.
3. Worked Examples
In Mathematics, it is always best to see how methods are applied in examples.
Let's have a look at how we can solve simultaneous equations using the different
methods.
3.1 Solving by substitution
Worked Example 1
Solve for x and y.
Step 1: Make y the subject of equation (1).
Step 2: Substitute this into the second equation and simplify.
Step 3: Factorise and solve for x.
Step 4: Substitute the x values into the first equation to get the solutions for y.
https://valenture.cloud.panopto.eu/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=561b81c8-
7151-4fd1-bc3e-afc500ab83f0&start=0
Video 1: Simultaneous equations. Click here to view the transcript.
3.2 Solving by elimination
Worked Example 2
Solve for a and b:
Step 1: Make a the subject of the second equation.
Step 2: Let the two equations equal to each other and solve for b.
We multiply the whole equation by 2 to cancel out the fraction.
Step 3: Substitute the solutions for b into the equation and solve for the
respective a values.
3.3 Solving by using graphs
Worked Example 3
Solve graphically for x and y:
Step 1: Let y be the subject of each equation.

For equation 1: y−x+5=0
y=x−5
For equation 2: x 2=1− y
2
y=− x +1
Step 2: Sketch both the linear and the quadratic graph on the same set of axes.
Step 3: Use the graph to determine where the two graphs intersect.
We can see that the parabola intersects the linear graph at two
points: (−3;−8) and (2;−3)
Step 4: Write the final answer.
x=−3 and y=−8 or x=2 and y=−3
Conclusion
In this lesson, we zoned in on simultaneous equations. We revised the three
strategies for solving two unknown variables when two equations are given:
1. The substitution method

2. The elimination method
3. Using graphs
When solving one linear and one quadratic equation, we saw that all possible
solutions from the quadratic equation must be substituted into the original
linear equation. There can be 0 to 2 solutions for each unknown variable.
The more we practise a variety of examples of simultaneous equations, the

better our understanding becomes of this algebraic concept. We can then
master this question when it appears in a test or examination.
11.6 Lesson 5: The k-method
1. Introduction
In this module, we have covered various subtopics in algebra to gain a better
understanding of how to solve equations. This is in preparation for answering the
first set of questions in the final Paper 1 examinations. We have revised the
following concepts:
 Factorisation
 Using the quadratic formula
 Completing the square
 Solving equations simultaneously
In this lesson, we will revise how to use the k-method to solve quadratic
equations.
Each concept will be explained and we will work through some examples to
master them.
2. The k-method
Another name for the k-method is the substitution method. This is because we
are taking a repeated expression in a quadratic equation and substituting it
for k. The steps to using the k-method in a quadratic equation where we need to
solve for x are as follows:
1. Find the repeated expression and rewrite the equation while substituting
the repeated expression with k.�.
2. Solve for k.
3. Go back to the original question and substitute the solution for k back
into the equation.
4. Solve for x.
3. Worked Examples
Worked Example 1
Solve for x:
Step 1: Determine the restrictions for x.

In the fraction, we can see that x≠0 and x≠2, otherwise the fraction would
be undefined.
Step 2: Substitute k for the repeated expression.
We can see that x 2−2 x is the repeated expression so we let x 2−2 x=k :
Step 3: Determine the restrictions for k.
We multiplied the equation by k to cancel out the denominator
Step 5: Use the values of k to solve for x

Note that there are three solutions in total.
Worked Example 2
Find the real values of n which solve this equation:
Step 1: Combine the like terms and get all terms on one side.
Step 2: Substitute k for n2 to turn this into a quadratic equation.

Step 3: Solve for k
Step 4: Use the values of k to solve for n.
which is non-real, therefore this solution is invalid.

Conclusion
In this lesson, we learnt how to use the k-method to solve equations. The key
idea to take away from this lesson is that if there is a repeated expression in an
equation, we can use the k-method to help us solve the equation. We substitute
the repeated expression with a single variable.
In the next module, we will continue our recap of algebraic concepts that will
pop up in tests and exams.
11.7 Wrap-up video: Algebra 1

Learning outcomes
In this module, you covered the following learning outcomes:

Module 12: Algebra 2

12.1 Signposting video: Algebra 2
Learning outcomes
 Practise equations involving surds that lead to a quadratic equation.

 Understand the nature of roots.
 Understand how to factorise a cubic polynomial.
 Understand how to use polynomial division and the remainder theorem
when factorising polynomials.
 Use the factor theorem to factorise cubic polynomials.
12.2 Lesson 1: Equations involving surds

1. Introduction
We have covered quite a number of algebraic concepts so far. In this module, we

wrap up revision of algebraic concepts and introduce the concept of differential
calculus by working with cubic polynomials. In this lesson, we zone in on surds.
We never know when a surd can pop up in an equation that we are required to
solve. This is why our lesson is dedicated to mastering this concept.
2. Equations involving surds
In Grade 11, we covered the topic of rational exponents and equations involving
surds. To refresh your memory, a surd is an expression involving a square root,
cube root or another root symbol.
When it comes to solving quadratic equations, we should also be able to use our
prior knowledge of manipulating and simplifying surds to solve quadratic
equations. Here, we will revise how to manipulate equations involving surds that
eventually lead to a quadratic equation that needs to be solved.
Important note
Here are some tips to solving equations involving surds:
 Get the surd term on its own.

 Square both sides of the equation.
 Let the equation equal to 0.
 Factorise and solve for the unknown variable.
 Check the roots (solutions) by substituting them back into the original
equation.
Worked example 1
Solve for p
Step 1: Write the equation with only the square root on the left side.
Step 2: Square both sides of the equation and solve for p.
Step 3: Check the solution by substituting your solution back into the
equation.
https://valenture.cloud.panopto.eu/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=c86664bd-
6066-4f49-9d3a-afc500bb3acb&start=0
Video 1: Equations involving surds.

Conclusion
We focused on solving equations involving surds in this lesson. This is yet
another algebraic concept that we have mastered and can carry in our figurative
toolkit when answering questions in tests and exams.
The most important point to take away from this lesson is the following:
If the equation includes a surd, we need to isolate the surd in the equation, then
square both sides to cancel out the surd.
In the next lesson, we cover the nature of roots.
12.3 Lesson 2: Nature of roots

1. Introduction
This lesson concludes the revision part of algebra for Grade 12. In this lesson, we
are revising the nature of roots. If you are wondering what this term means, it is
essentially finding the category that the roots of the equation lie in.
The roots of an equation can fall into one of four categories:
 Real
 Non-real
 Equal
 Unequal
Let's find out how exactly we determine the nature of roots in an equation.
 Identify the nature of roots.
2. Nature of roots
We have spoken about roots in previous topics, but here we will be revising the
nature of roots.
We should know that roots in a standard quadratic equation a x 2 +bx +c are the
values that x would make the entire expression =0..
For example, if an equation has roots of b and c, the quadratic equation will
always be (x−b)(x −c)=0 in its simplest form. If we were to multiply the
equation by a constant, it does not change the roots.
We learnt in previous grades that the roots of any quadratic equation can be
determined using the quadratic formula:
The nature of roots depends on the discriminant, b 2−4 ac . We let the

discriminant b 2−4 ac=Δ
 If Δ<0, the roots of the equation will be non-real.

 If Δ is the square of a rational number, the roots are rational.
 If Δ is not the square of a rational number, the roots are irrational and
can be expressed in decimal or surd form.
 If Δ>0, the roots of the equation will be real.
 If Δ=0, the two roots of the equation will be equal.
3. Worked examples
Worked example 1
Determine the nature of roots without solving the equation.
Substitute the coefficients of the equation into the discriminant.
∴ two real, equal and rational roots.
Worked example 2
The roots of a quadratic equation are
For which values of k are the roots real?

For the roots to be real, k+3≥0
∴k≥3
Conclusion
In this lesson, we focused on how to determine the nature of roots in equations.
This is an important concept to understand in Grade 12 algebra. This also wraps
up the revision section of algebraic concepts. Hopefully you are now an algebra
master and can tackle any question that comes your way in Paper 1!
In the next lesson, we introduce the section of mathematics called calculus. We

will start by learning how to factorise a cubic polynomial.
12.4 Lesson 3: Factorising cubic polynomials

1. Introduction
This lesson is essentially an introduction into calculus. We start this topic by
learning a foundational skill in calculus, which is factorising a cubic polynomial.
Before we get into solving cubic equations, we will dedicate this lesson to only
factorising as it can get complex. The methods that we will cover are:
 Common factors
 Grouping terms
 Sum or difference of two cubes
2. Factorising cubic polynomials

Now that you have recapped the definition of a quadratic polynomial, you might
have already realised that a cubic polynomial is an expression with the highest
power equal to 3.
The standard form of a cubic polynomial is:
We will be using prior knowledge to factorise cubic polynomials.
2.1 Cubic expressions with a common factor

We have come across cubic equations that have no constant term and with a
common factor. An example of this would be x 3−2 x 2−3 x. In this case, we
would take out the common factor, which is x, and factorise until we can't
anymore.
2.2 Grouping terms

When we have a cubic expression with four terms, we can factorise by grouping
the terms. We have practised grouping terms in previous grades. An example of
an expression where we can group the terms is x 3 +2 x 2−9 x−18. There is a
common factor of x between x 3 and 2 x 2, and a common factor
of 99 between 9x and 18. We would then factorise according to these common
factors and then group the terms to complete the factorisation.
2.3 Sum or difference of two cubes
A sum or difference of two cubes can appear in two different forms. When we
identify a sum or difference of two cubes, we can factorise by substituting the
coefficients in the following formula:
3. Worked examples
Let's go through examples of how to factorise cubic polynomials using the three
methods we discussed.
3.1 Common factor
Worked example 1
Factorise
Step 1: Take out the common factor of x.
Step 2: We are also able to factorise the quadratic expression in the brackets.
We cannot factorise any further, so this is the final answer.

3.2 Grouping terms
Worked example 2
Factorise
Step 1: Factorise by grouping terms
Step 2: Group the terms that are not in the brackets
Step 3: Factorise further

3.3 Sum or difference of two cubes
Worked example 3
Factorise
Factorise the expression using the formula
Activity 1
1. Factorise
Conclusion
In this lesson, we factorised cubic polynomials by using concepts that we have
learned in previous grades. This is an important skill to have. However, not all
cubic polynomials will fit into the three categories we discussed in this lesson. In
the next lesson, we will learn a new method for factorising cubic polynomials.
12.5 Lesson 4: The remainder theorem

1. Introduction
The remainder theorem is a concept that applies Euclidean division of
polynomials. According to the theorem, when we divide a cubic
polynomial P(x) by a factor (x−a) that is not an element of the polynomial, we
will find a smaller polynomial and a remainder.
 Understand the remainder theorem.
2. The remainder theorem

In order to properly understand the remainder theorem, let's look at a simple
example. We know that when a number is divided by another number that is not
a factor of the first number, there will always be a remainder. For example,
when 29 is divided by 8 we get a remainder of 5.
Let's apply this same concept to a polynomial. If a cubic polynomial is divided
by a polynomial of a smaller degree, we will also end up with a remainder. For
example, if x 2+ 6 x+ 9 is divided by x+2 the remainder is 1.
Figure 1: When we conduct the polynomial division, we can see how we get to
the remainder of 1.
The remainder theorem states that a polynomial p(x) divided by cx−d gives a
remainder of
d
In other words, to determine the value of the remainder, we substitute x= into
c
the polynomial p(x).
3. Worked examples
Let's go through a few examples. We can be asked to find the remainder or to
solve for an unknown variable using the remainder.
Worked example 1
1. Determine the remainder when p(x)=3 x 3+ 5 x 2−x +1 is divided by:
Answer
a. Determine the remainder for each linear divisor.
b. Determine the remainder for each linear divisor.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we learned about the division of polynomials and how to
determine the remainder by using the remainder theorem. This concept leads into
the next lesson, which is the factor theorem. Remember that we are introducing
the topic of calculus and slowly learning how to factorise different types of cubic
polynomials.
12.6 Lesson 5: The factor theorem

1. Introduction
In the previous lesson, we learned about the relationship between the quotient
and the divisor in polynomial division. We understand how to find a remainder
when we divide two polynomials.
In this lesson, we will build onto this knowledge. We are going to be learning
about the factor theorem. Once we understand the concept behind this theorem,
we can use it to factorise cubic polynomials.
2. The factor theorem

By now we should understand that the remainder theorem states that when we
divide a cubic polynomial p(x) by a simpler expression cx −d , we get the
remainder in the form of p ()d

c
.
If p()d
c
=0, this means that the remainder is o. This implies that cx−d is a factor
of p(x).
We call this concept the factor theorem. It describes the relationship between the
root of a polynomial and a factor of a polynomial.
We can use this theorem to factorise cubic polynomials.
2.1 Using the factor theorem to factorise cubic polynomials
 Use trial and error to find one factor. Look at the constant term of the
cubic expression and list its factors. Then you can use trial and error to
substitute into the polynomial to find a value that gives the result of zero.
c
 You can now use the factor theorem to confirm that is a root, so we
d
need to show that p ( dc )=0. This will be the first short bracket.
 Divide p(x) by the factor to get a quadratic polynomial (the long
bracket).
 Apply the usual methods of factorisation to determine the two factors of
the quadratic polynomial.
This method will become much clearer once we go through worked examples.
3. Worked examples
Worked example 1
Apply the factor theorem to determine if y−1 is a factor of
Step 1: Apply the factor theorem
In order for y−1 to be a factor, then f(1) must be equal to 0.

Step 2: Determine f(1)
Step 3: State the conclusion
f(1)≠0 therefore y−1 is not a factor of

Worked example 2
Apply the factor theorem to factorise the following cubic polynomial:
Step 1: Use trial and error to find a factor
Let's try f(1):
∴(x−1) is a factor. This will be the first bracket.
Step 2: Use inspection to factorise
The first term in the second bracket should be x 2 to give x 3.

The last term in the second bracket should be −6 as (−1)(−6)=6.
So far we have:
Let's find the coefficient for the middle term.
(−1 ) ( x 2 ) gives us −x 2. This means that the coefficient for the x-term in the
second bracket should be −1 to give another −x 2 so that we
get −x 2−x 2=−2 x 2.
So we have f ( x )= ( x −1 ) (x 2−x−6)
We can check if the expression has been factorised correctly by seeing if the
coefficient of the x-term also works out:
( x ) (−6 ) +(−1)(−x ) This is correct!
Step 3: Write the final answer
https://valenture.cloud.panopto.eu/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=4d41dad8-
73d9-4511-b924-afc500bd1b34&start=0
Video 1: The factor theorem.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we learned a new method for factorising a cubic polynomial. The
()
factor theorem states that if p
d
c
then cx−d is a factor of p(x).
We used this concept to prove statements, and then moved onto factorising cubic
polynomials. It would be helpful to keep on practising, as the more you practise,
the faster you will be able to factorise.
12.7 Wrap-up video: Algebra

Learning outcomes
 Identify the nature of roots.
 Identify remainders when dividing polynomials using the remainder

theorem.
Module 13: Differential calculus 1

13.1 Signposting video: Differential calculus 1
Learning outcomes
 Solve cubic equations.

 Understand the concept of a limit.
 Calculate the average gradient and the gradient at a point using limits.
 Find the derivative from first principles.
 Apply specified rules of differentiation.
13.2 Lesson 1: Solving cubic equations
1. Introduction
In the previous module, we started working with cubic polynomials. We learnt

how to use the remainder theorem. We also covered how to factorise cubic
polynomials using the following methods:
 Common factors
 Grouping
 Sum of difference of two cubes
 Factor theorem
Using these skills, in this lesson, we will solve cubic equations. Let's dive in.
1.1 Formal SBA: Project instructions
In Module 15, you will be required to submit a formal SBA project that will be
graded by a teacher. This grade will contribute to your total mark at the end of
the year so you must try your best in this task. The assignment will be based on
the topic sequences and series. The maximum mark for this project is 50. You
will be able to go through Grade 10 and 11 revision and other resources to
complete the project. Work through each section carefully and pace yourself
when completing this project.
You may download the project here.
Remember :
1. This project must be written by hand.

2. Write your answers on a blank sheet of paper or an exam pad. You
should include your student number and the title of the Mastery check for
Module 15.
3. In addition to the above, you are required to sign the plagiarism
declaration. To do this, copy the text below onto your piece of paper, and
insert your signature below it.
Plagiarism declaration: I declare that all work in this activity is my own and that
I have indicated any sources I have consulted, with the exception of the provided
learning material. I have not committed plagiarism as defined in the plagiarism
policy.
When you have completed your assignment, scan it and save a copy on your
computer so that it is ready for upload in Module 15.
Good luck and have fun!
2. Solving cubic equations
We should have loads of experience in solving algebraic equations, so you will

notice the steps and tips to solving cubic equations will be similar. You have the
following skills in your "cubic equations toolkit" to factorise the equation:
 Finding a common factor

 Grouping and then factorising
 Finding the sum or difference of two cubes
 Applying the factor theorem
Once we have the cubic equation factorised into brackets, it is easy to find the
solutions to the equation.
3. Worked Examples
Worked Example 1
Solve for x:
Step 1: Move all terms to the LHS.
Step 2: Use the factor theorem to find the first factor for the equation.
Step 3: Factorise by inspection

https://valenture.cloud.panopto.eu/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=2b4a24fa-
69f0-450b-81cd-afc700c9eda0&start=0
Video 1: Solving cubic equations. Click here to view the transcript of this video.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we tied together cubic polynomial concepts. We learnt about the
remainder theorem, the factor theorem, and finally, how to solve a cubic
equation.
Let's recap some tips for solving cubic equations:
 Transpose all terms to the left side so that the right side =0.
 Factorise the expression
 Apply the zero factor law (let each factor =0)
It is important to understand this skill as we will put it into practice again once
we sketch cubic functions.
13.3 Lesson 2: Limits

1. Introduction
This lesson is an introduction to the concept of a limit. What is a limit, you may
ask?
A limit, by definition, is a value that a function approaches as the input

approaches a specific value. In mathematics, sometimes we cannot work out an
answer directly, but we can see what the answer should be as we get closer and
closer to the answer. The limit describes how a function behaves near a point,
instead of at the exact point.
Let's dive into a lesson all about how to calculate a limit and represent it
graphically.

2. Limits
Let's consider the function:
This looks complex! Let's see if we can simplify this. The numerator can be
factorised as:
Now we can cancel x+6 from the numerator and denominator:
We can only cancel out x+6 if x≠−6. If x=−6 then the denominator would
be 0 and as we know, the function would then be undefined. If we think about
this in the context of the domain of the function, the domain would not
include x=−6. What we can do is analyse what happens to the values
of x and y the closer we get to −6.
Study the values for x and y in the table below.
Table 1: The relationship between x and y as x approaches −6.
-
x -6,4 -6,3 -6,2 -6,1 -6,09 -6,08 -6,01 -5,9 -5,8 -5,7 -5,6
5,5
y=
-
( x+6 ) ( x −2 ) -8,4 -8,3 -8,2 -8,1 -8,09 -8,08 -8,01 -7,9 -7,8 -7,7 -7,6
7,5
x +6
We can see that as x approaches −6 then y approaches −8.
If we represent the function on a graph, we can see that as x approaches −6

from the left, y approaches −8. Notice that the function approaches the same y-
value from the left and the right. This means that the limit exists.
2.1 Notation
How would we write the answer for the question above? In words, we would say
that the limit of:
as x tends to -6 (both from the left and the right) is

equal to -8.
In limit notation, we would write the answer as:
This concept will become clearer once we go through a few Worked Examples.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through examples of determining limits to ensure we understand this
concept.
Worked Example 1
1. Determine the following and illustrate the answers graphically.
a)
Step 1: Ensure the expression is simplified and cancel all common terms.
In this case, we cannot simplify further.
Step 2: Calculate the limit
b)
Step 1: Ensure the expression is simplified and cancel all common terms.
In this case, we cannot simplify further.

Step 2: Calculate the limit.
Worked Example 2
Determine:
Step 1: Simplify the expression
To simplify, we need to factorise.
As x→10 the denominator approaches 0, therefore, the expression is not

defined for x=10
Step 2: Calculate the limit.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we introduced the concept of a limit. It may have seemed daunting
at first but once we wrapped our head around the concept using a very simple
example, we were able to understand that the limit describes how a function
behaves near a point.
It is helpful to keep practising how to calculate limits of various types of

expressions. One could also revise strategies for simplifying algebraic
expressions.
13.4 Lesson 3: Gradient at a point using limits

1. Introduction
If you remember when we revised the topic of functions, we learnt about average
gradient, which is the gradient that passes through two points on a curve. In this
lesson, we will use limits to determine average gradient.
Let's find out how.
 Calculate average gradient and the gradient at a point using limits.
2. Average gradient
We can use the concept of limits to determine the average gradient of a tangent
to a curved graph.
Let's say that we are only given one point on the tangent, but we are required to
find the gradient. Have a look at the illustration below.
Figure 1: f(x) is sketched. t is a tangent on the curve and point P is given.
To resolve this dilemma we can consider a secant. If you remember the parts
of a circle, a secant is a straight line that intersects a circle at two points. We
can consider that the secant passes through point P(xp;yp) and Q(xq;yq),
where Q is at a certain distance from P.
To determine the average gradient we can now use the familiar formula :
Let's represent this on the sketch.

Figure 2: We let the x coordinate of P be a, therefore, the y coordinate will
be f(a). Similarly, the x coordinate of Q be (a+h), so the y coordinate will
be f(a+h).
Now we can calculate average gradient as:
2.1 Gradient at a point

What would happen if Q moves along the curve, approaching P? If we study the
diagram below, the secant line would then approach the tangent line as its
limiting position. This would mean that the average gradient of the secant
approaches the gradient of the tangent at P.
Figure 3: The secant line approaches the tangent line.
According to the sketch, as point Q approaches P,h approaches 0. If

point P ends up on point Q this would mean that h=0ℎ=0 and according to the
formula, the average gradient would be undefined. We can apply the concept of
limits to let h tend towards 00 to calculate the gradient of the tangent at point P,
using the following formula:
We will go through examples of determining the average gradient and the

gradient at a point.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through an example of how to determine the gradient at a point using
limits.
Worked Example 1
Given g(x)=3 x 2, calculate the average gradient of the curve at the
point x=−1..
Step 1: Write down the formula for the gradient at a point.
Step 2: Determine g(a+h) and g(a)

We let a=−1 as we need to find the gradient of the curve at x=−1
Step 3: Substitute into the formula and simplify. Only take the limit
once h has been cancelled out from the denominator.
The gradient of the curve g(x)=3 x 2 at x=−1 is −6.

Worked Example 2
Given f(x)=−x 2+ 7, calculate the average gradient of function f,
between x=−1 and x=3.
Step 1: Write down the formula of the average gradient.
Step 2: Substitute the x values into the formula and simplify.

Conclusion
This is your opportunity to leave the learner with the 'key message' from the
lesson. You should also highlight that since this is the end of the 45 minute
'period block', the learner should go and take a short break and then try another
lesson from a different subject.
Glossary
Neutral posture - A relaxed body position which allows all the important body
parts to work together in order to use your voice optimally.
13.5 Lesson 4: First principles

1. Introduction
In the previous lesson, we covered how to determine the gradient of the tangent
to a curve by using limits. The formula:
gives us an
expression that describes the gradient of the tangent at any point of the graph.
This gradient function is known as the derivative.
In this lesson, we will learn how to find the derivative of a function by using a
concept called the first principle.
2. First principles
In the previous lesson, we learnt the formula for determining the gradient at a
point using limits. The expression that we are left with is called the derivative
and is written as f′.
The derivative is defined as:
When we use the term differentiation, it means we are finding the derivative of a
function. When we use the formula above, we call this method finding the
derivative from first principles.
Important note
We can write the notation for the derivative of a function in the following
ways:
d
 Symbols D and indicate the operation of differentiation
dx
dy
 is not a fraction; it means y differentiated with respect to x.
dx
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through a few examples of how we find the derivative of functions using
first principles.
Worked Example 1
Determine the derivative of g(x )=2 x−3 from first principles.
Step 1: Write down the first principle formula.
Step 2: Calculate g(x +h)
Step 3: Substitute into the formula and simplify.
The derivative g′(x)=2

Worked Example 2
1. Determine the derivative of f(x)=4 x3 from first principles.
2. Determine f′(0,5)) and interpret your answer according to the derivative,
the gradient of the function and the gradient of the tangent.
Answers
1. Determine the derivative of f(x)=4 x3 from first principles.

Step 1: Write down the first principal formula.
Step 2: Substitute into the formula and simplify.
2. Calculate f′(0,5) and interpret.
The derivative of the function f(x) at x=0,5 is 3.

This also means that the gradient of function f at x=0,5 is 3.
The gradient of the tangent to f(x) at x=0,5 is 3.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we combined our knowledge of functions and limits to start with
differentiation. We learnt how to use the first principle formula to find the
derivative of a function. It is important to check your terms and signs when
simplifying the expressions.
You have done a great job learning new mathematics concepts. In the next
lesson, we will be covering a much easier method of differentiation, so get ready!
13.6 Lesson 5: Specified rules for differentiation
1. Introduction
In the previous lesson, we covered finding the derivative of functions from first
principles. In this lesson, finding the derivative is about to get much easier!
There are rules for finding the derivative of functions quickly. Let's learn what
they are and how to use them. They are also a way of checking your answers
when finding the derivative from first principles.
 Apply specified rules for differentiation.
2. Specified rules for differentiation
As we mentioned, there is a much simpler method for finding the derivative of a

function. Depending on the nature of the function, there are five specified rules:
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through a few examples where we apply the rules for differentiation.
Worked Example 1
1. Use the rules of differentiation to find the derivative of the following
functions:
Conclusion
In this lesson, we discovered a quicker method for differentiation, using five

specific rules. We can also check our answers when differentiating from first
principles.
Let's recap the five rules:
d n
 The general rule for differentiation is [ x ]=n x n−1
dx
, where n∈R and n≠0.
 The derivative of a constant is always 0.
 The derivative of a constant multiplied by a fraction is equal to the
constant multiplied by the derivative of the function.
 The derivative of a sum is equal to the sum of the derivatives.
 The derivative of a difference is equal to the difference of the derivatives.
13.7 Wrap-up video: Differential calculus

Learning outcomes
In this module, you covered the following Learning outcomes:
 Calculate average gradient and the gradient at a point using limits.
 Apply specified rules of differentiation.
Module 14: Differential calculus 2

14.1 Signposting video: Differential calculus 2
Learning outcomes
Find the derivative of an expression where letters represent constants.
Find the equation of a tangent to a graph.
Use the derivative to calculate for which values a function is increasing or

decreasing.
Apply the second derivative to interpret functions.
Understand the concept of a cubic function and its shape.
14.2 Lesson 1: Letters representing constants

1. Introduction
We know by now that differentiation is an important concept in calculus. When

we find the derivative of a function we are essentially finding the rate of change
of a function with respect to its independent variable. In this lesson, we are
building onto our knowledge by focusing on the differentiation of expressions
with letters as constants.
 Find the derivative of an expression where letters represent constants.
2. Letters representing constants
Let's first answer a question based on finding the derivative of a simpler

function.
When we differentiate an expression containing different letters, we will be
differentiating with respect to the letter that represents the variable. The other
letters in the expression will be regarded as constants. We can identify the
variable that needs to be differentiated by looking for the letter that replaces
dy
the x in the notation: f′(x), D x or
dx
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through some examples. Remember, we are looking for the letter that
takes the place of x in the notation that is being used.
Worked Example 1
1. Determine the following:
a) f′(x) if f(x)=ax2+bx+c ( a,b and c are constants)

dv
b) if v=u+at
dt
Solution
1. a) We use the rules of differentiation and consider the letters that are
constants to determine that f ' (x)=2 ax+ b
dv
b) =0+a=a
dt
4. Practice questions
Let's practise differentiating expressions with letters representing constants.
Activity 1
1. Determine the following:
a) f ' (n)if f ( n )=√ a n3 −b √ n ( a,b and c are constants)

b) D x [a x 3 +b x 2 +cd +d ]
14.3 Lesson 2: Tangents to graphs
1. Introduction
We know that the derivative is used to calculate the gradient of the tangent to a
graph at any point on a curved graph. In this lesson, we level-up this skill by
finding the equation of a tangent to a graph. This combines our knowledge of
linear functions with differentiation.
In a real-life setting, we can use this skill to find trends and make predictions
based on data displayed on a curved graph.
 Find the equation of a tangent to a graph.
2. Tangents to graphs
Before we get into this concept, let's answer a question on differentiation.
We know that the equation of a straight line is y=mx+c . This would be the
standard equation for a tangent to a graph. The gradient can be represented
as m=f '(a)
For example, if we are required to determine the gradient of the tangent to the
graph of f (x)=x3 −2 x 2 +3 at the point where x=2, we first find the derivative
of the function, then substitute the point into the derivative.
2
f ' (x)=3 x −4 x
m=f '(2)
2
¿ 3 ( 2 ) −4(2)
¿4
We know that if we have the gradient and at least one (x;y) coordinate, we can
determine the equation of the tangent to the graph. The
formula y− y 1=m(x−x 1)can be used to find the equation of any straight line,
which we may remember from previous grades.
If a x value of a point on a graph is given, we can find:
1. the y value by substituting the x value into the original function f (x).
2. the gradient of the tangent by using the derivative f ' (x)
We can follow these steps to find the equation of the tangent to the curve:
1. Use rules of differentiation to find the derivative.

2. Calculate the gradient by substituting the x coordinate into the derivative.
3. Substitute the gradient and the coordinates into the linear equation.
4. Make y the subject of the equation.
2.1 Equation of a normal to a curve

A normal is defined by the line perpendicular to the tangent to the curve at a
given point, as seen in the figure below.
Figure 1: The normal is perpendicular to the tangent to the curve.
We can find the gradient of a normal to a curve by using m tangent × mnormal =−1.
From here, we can determine the equation.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through examples of finding the equation of the tangent to a curve,
and also finding the equation of the normal to a curve.
Worked Example 1
Given the function g(x )=( x +2 ) ( 2 x +1 )2, find the equation of
the tangent to the curve where x=−1..
Click to view the solution
Step 1: Find the y value where x=−1
This means that the tangent passes through the point (−1;1)
Step 2: Expand the brackets in the function and simplify
Step 3: Differentiate the function
Step 4: Substitute x=−1 into g '(x ) to determine the gradient
Step 5: We now have all the values to find the equation of th
e tangent. Let's substitute the gradient and the coordinates
to form the linear equation.

Worked Example 2
Find the equation of the normal to the curved graph xy=−4 at (−1;4).
Illustrate the curved graph and the normal on a cartesian plane.
Solution
Step 1: Differentiate the function
We need to make y the subject of the formula and then apply the rules of
differentiation with respect to the x.
Step 2: Find the gradient of the normal
We will find the gradient of the tangent at the given point, then use this to
find the gradient of the normal:
Step 3: Find the equation of the normal

Let's practise finding the equations of tangents to curves.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we learnt how to apply differentiation to find the equation of a
tangent to a curve. We also learnt how to determine the equation of the normal to
a curve, due to the relationship between the gradient of the tangent and the
gradient of the normal.
Lets recap the steps for these concepts:
To find the equation of the tangent to the curve:
1. Use rules of differentiation to find the derivative.

2. Calculate the gradient by substituting the x coordinate into the derivative.
3. Substitute the gradient and the coordinates into the linear equation.
4. Make y the subject of the equation.
To find the equation of the normal to the curve:
1. Differentiate the function

2. Find the gradient of the normal using m tangent × mnormal =−1
3. Use y− y 1=m(x−x 1) to find the equation of the normal.
14.4 Lesson 3: Increasing and decreasing functions
1. Introduction
As we know, differentiation is all about measuring rates of change. In this lesson,
we will apply our knowledge of differentiation to determine whether a function
is increasing or decreasing at a specific point.
We will be using a lot of graphical interpretations of the derivative in order to

understand this concept.
Let's get into it.
 Use the derivative to calculate for which values a function is increasing

or decreasing.
2. Increasing and decreasing functions

Before we explain the concept of increasing and decreasing functions, let's
answer the following question.
If we find the derivative of a function at a specific point, we can inspect the value
to determine if the function is increasing or decreasing at that point.
If f ' (a)>0 , then f is increasing at x=a.
Figure 1 : f is increasing at x=a.
If f ' (a)<0 , then f is decreasing at x=a .

Figure 2 : f is decreasing at x=a .
If f ' (a)=0, then f has a stationary point at x=a.

Figure 3: f has a stationary point at x=a.
If the function is increasing before the stationary point and decreasing after the
stationary point, or vice versa, then we say that f is both increasing and
decreasing at the stationary point:
Figure 4: f is increasing and decreasing at x=a
If the function is increasing both before and after the stationary point, then we
say that f� is increasing at the stationary point.
Figure 5: f is increasing at x=a
If the function is decreasing both before and after the stationary point, then we
say that f is increasing at the stationary point.
Figure 6: f is decreasing at x=a .
We can calculate the coordinates of the stationary point(s) of a function:
1. Let f ' (x)=0 and solve for x.

2. Use the original function f (x) to determine the y-value.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through examples where we are required to determine if the function
is increasing or decreasing at a certain point.
Worked Example 1
1. The graph of f ( x)=2 x 3−3 x 2−12 x is given. Determine, by calculation,
whether f� is increasing or decreasing at:
1. a) Step 1: Find the derivative of the function
2
f ' (x)=6 x −6 x−12
Step 2: Substitute the x value given into the derivative. ∴
2
f ' (−2)=6 (−2 ) −6(−2)−12
=24>0
∴f is increasing at x=−2
b) f ' (0)=6 ( 0 )2−6(0)−12
=−12<0
∴f is decreasing at x=0
c) f ' (−1)=6 (−1 )2−6 (−1)−12

=0
∴f has a stationary point at x=−1
We know from a) and b) that f is increasing before the stationary point and
decreasing after the stationary point. ∴f is both increasing and decreasing
at x=−1.
Let's practice determining whether functions are increasing or decreasing at a
specific point.
Activity 1
1. The graph of f ( x)=−x3 +6 x 2−9 x +3 is given. Determine if the function is incr
decreasing at:
a) x=−1
b) x=2
Conclusion
In this lesson, we learnt how to determine if a function is increasing or
decreasing at a specific point using differentiation. The steps to determine if a
function is increasing or decreasing are as follows:
1. Find the derivative of a function.

2. Substitute the point given into the derivative.
3. Interpret the answer to be increasing or decreasing at that point.
It is important to be able to apply the rules of differentiation as this is the first

step towards getting this concept right!
14.5 Lesson 4: The second derivative

1. Introduction
In this lesson, we will cover another important concept in differential calculus,
known as the second derivative.
The second derivative is essentially the derivative of the first derivative. Why
would we need to differentiate a function twice? The first derivative would show
us the gradient of the function at a given point, while the second derivative tells
us how that gradient is changing.
 Apply the second derivative to interpret functions.
2. The second derivative

Before we get into the second derivative, let's answer the following question.
To calculate the second derivative, we simply take the derivative of the first
derivative. The first derivative is denoted as f′(x), and the second derivative is
denoted as f′′(x).
d
f′′(x)= [f′(x)]
dx
In the above question, the second derivative would be f′′(x)=6
2.1 Concavity
The second derivative is also a measurement of the concavity of a function.
 The graph is considered to be concave up if the graph of a function

curves upwards. If f′′(a)>0, then f is concave up at x=a.
 The graph is considered to be concave down if the graph of a function
curves downwards. If f′′(a)<0, then f is concave down at x=a.
 The point where a function changes from concave up to concave down
(or vice versa) is the point of inflection. If f′′(a)=0, then this is a
possible point of inflection of f.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through questions where we are required to apply the second derivative.
Worked Example 1
Determine the second derivative of k ( x)=2 x 3−4 x 2+ 9
Worked Example 2
The graph of −x 3−6 x 2 + x is shown
Figure 1: The graph of −x 3−6 x 2 + x
a. Determine whether f is concave up or concave down at x=−3

b. Determine whether f is concave up or concave down at x=−1
c. Show that f has a point on inflection at x=−2
Solution
a. Find the second derivative of the function
Substitute x=−3 into the second derivative
∴f is concave up at x=−3
b. Substitute x=−1 into the second derivative
∴f is concave down at x=−1
c. Substitute x=−2 into the second derivative
∴f is concave before x=−2 and concave down after x=−1, therefore f has
a point of inflection at x=−2
Let's practise applying the second derivative.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we established the importance of the second derivative. We broke
down the definition and went through examples of how to determine the second
derivative.
Let's recap the most important points to take away from this lesson:
 The second derivative is the derivative of the first derivative.

 The second derivative tells us how the gradient of a function at a specific
point is changing.
Remember to keep practising the second derivative.
14.6 Lesson 5: The cubic function

1. Introduction
In previous lessons, we have learnt different strategies for factorising cubic
equations. We also know how to solve cubic equations. In this lesson, we will be
introducing the cubic function, so all the concepts that we have learnt about
cubic polynomials and equations will form part of this topic.
We will take a look at the standard form of the cubic function, its shape and
characteristsics.
 Understand the concept of a cubic function and its shape.
2. The cubic function

Before we officially introduce the cubic function, let's answer the following
question.
Cubic functions are a type of polynomial function that has a degree of 3,

meaning that the highest exponent in the function is 3.
The standard form of a cubic function is y=x 3 +b x 2 +cx +d . a,b,c and d are
constants.
A cubic function generally has the following shape:
Figure 1: The general shape of a cubic function.
Just like any other function, cubic functions have certain properties.
Let's take a look at the constant a.
 If a>0 the graph will appear to increase, reach a stationary point, then
decrease, then reach a second stationary point before increasing again.
 If a<0 the graph will appear to decrease, reach a stationary point, then
increase, then reach a second stationary point before decreasing again.
Figure 2: The effect of a on cubic functions.
Cubic functions can have between 0 and 2 stationary points. All cubic graphs
have 1 point of inflection.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through some examples to help us understand the structure and
characteristics of the cubic function.
Worked Example 1
Given the cubic function g( x )=x 3 + x 2−10 x +8 , what effect will a have on
the graph?
a is positive therefore the graph will initially increase, then decrease,
then increase again.
Worked example 2
3 2
Determine the x and y intercepts of (x )=x + x −10 x +8
Step 1: Determine the y-intercept
We let x=0:
This gives us the point (0;8)

Step 2: Determine the x intercepts
We let y=0 and use the factor theorem.
Now we can factorise completely by inspection.
The x intercepts are (−4;0),(1;0) and (2;0).
Let's practise questions that help us understand the structure of the cubic
function.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we officially introduced the cubic function and broke down the
structure and characteristics of this function. We should now have a solid
foundation for the next step in cubic functions, which is learning how to sketch
them.
The more cubic functions we look at, the more familiar we will get with the
structure of its graph.
14.7 Wrap up video: Differential calculus 2

Learning outcomes
 Find the derivative of an expression where letters represent constants.
 Find the equation of a tangent to a graph.
 Use the derivative to calculate for which values a function is increasing

or decreasing.
 Apply the second derivative to interpret functions.
 Understand the concept of a cubic function and its shape.

Module 15: Cubic functions
15.1 Signposting video: Cubic functions
Learning outcomes
 Sketch the cubic function by finding all the necessary components.

 Sketch cubic functions with a single or no stationary point.
 Find the equation of the cubic function.
 Interpret the cubic function.
 Interpret various functions using differential calculus.
15.2 Lesson 1: Sketching the cubic function

1. Introduction
Welcome to this lesson on sketching cubic functions! Cubic functions are

important because they are used in specialised fields of mathematics, physics,
engineering, and other fields. When we sketch a cubic function, we are creating a
visual representation of the function's behavior, which can help us understand its
properties and make predictions about its values.
In this lesson, we will break down the steps to sketching a cubic function.
 Apply all necessary components to sketch cubic functions.

2. Sketching the cubic function
Before we get into sketching cubic functions, let's first answer a revision
question.
In the previous lesson, we introduced the cubic function to have a well-rounded

understanding of the shape of the graph and the standard form of the function.
The standard form of a cubic function is a x 3 +b x 2+ cx +d .

Let's break down the steps to sketching the cubic function on the cartesian plane.
1. Find the x values of the stationary points. We do this by letting f′(x)=0.

2. Find the y values of the stationary points by substituting the x values
back into the equation of the function f(x).
3. Check the sign of a to determine the shape of the graph.
4. Determine the x and y intercepts. We do this by
letting x=0 and y=0 respectfully.
5. This is enough information to sketch the graph, but you may also be
asked to show the point of inflection. Let f′′(x)=0 to find the x value of
the point of inflection.
6. Substitute the x value of the point of inflection into f(x) to get
the y value of the point of inflection.
It is important to note that we do not have to follow this exact order. For
example, we can also first inspect a to determine the shape of the graph, then
find the x and y intercepts, and after this find the stationary points.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through worked examples of sketching cubic functions. We will have a
look at each step in the solutions, and you may notice that they follow a different
order, but we can still find all the information to sketch the graph.
Worked Example 1
Sketch the following cubic function: g(x)=x3−3x2−4x
Step 1: Inspect a to determine the shape of the graph.
The coefficient of the x3 term is positive, therefore, the graph will have the
following shape:
Figure 1: The general shape of g based on a being positive.

Step 2: Determine the y and x intercepts.
We find the y intercept by letting x=0.
This gives us the point of (0;0)

We find the x intercept by letting g(x)=0:
(Remember the different strategies for factorising cubic polynomials)
We now have the points (−1;0),(0;0) and (4;0).

Step 3: Find the x values of the stationary points.
Step 4: Let's substitute the above x values back into g(x) to get the
corresponding y-values.
∴ the stationary points are (2,53;−13,13) and (−0,53;1,13).

Step 5: Sketch the graph.
Figure 2: g(x)=
Worked Example 2
Sketch the graph of:
Step 1: Determine the stationary points.
Let g′(x)=0:
We have the stationary points (0;1)

Step 2: Determine the shape of the graph.
In is positive, therefore the will increase, reach a

stationary point and increase again.
Step 3: Determine the y and x intercepts.
We know that the stationary point is also the y�-intercept based on step 1.
The y-intercept is (0;1)
For the x-intercept
∴ the x-intercept is (0; −2)

We now have enough information to sketch the graph
Step 4: Sketch the graph.

Figure 2: g(x)=
Activity 1
1. Sketch the graph of f(x)=
Conclusion
In this lesson, we went through all the steps required to sketch the cubic function.
Let's summarise these steps:
 Find the x values of the stationary points.

 Find y values of the stationary points.
 Determine the shape of the graph using a.
 Determine the x and y intercepts.
 Find the point of inflection if the question specifies this.
Cubic functions are guaranteed to appear in some form in final exams, so the
more we practise working with this concept, the better our chances at mastery!
15.3 Lesson 2: Single or no stationary points

1. Introduction
In previous lessons, we learnt that the cubic function follows a general shape. We
also know that cubic functions can have up to two stationary points.
If a cubic function does not have any stationary points, this will change the shape
of the graph, therefore, it will not have its usual shape.
 Sketch cubic functions with no stationary points.

2. Single or no stationary points
Before we get into the details of this lesson, let's answer a question.
It is definitely possible for a cubic function to have no stationary points. How

would we determine this?
When sketching the graph, we let f′(x)=0 to determine the stationary points. If
we get an answer that is undefined or non-real, this means that the graph has no
stationary points.
The main difference between sketching a cubic function with stationary points
and sketching one with no stationary points is that we need to find and classify
the critical points, which involves finding the roots of the derivative and
analysing the second derivative.
This step is not necessary when there are no stationary points, as there are no
critical points to classify. Instead, we can simply use the intercepts and the point
of inflection to sketch the graph.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through some worked examples where we need to sketch cubic functions
with no stationary points.
Worked Example 1
Sketch the graph of
Step 1: Determine the stationary points.
∴the function has no stationary points

Step 2: Determine the shape
There are no stationary points and a<0, so the general shape will be:
Step 3: Determine the point of inflection
Step 4: Determine the intercepts.

For the y-intercept: Let x=0
For the x-intercept: Let y=0
The solution is non real ∴x=0. We have the point (0;0)(0;0)

We have enough information to sketch the function:
Activity 1
1. Sketch the graph
Conclusion
Sketching cubic functions with no stationary points requires a thorough
understanding of the properties of cubic functions and their graphs. We have also
learnt how important it is to plot critical points and inflection points to refine the
shape of the graph. Overall, with practise and paying attention to the instructions
of questions, we can master the art of sketching cubic functions with no
stationary points and gain a deeper understanding of cubic functions.
15.4 Lesson 3: Finding the equation of the cubic

graph
1. Introduction
We now have a good understanding of the cubic function and the behaviour of
the graph. As with the previous functions we have covered, we should know how
to find the equation of the function in question. In this lesson, we will cover a
few ways to find the equation of a cubic function.
Let's dive in!

2. Finding the equation of the cubic graph
There are three ways we can find the equation of cubic functions based on the
information given.
First, we can find the equation if all three x-intercepts are shown in a sketch. The
equation of the graph can be given by y=a(x−x1)(x−x2)(x−x3)
Figure 1: The x-intercepts are labelled on the graph.

We can find the equation of the cubic function if one of the x-intercepts is also a
turning point. We use this x-intercept twice.
Figure 2: A graph where one of the x-intercepts is also a turning point.
Lastly, we can find the equation of a cubic function if it has a stationary point of
inflection at (−p;q). The equation of the function is given by y=a(x+p)3+q
Figure 3: This function has a stationary point of inflection.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through some examples of finding the equation of cubic functions.
Worked Example 1
Determine the equation of the following cubic function:
Figure 4: A cubic function is sketched.
Step 1: We are given three x-intercepts so we apply y=a(x−x1)(x−x2)

(x−x3)
Step 2: To determine a, substitute (1;12)
Step 3: Insert the value of a into the equation, expand the brackets and get the
equation into the standard cubic function form.
Worked Example 2
Determine the equation of the following function in the
form .
We need to substitute the point given into the form and then solve for a.
Conclusion
Finding the equation of cubic functions is definitely a skill that comes with
practice. It all depends on what information is given in the question. When we
understand the strategies and practise enough, we can be successful in this skill.
15.5 Lesson 4: Interpreting cubic functions

1. Introduction
Welcome to this lesson where we focus on interpreting cubic functions. It is a
powerful tool for modeling real-world situations that involve complex
relationships between variables. In this lesson, we will learn how to interpret the
key features of cubic functions, such as their intercepts, turning points, and its
derivative. We also learn how to use this information to make predictions and
draw conclusions about the behaviour of the function. By the end of this lesson,
you will have a deep understanding of the behaviour of cubic functions and the
ability to use this knowledge to analyse and interpret real-world scenarios. Part
of interpreting cubic functions is to also interpret the derivative of cubic
functions.
 Interpret cubic functions.
2. Interpreting cubic functions
The interpretation of graphs is all about understanding the behaviour of the

function.
When we are required to interpret cubic functions, we can be asked about:
 x-intercepts
 y-intercepts
 stationary points
 point of inflection
 The equation of a tangent at a point on the cubic function
 Which values of x are increasing, decreasing or in a specific range.
We have covered the above concepts separately in previous lessons, and we will
be covering all of them again in this lesson.
2.1 Local maxima or minima

If f′(a)=0 and f′′(a)>0, then we can say that f has a local minimum at x=a.
If f′(a)=0 and f′′(a)<0, then we can say that f has a local maximum at x=a.
2.2 Determining roots

If we are given a cubic function, we can also be asked to determine the value(s)
of k for which the cubic equation will have one, two or three real roots.
In these cases, the value of k shifts the graph vertically up or down. Let's say that
we are requested to determine the values of k for which a cubic equation has 3
real roots. To have 3 real roots, the graph has to have 3 intercepts. The graph
would have to shift in a way that the local maximum turning point is above the x-
axis and the local minimum turning point is below the x-axis.
This will become clearer once we cover a worked example.
2.3 Interpreting the derivative of cubic functions

We can be given the derivative of a cubic function, and its sketch (which will be
a parabola). We can then be asked the following types of questions based on the
derivative that we are given:
 The x coordinate of the turning point of the derivative

 The x coordinate of the point of inflection of the original function.
 Explaining local maximum or minimum points.
 The gradient to a tangent of the original function at a specific point.
 For which values the original function is increasing or decreasing.
 If the original function is concave up or down.
These are just a sample of the many types of questions that could be asked. We
will cover as many questions as possible in the worked example.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through a worked example where we are asked to interpret a cubic
function through various concepts.
Worked Example 1
1. The sketch below shows the graph of f(x)=
. A,B,C,D,E and F are labelled. E and F are stationary points.
Figure 1: f(x)=
a) Calculate the length of AC.
b) Calculate the coordinates of E and F.
c) Calculate the x-coordinate of the point of inflection of f.

d) Determine the equation of the tangent to f at D.
e) The tangent to f at D also intersects the graph of f� at another point.
Calculate the x-coordinate of this point.
f) For which values of x is
i) f increasing?
ii) f(x)≥0?
iii) f′(x)<0?
v) f(x).f′(x)<0?
g) For which values of k will f(x)=k have
i) two distinct real roots?
ii) three distinct real roots?

iii) one real root?
h) For which values of t will the graph of y=f(x)+t have two negative x-
intercepts and one positive x-intercept?
1. a) To calculate the length of AC, first let's find the x�-intercepts.
b) Stationary points:
Conclusion
In this lesson, we focused on various ways that we can interpret cubic functions.
It is important to understand the behaviour of cubic functions, especially with
respect to differentiation. This lesson has been one that is essential to mastering
the content covered in Paper 1.
15.6 Wrap up video: Cubic functions

Learning outcomes
 Apply all necessary components to sketch cubic functions.
 Sketch cubic functions with a single or no stationary point.
 Interpret the cubic function.
 Interpret the derivative of a cubic function.

Module 16: Differential calculus and analytical
geometry
16.1 Signposting video: Differential calculus and
analytical geometry
Learning outcomes
 Solve maxima and minima problems using the derivative.

 Solve practical problems involving rates of change.
 Solve practical problems involving the calculus of motion.
 Understand analytical geometry concepts involving straight line
equations.
 Understand analytical geometry concepts involving inclination of
straight lines.
16.2 Lesson 1: Maxima and minima

1. Introduction
In this lesson, we will begin to apply the concept of differentiation to more real-
world examples. We will be focusing on optimisation problems, or in other
words, finding the maximum or minimum values of a function.
Optimisation problems appear in many fields of study, such as engineering,

economics and science.

2. Maxima and minima
We learnt that a function can reach what we call a local minimum value at any
point where the gradient changes from negative to positive. In other words, we
look for where the value of the derivative is 0. At this point, the function value
would start to increase.
This also means that the function reaches a local maximum point when the
gradient changes from positive to negative.
In this lesson, we will go through practical examples that use the above concept
to find the solution. Let's head to worked examples to understand how we do
this.
3. Worked examples
Let's go through real-world examples where we apply the concept of local
maxima and minima.
Worked Example 1
The sum of two unknown positive numbers is 10. One of the numbers is
multiplied by the square of the other. If each number is more than 0, find the
numbers that make this product a maximum.
Step 1: Analyse the problem. Formulate the necessary equations.
Let's let the two unknown numbers be a and b and the product be P
Let's make b� the subject of equation (1) and substitute it into equation (2) to
solve simultaneously.
Step 2: Find the derivative with respect to a�.
Step 3: Find the stationary points by letting P′(a)=0�′(�)=0

We can find the value for a� which makes P� a maximum.
We then substitute the equation into (1) and solve for b�:
Step 4: Find the second derivative.
We check that the point ( 103 : 230 ) is a local maximum by showing that P ( 103
′
)<0:
10 20
The product is maximised when the two numbers are and .
3 3
Worked example 2
Marley wants to start an organic vegetable garden. He decides to fence it off in

the shape of a rectangle from the rest of his garden. Marley has only 160m of
fencing, so he decides to use a wall as one border of the veggie garden.
Calculate the width and length of the garden that corresponds to the largest
possible area that Michael can fence off.
Step 1: Formulate the equations that are required based on the problem.
We know that the formula for the area of the garden is A=w ×l
We only need 3 sides of fencing, which must add up to 160m.
160=w+l+l
We can rearrange to make w the subject of the formula:
w=160−2l
Let's substitute the expression for w into the formula for the area of the
garden. Take note that the formula only contains one unknown variable.
Area=l(160−2 l)
2
¿ 160 l−2 l
Step 2: Find the derivative with respect to l

We need to maximise the area of the garden, so we find the derivative:
Step 3: Calculate the stationary point

To find the stationary point we let A′(l)=0 and solve for the value(s) of l that
maximises this area.
The length of the garden is 40m.
Substitute to solve for the width:
The width of the garden is 80m.
Step 4: Find the second derivative of A(l).

We can check that this gives the maximum area by showing that A′′(l)<0
A′′(l)=−4
A width of 80m and a length of 40m will give the maximum area for the
garden.
The volume of water in a tank changes according to the

formula V(t)=−t2+24t+6, where t is the time in hours, from the moment the
inlet and outlet of the tank was connected to a pump. The volume is measured in
litres. After 12 hours, the water in the tank starts decreasing. What is the
maximum volume of water in the tank?
Conclusion
In this lesson, we learnt how to solve optimisation problems using differential
calculus. It is important to remember that optimisation problems involve
maxima and minima. We have also seen how we would use differential
calculus in industries, such as engineering and economics.
By finding maxima and minima in these problems, we gain a deeper

understanding of the underlying processes and make predictions about future
behaviour. In conclusion, differential calculus is just amazing.
16.3 Lesson 2: Rate of change
1. Introduction
In this lesson, we will focus on using differential calculus to solve problems
involving rates of change.
2. Rate of change
We know that a gradient of a function is more than just a slope. It is the rate at
which the function changes. To find the rate of change, of a function at a specific
point in time, we calculate the derivative at that point.
Essentially, the rate of change of a function f(t), at t=a, is given by f′(a).
 The function value is increasing when we have a positive rate of change.

 The function value is decreasing when we have a negative rate of change.
We have also learnt how to determine the average gradient, as well as the
gradient of a curve at a given point. In this lesson, we will make a slight change
to this terminology.
 The average gradient can be referred to as the average rate of change.

 The gradient of a curve at a given point can be referred to as the
instantaneous rate of change.
When we mention the rate of change, the instantaneous rate of change is applied.
When we mention the average rate of change, the average rate of change is
required.
Problems involving rates of change will become clearer once we go through an

in-depth worked example.
3. Worked Examples
We now understand the general formulae for rates of change. Let's go through an
in-depth example where we are required to find rates of change using differential
calculus.
Worked Example 1
inlet and outlet of the tank were connected to a pump. The volume is measured
in litres.
a) How much water is in the tank initially?
b) At what rate does the volume of water in the tank change after exactly 15
hours?
c) After how many hours will there be 50 litres of water in the tank?
d) After how many hours will the volume of water decrease at a rate of 12
litres per hour?
a) Initially means that t=0
There is initially 6l in the tank.
b) This question is about the rate of change so we use the derivative.
The negative rate shows that the volume is decreasing.
c) V(t)=50
The volume reaches 50 litres after 2 hours and again after 22 hours.
d) V′(t)=−12
The volume of water will decrease at a rate of 12 litres per hour after 18 hours.

inlet and outlet of the tank were connected to a pump. The volume is measured in
litres.
At what rate does the volume of water in the tank change after exactly 6 hours?
Hint: the question is about the instantaneous rate of change.
Conclusion
This lesson has emphasised the importance of differential calculus in our
everyday lives. There is even differential calculus in the circumstance of water
leaving a tank. When we practise various examples involving rates of change, we
are able to recognise exactly what each question requires from us.
The following lesson will cover the last section of differential calculus, which is
problems involving motion.
16.4 Lesson 3: Motion

1. Introduction
Welcome to the last lesson on the applications of differential calculus. We will
be focusing on real-world problems, which use differentiation to solve problems
involving motion. This is the lesson where Physics meets Mathematics. The
types of problems we will cover are very similar to everyday problems that
scientists and engineers are required to solve.
Let's get in motion!
2. Motion
Here is where our Mathematics lesson collides with a concept in physics.

Velocity is a form of rate of change, and we could be asked to determine the
velocity of an object. The definition of velocity is the change in distance (s) for a
corresponding change in time (t).
 Average velocity = average rate of change

 Instantaneous velocity = Instantaneous rate of change (derivative)
ds
The general formula for calculating velocity is v (t)= =s ' (t)
dt
Acceleration is the derivative of velocity, to determine acceleration: a (t)=v ' (t)
This means that acceleration is the second derivative of distance: a (t)=s ' ' (t)
Problems involving motion will become clearer once we go through a worked
example.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through an in-depth worked example of a problem involving motion.

Worked Example 1
A golf ball is hit into the air. The height (in metres) of the ball t seconds after
hitting the air is given by H(t)=20t−5t2. Determine the following:
a) The average vertical velocity of the ball during the first two seconds.
b) The vertical velocity of the ball after 1,5s.

c) The time at which the vertical velocity is 0.
d) The vertical velocity with which the ball hits the ground.
e) The acceleration of the ball.
a) To calculate the average vertical velocity during the first two seconds:
b) Calculate the instantaneous vertical velocity
Velocity after 1,5s:

Therefore, the velocity is 0 after 2s.
d) The ball hits the ground when H(t)=0
The ball hits the ground after 4s. The velocity after 4s will be:
The ball hits the ground at 20m.s−1. The sign of the velocity is negative,
meaning that the ball is moving downward.
(We should still consider acceleration a function)
Activity 1
A netball is thrown into the air and its motion is represented by the equation:
a) What is the initial height of the ball at the moment it is being thrown?
b) What is the initial velocity of the ball?
c) What is the velocity of the ball after 1,5s?

Find the solutions on the conclusion page of this lesson.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we covered realistic problems involving motion. Let's recap what
we have learned.
ds
 To determine the velocity of an object we use v(t)= =s′(t)
dt
 To determine acceleration we use a (t)=v ' (t)
The more we practise examples involving motion, the easier it will become to
recognise what is required from us in each question.
16.5 Lesson 4: Midpoint, distance and gradient

1. Introduction
Analytical geometry is a topic in mathematics that deals with the study of
geometric figures and shapes using algebraic equations and principles.
In Grade 12, we are expected to build on the knowledge from previous grades
and deepen our understanding of concepts involving lines, planes and circles. In
this lesson, we will revise analytical geometry concepts covered in previous
grades, such as the midpoint, distance and gradient.
 Understand analytical geometry concepts involving midpoint, distance

and gradient.
2. Midpoint, distance and gradient
2.1 Midpoint
The midpoint of a line segment lies exactly between two other points on a line
segment, as seen in the figure below.
Figure 1: The midpoint of a line segment.
We can often be asked to determine the coordinates of the midpoint. We use the
following formula to determine the coordinates of the midpoint M(x;y) of a line
between two points A(x1;y1) and B(x2;y2).
We can be asked midpoint-related questions in different ways. For example, we
could be given the coordinates of the midpoint and point A, and we would be
required to find the x or y coordinate of point B.
2.2 Distance
The distance formula is actually an application of the Pythagorean theorem. We
use the following distance formula to find the length or distance between any two
points.
2.3 Gradient
A concept that we are very familiar with. The gradient is the slope of the line
joining two points. It is determined by the ratio of vertical change to horizontal
change.
It is important to remember that:
 If a line is horizontal on the Cartesian plane, m=0.

 If a line is vertical on the Cartesian plane, m is undefined.
 If two lines are parallel to each other, m1=m2.
 If two lines are perpendicular to each other, m1×m2=−1.
In the next section of this lesson, we will cover worked examples involving the
above three
3. Worked examples
Let's go through a few questions as examples to refresh our memory.
Worked example 1
Points P(−5;−4) and Q(0;6) are given.

a) Find the length of the line segment PQ.
b) Find the midpoint T(x;y) of the line segment PQ.
c)Show that the line passing through R(1;34) and T(x;y) is perpendicular to
the line PQ.
a) It is helpful to draw a sketch to gain perspective on the question.
Now we assign variables to the coordinates and the given points.
Let the coordinates of P be:
We can apply the distance formula:
The length of PQ is 5√5 units.
b) Write down the mid-point formula and substitute the values:

The midpoint of PQ is T¿).
Calculate the gradient of the two gradients:

Conclusion
In this lesson, we started our revision of analytical geometry concepts from
previous grades.
Let's recap the important points covered:
It is important to understand the above concepts in analytical geometry as we

will be building on this knowledge in Grade 12.
16.6 Lesson 5: Straight lines and angle of

inclination
1. Introduction
In the previous lesson, we revised the following concepts:
 Midpoint
 Distance
 Gradient
All of the above concepts involve straight lines. In this lesson, we will
complete the basic revision of analytical geometry by looking at problems
involving the equation of a straight line and the angle of inclination.
 Understand analytical geometry concepts involving the equation of

straight lines and the inclination of straight lines.
2. Straight lines and angle of inclination

Before we get into these concepts, let's answer the following revision question.
2.1 The equation of a straight line
The equation of the straight line in the standard form is y=mx+c. We know
that m is the gradient and y is the intercept.
 In a horizontal line the y is constant.

 In a vertical line the x is constant.
The general form of the straight line equation is ax+by+c=0

If we are given two points and are required to find the equation of the line
segment, we use :
If we are given the gradient m and a point (x1;y1) on a straight line, then the
equation of the line is: y−y1=m(x−x1).
2.2 Inclination
A straight line creates an angle, which we call θ, with the positive x-axis. We
call this the angle of inclination of the straight line. If the gradient changes the
value of the angle will also change.
To determine the angle of inclination in a straight line we
use m=tanθ for 0°≤θ<180°
 In a vertical line, θ=90∘

 In a horizontal line, θ=0∘
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through worked examples involving straight line equations and the angle
of inclination.
Worked Example 1
Determine the gradient of the straight line, given that the angle of inclination is
equal to 60∘60∘. Round off the gradient to one decimal place.
We use the formula to find the gradient:
Worked Example 2
3
Determine the angle of inclination for a line with m=
4
We use the formula to find the angel of inclination:
Worked Example 3
Determine the equation of the straight line passing through the
points P(−1;−5) and Q(5;4).
Step 1: Assign variables to the coordinates.
Step 2: Substitute the values into the point-form equation and make y the
subject.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we revised how to find the equation of a straight line based on
what information we are given. We also revised the angle of inclination and
found that we can determine either the gradient or the size of the angle of
inclination using the formula m=tanθ.
Understanding the basics of analytical geometry is essential to master this topic
in Grade 12.
16.7 Wrap up video: Differential calculus and

analytical geometry
Learning outcomes
 Understand analytical geometry concepts involving straight line

equations.
 Understand analytical geometry concepts involving inclination of

straight lines.
17.1 Signposting video: Analytical geometry 1

Mathematics Grade 12 Module 17 Sign posting
Learning outcomes
Use knowledge of gradients to prove parallel or perpendicular lines.

Find the equation of a circle with a centre at the origin.
Find the equation of a circle with a centre at a point P.
Find the radius and the centre of a circle.
Use analytical geometry concepts to solve problems involving circles.
17.2 Lesson 1: Parallel and perpendicular lines

1. Introduction
Welcome to this lesson on proving parallel and perpendicular lines in analytical
geometry. This is yet another way of studying the relationships between lines
under this topic.
We will explore how to use our knowledge of gradients and straight-line

equations to prove whether two lines are parallel or perpendicular. This skill is
important in the industries of engineering and science.
 Use knowledge of gradients to prove parallel or perpendicular lines.
2. Parallel and perpendicular lines

Before we get into this topic, let's answer the following question:
2.1 Parallel lines

Sometimes two lines can appear parallel, but we need to able to prove this
mathematically. By using gradients, if two lines are parallel, the gradients will be
the same.
Parallel lines: m1=m2

Let's say that we are given two parallel lines. We are also given the coordinates
of one point on line 1 and the equation of line 2. We can determine the equation
of line 1 as the gradients of line 1 and line 2 will be equal.
This is one example of how we can use the concept of parallel lines to solve
analytical geometry problems. We will go through more in our Worked
Examples.
2.2 Perpendicular lines

Suppose two lines are perpendicular (at right angles) to each other. Their
gradients are related such that they are negative reciprocals of each other (i.e. the
one is opposite in sign to the other, and the reciprocal of it).
In general, if m1 is the gradient of the first line and m2 is the gradient of the
second line, then:
1 1
m2=− m and m1¿− m
1 2
If you multiply both sides of the negative reciprocal equation by m1, then you
get the equation m1×m2=−1. This provides us with a useful test to see if two
lines are perpendicular without plotting them and measuring the angle. If the
gradients multiply together to give you -1, the lines are perpendicular.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through examples that involve parallel and perpendicular lines.
Worked Example 1
Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (−1;1) and is parallel
to the line y−2x+1=0.

Since the new lines parallel to y−2x+1=0, it will have the same gradient
We put the equation in standard form
y=2 x−1
Find the gradient
m1 +¿ m2=2
So we know the equation of the new line is
y=2 x +c
Now we substitute the coordinate (−1;1)(−1;1) into the equation and solve for c.
y=2 x +c
1=2 (−1)+ c
3=c
Therefore, the equation of the line is y=2 x +3
Worked Example 2
Find the equation of the line that is perpendicular to the line y=3x−2 and passes
through the point (3;1).

Write down the gradient of the original line: m 1=3. This means that the gradient
1
of the perpendicular line is m 2=
3
1
So the equation of the perpendicular line, so far, is: y= x + c
3
Now we substitute the coordinate (3;1) into the equation and solve for c.
1
1= (3)+c
3
1=−1+ c
∴ c=2
1
Therefore, the equation of the line is y= x +2
3
Conclusion
In this lesson, we have revised parallel lines and perpendicular lines in analytical
geometry.
It is important to note the following:
 When two lines are parallel, the gradients are equal.

 When two lines are perpendicular, the gradients are the reciprocals of
each other or, put in another way, multiplying the two gradients gives a
result of a negative one.
17.3 Lesson 2: Equation of a circle with centre at

the origin
1. Introduction
Circles are an important geometric shape and can be found in many areas of
maths, science and everyday life. To work with circles, it is important to
understand how to find their equations. Yes, we can actually find the equation of
a circle, and we will be learning how to do this in this lesson.
The equation of a circle is a mathematical representation of all the points that lie
on the circle's circumference. In this lesson, we will focus on the equations of
circles that have a centre at the origin. By the end of this lesson, you will have a
solid understanding of how to find the equation of a circle with a centre at the
origin and will be able to apply this knowledge to solve various problems related
to circles. So, let's get started!
 Find the equation of a circle with a centre at the origin.
2. Equation of a circle with centre at the origin

A circle is a set of all points that are an equal distance (radius) from a given
point (centre). In other words, every point on the circumference of a circle is
equidistant from its centre.
The radius of a circle is the distance from the centre of a circle to any point on
the circumference.
A diameter of a circle is any line passing through the centre of the circle which
connects two points on the circle. The diameter is also the name given to the
maximum distance between two points on a circle.
Consider a point P(x;y) on the circumference of a circle of radius r with centre

at O(0;0).
Figure 1: A circle with a centre at the origin and point P(x;y) on the
circumference of the circle.
In △OPQ
Formula – equation of a circle with a centre at the origin
If P(x;y) is a point on a circle with centre O(0;0) and radius r, then the equation of
the circle is:
Note:
 A circle with centre (0;0) is symmetrical about the origin: for every
point (x;y) on the circumference of a circle, there is also the point (−x;
−y).
 A circle centred on the origin is also symmetrical about the x and y-axis.
Worked Example 1
Given: circle with centre O(0;0) and a radius of 3 units.
1. Sketch the circle on the Cartesian plane.

2. Determine the equation of the circle.
3. Show that the point T(-√4;–√5) lies on the circle.
1: Draw a sketch:
Figure 2: A circle with a centre at the origin and point (x;y) on the
2: Determine the equation of the circle:
Write down the general form of the equation of a circle with centre (0;0)
3. Show that point T lies on the circle:

Substitute the x-coordinate and the y-coordinate into the left-hand side of the
equation and show that it is equal to the right-hand side:
Therefore, T(-√4;√5) lies on the circle x 2+ y 2=9

Worked Example 2
Given: circle with centre O(0;0) passes through the
points P(−5;5) and Q(5;−5)
1. Plot the points and draw a rough sketch of the circle.

3. Calculate the length of PQ.
4. Explain why PQ is a diameter of the circle.
1: Draw a sketch:
Figure 3: A circle with a centre at the origin and points P and Q on the
2: Determine the equation of the circle:
Write down the general form of the equation of a circle with centre (0;0) and
substitute P(-5;5)
Therefore, the equation of the circle passing through P and Q is x 2+ y 2=√ 50
3. Calculate the length PQ:

Use the distance formula to determine the distance between the two points.
4. Determine if PQ is a diameter of the circle:

Since PQ connects two points P and Q on the circle and is a line of
length 10√2 units, PQ is a diameter of the circle.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we learnt about the equation of a circle with the centre at the
origin. With practice, finding the equation of a circle can become easier and
more intuitive. Understanding this concept is crucial for solving problems in
geometry, physics and other related fields.
17.4 Lesson 3: Equation of a circle with centre at

point P
1. Introduction
In the previous lesson, we learnt about the equation of a circle with the centre at
the origin. What happens when we have a circle that has a centre at a point,
which is not the origin?
In this lesson, we will learn how to derive the equation of a circle that has a
centre at a point P.
 Find the equation of a circle with a centre at a point P.
2. Equation of a circle with centre at (a;b)

Let's first answer the following question:
Is the following statement true or false?

2 2
x + y −8=0 is the equation of a circle with centre at the origin.
Consider a circle in the Cartesian plane with centre at C(x1;y1) and with a
radius of r units, as shown in Figure 1:
Figure 1: A circle with a centre at C(x1;y1) and point P(x;y) on the

circumference of the circle and rarius r.
If P(x2;y2) is any point on the circumference of the circle, we can use the
distance formula to calculate the distance between the two points:
The distance PC is equal to the radius (r) of the circle:
If the coordinates of the centre of the circle are (a;b), then the equation of a
circle not centred on the origin is:
Formula – equation of a circle with centre at (a;b)
If P(x;y) is a point on a circle with centre C(a;b) and radius r, then the equation of
the circle is:
Figure 2: A circle with a centre at C(a;b) and point P(x;y) on the circumference of
the circle and rarius r.
Note: A circle with centre (0;0) is a special case of the general equation:
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through a few Worked Examples.
Worked Example 1
F(6;−4) is a point on the circle with centre (3;−4).
1. Draw a rough sketch of the circle and label F.

3
3. Does the point G( ;−2) lie on the circle?
2
4. Does the circle cut the y-axis? Motivate your answer.
1. Draw a sketch:
Figure 3: A circle with a centre C(3;−4) and point F(6;−4) on the

2. Determine the equation of the circle:
Write down the general equation of a circle with centre (a;b) and substitute the
coordinates (3;−4)
Substitute the coordinates of F(6;−4) to determine the value of
3. Determine whether or not G lies on the circle:

3
If G( ;−2) lies on the circle, then it will satisfy the equation of the circle:
2
Therefore G does not lie on the circle.

4. Determine the y-intercept(s):
To determine the y�-intercept(s), we let x=0
The circle cuts the y-axis at (0;−4)
Worked Example 2
Write down the equation of the circle with centre (−2;3) and passing through
the point (4;5).
Conclusion
This lesson focused on finding the equation of a circle that has a centre at
point P. It is important to remember that the standard form of the equation of a
circle is (x−h)2 +(y−k)2=r2 where (h,k) represents the centre and r
represents the radius.
17.5 Lesson 4: Radius and centre of a circle
1. Introduction
We have previously learnt about the equation of a circle and its standard form. In
this lesson, we will focus on how we can derive the radius and centre of a circle
given its equation.
 Find the radius and the centre of a circle.
2. Radius and centre of a circle

Recall the standard form of a circle.

If P(x;y) is a point on a circle with centre C(a;b) and radius r, then the equation of
the circle is:
From this, we can see the standard form for the equation of a circle, this is
Given this standard form, we can derive the radius (r) as well as the centre of the
circle (a;b).
Formula – centre at and radius

Given the equation of a circle in standard form the
radius of the circle is r and the centre of the circle is point (a;b).
Note: To be able to read the radius and centre, the equation of the circle needs to
be in standard form. If the given equation is not in standard form, we first need to
convert it into that before determining the radius and centre.
For example, given the equation of a circle , we can
first rewrite the equation as . Now we know
that r=3,a=1 and b=2. Therefore the radius is 3 units and the circle has a
centre at (1;2).
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through some Worked Examples.
Worked Example 1
Find the central coordinates and the radius for a circle with the equation:
Since the equation is in standard form, we can directly read (a;b) and r from
the equation:
Therefore the centre of the circle is (a;b)=(8;3) and the radius of the circle
is r=6.
Worked Example 2
Determine the coordinates of the centre of the circle and the length of the
radius for:
Step 1: Make the coefficient of the x2 term and the y2 term equal to 1:
The coefficient of the x2 and y2 term must be 1 so we take out 3 as a common
factor:
Step 2: Complete the square:
Take half the coefficient of the x term, square it; then add and subtract it from
the equation.
The coefficient of the x term is 2, so then
The centre of the circle is (−1;2) and the radius is 4 units.

Worked Example 3
Find the central coordinates and the radius for a circle with the
equation
The standard form of the equation for a circle
is
To write the equation in the standard form, we
use the method of completing the square.
First, we need to identify the constants needed to complete the squares for both
the x-terms and y-terms.
where ♠ represents
the constant needed to complete the square for the x-terms, which is:
1
♠=( coefficient of x )2
2
and ♣ represents the constant needed to complete the square for the y-terms,
which is:
1
♣=( coefficient of y )2
2
Complete the square:
The centre of the circle is (a;b)=(−6;2) and the radius is r=9.

Conclusion
In this lesson, we focused on, when given the equation of a circle, how to derive
the centre as well as the radius of that circle. We learnt that the equation needs to
be in standard form. The standard form of the equation of a circle
is and from this, the centre of the circle is
point (h;k) and the radius is r.
17.6 Lesson 5: Problems involving circles
1. Introduction
We have learnt how to determine the equation of a circle, as well as the circle's
centre and radius. These are important concepts relating to circles. With these
concepts, you are able to solve a variety of different questions relating to circles.
In this lesson, we focus on using analytical geometry concepts to solve problems

involving circles. We will go through a variety of types of possible question.
 Use analytical geometry concepts to solve problems involving circles
2. Problems involving circles

2.1 Equation of a circle

If P(x;y) is a point on a circle with centre C(a;b) and radius r, then the
equation of the circle is:
Remember that a circle with centre (0;0)(0;0) is a special case of the general
equation:
2.2 Radius and centre of a circle

Remember that the standard form for the equation of a circle
is .
Formula – centre and radius
Given the equation of a circle in standard form , the
radius of the circle is r and the centre of the circle is point (a;b).
3. Worked Examples
Worked Example 1
Given: a circle with centre (0;0) and a radius of 4 units.
Figure 1: A circle with a centre at the origin and a radius of 4.
1. If the circle is shifted 2 units down and 1 unit to the right, write down the
equation of the shifted circle.
2. Sketch the original circle and the shifted circle on the same system of axes.
3. The shifted circle is reflected about the line y=x. Sketch the reflected circle
on the same system of axes as the question above.
4. Write down the equation of the reflected circle.
Worked Example 2
A circle with centre on the line y=−x+5 passes through the
points P(5;8) and Q(9;4). Determine the equation of the circle.

Step 1: Draw a rough sketch:
Figure 4: A circle with centre on the line y=−x+5 and

points P(5;8) and Q(9;4) on the circumference.
Step 2: Write down the general equation of a circle:

Conclusion
We have learnt about the equation of a circle as well as the centre and radius.
This lesson focused on using this knowledge to solve other problems involving
circles. Always remember the standard form for the equation of a circle and
everything can be derived from this.
17.7 Wrap-up video: Analytical geometry 1

Mathematics Grade 12 Module 17 Wrap up
Learning outcomes
Use knowledge of gradients to prove parallel or perpendicular lines.
Find the equation of a circle with a centre at the origin.
Find the equation of a circle with a centre at a point P.
Find the radius and the centre of a circle.
Use analytical geometry concepts to solve problems involving circles.
18.1 Signposting video: Analytical geometry 2 and

sequences and series 1
Mathematics Grade 12 Module 18: Sign Posting
Learning outcomes
Find the equation of a tangent to a circle.
Solve problems involving a tangent.
Calculate the nth term of an arithmetic sequence.
Solve the nth term of a quadratic sequence.
Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to geometric sequences.
18.2 Lesson 1: Equation of a tangent

1. Introduction
A tangent to a circle is a line intersecting the circle at exactly one point, the
tangency or tangency point. A significant result is that the radius from the circle's
centre to the tangency point is perpendicular to the tangent line. This is
demonstrated in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1: A circle with centre C and Tangent AB at point D.
In this lesson, we will focus on how to calculate such a tangent of a circle.
 Find the equation of a tangent to a circle.
2. Equation of a tangent
Before we learn this concept, let's answer the following question.
Determine the equation of the circle with a centre at the origin and a radius of 10
2.1 Properties of a tangent
A tangent is a straight line that touches the circumference of a circle at only one
place. In Figure 1 below, we have a circle with centre 𝐶(𝑎;𝑏) and a radius
of r𝑟 units. 𝐷(𝑥;𝑦) is a point on the circumference and the equation of the circle
is: ( x−a )2+ ( y−b )2=r 2. We have the tangent line 𝐴𝐵 touching the circle at 𝐷
Figure 2: A circle with tangent at point 𝐷.
What we also notice is that the radius of the circle 𝐶𝐷 is perpendicular to the
tangent AB𝐴𝐵 at the point of contact 𝐷. That is
From what we know about perpendicular lines, we know that the product of the
gradient of the radius and the gradient of the tangent line is equal to −1−1, that is
2.2 Determining the equation of the tangent

To determine the equation of the tangent, we can apply the following steps:
1. Determine the equation of the circle and write it in standard form:
2. From the equation, determine the coordinates of the centre of the circle (𝑎;𝑏)
3. Determine the gradient of the radius:
4. The radius is perpendicular to the tangent of the circle at a point D𝐷 so,

5. Write down the gradient-point form of a straight-line equation and
substitute 𝑚𝐴𝐵 and the coordinates of 𝐷. Make y𝑦 the subject of the equation.
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through some Worked Examples
Worked Example 1
Determine the equation of the tangent to the circle
2 2
x + y −2 y+ 6 x−7=0 at the point 𝐹(−2;5)
The solution
Step 1: Write the equation of the circle in standard form
( x−a )2+ ( y−b )2=r 2
Use the method of completing the square:
Step 2: Draw a sketch.
The centre of the circle is (−3;1) and the radius is √17 units.
Figure 3: Circle with equation x 2+ y 2−2 y+ 6 x−7=0
Step 3: Determine the gradient of the radius 𝐶𝐹.
Step 4: Determine the gradient of the tangent.
Let the gradient of the tangent line be m𝑚

Step 5: Determine the equation of the tangent to the circle.
Write down the gradient-point form of a straight-line equation

1
and substitute m¿− and 𝐹(−2;5)
4
−1 9
The equation of the tangent to the circle at 𝐹 is y= x+
4 2
Worked Example 2
𝐶(−4;8) is the centre of the circle passing
through 𝐻(2;−2) and Q(−10;m)𝑄(−10;𝑚)
Figure 4: A circle with centre at 𝐶(−4;8).

a. Determine the equation of the circle.
b. Determine the value of m.
c. Determine the equation of the tangent to the circle at point 𝑄.
Solution
a. Use the distance formula to determine the length of the radius:

Write down the general equation of a circle and substitute r𝑟 and 𝐻(2;−2).
The equation of the circle is ( x +4 )2+ ( y−8 )2=136
b. Substitute the Q(−10;m)𝑄(−10;𝑚) and solve for the m𝑚 value
The solution shows that y=−2 or y=18. From the graph, we see that
the y𝑦 coordinate of Q𝑄 must be positive, therefore, 𝑄(−10;18)
c. Calculate the gradient of the radius:

The radius is perpendicular to the tangent, so m×m⊥=−1
The equation for the tangent to the circle at the point Q𝑄 is:
Conclusion
In this lesson, we learnt about the equation of the tangent to a circle. To find the
equation of the tangent to a circle through a given point, you should first find the
centre of the circle and then calculate the gradient m1𝑚1 of the line joining the
centre to the point. Following that, you should find the gradient m2𝑚2 of the
tangent, using the formula of perpendicular lines, m1×m2=−1. Once you
know the gradient and one point on the tangent, you can find the equation of
the tangent.
18.3 Lesson 2: Problems involving a tangent
1. Introduction
In the last lesson, we learnt about tangents - lines that touch a circle at just one
point. This lesson covers different types of questions about tangents.
 Solve problems involving a tangent.
2. Problems involving a tangent

Before we look at some examples, let's recall some important concepts related to
the tangent of a circle.
To determine the equation of the tangent, we can apply the following steps:
1. Determine the equation of the circle and write it in standard form.
2. From the equation, determine the coordinates of the centre of the circle (𝑎;𝑏).
3. Determine the gradient of the radius:
4. The radius is perpendicular to the tangent of the circle at a
point 𝐷 so,
5. Write down the gradient-point form of a straight-line equation and
substitute mAB𝑚𝐴𝐵 and the coordinates of D𝐷. Make y𝑦 the subject of the
equation
.
3. Worked examples
Worked Example 1
The straight line y=x + 4 cuts the circle x 2+ y 2=26 at 𝑃 and 𝑄
1. Calculate the coordinates of 𝑃 and 𝑄

2. Sketch the circle and the straight line on the same system of axes.
Label points 𝑃 and 𝑄
3. Determine the coordinates of 𝐻, the mid-point of chord 𝑃𝑄
4. If 𝑂 is the centre of the circle, show that𝑃𝑄⊥𝑂𝐻
5. Determine the coordinates of S𝑆, the point where the two tangents
intersect.
6. Show that 𝑆, 𝐻 and 𝑂 are on a straight line.
Step 1: Determine the coordinates of 𝑃 and 𝑄

Substitute the straight line y=x+4𝑦=𝑥+4 into the equation of the circle and
solve for x𝑥
This gives the points 𝑃(−5;−1) and 𝑄(1;5)

Figure 1: A circle x 2+ y 2=26 with straight line y=x+4cutting it
Step 3: Determine the coordinates of the mid-point 𝐻
Step 4: Show that O𝐻 is perpendicular to 𝑃𝑄.
We need to show that the product of the two gradients is equal to −1−1. From
the given equation of PQ𝑃𝑄 we know that mPQ=1
Step 5: Determine the equations of the tangents at P𝑃 and Q𝑄.

Tangent at 𝑃
Determine the gradient of the radius OP:
The tangent of a circle is perpendicular to the radius, therefore, we can write:
Substitute mP=−5 and 𝑃(−5;−1) into the equation of a straight line.
Tangent at 𝑄
Determine the gradient of the radius OQ
The tangent of a circle is perpendicular to the radius, therefore, we can write:
Substitute mQ=−15𝑚 and 𝑄(1;5) into the equation of a straight line.
−1 26
The equations of the tangents are y=−5 x−26 and y= x+
5 5
Step 6: Determine the coordinates of S𝑆

Equate the two linear equations and solve for x𝑥
This gives the point 𝑆(−132;132)
Figure 2: The given circle with tangents at points 𝑃 and 𝑄, intersecting at
point 𝑆.
Step 7: Show that 𝑆, 𝐻 and 𝑂 are on a straight line.
We need to show that there is a constant gradient between any two of the three
points. We have already shown that 𝑃𝑄 is perpendicular to 𝑂𝐻 , so we expect
the gradient of the line through S𝑆, H𝐻 and O𝑂 to be −1
Therefore, S, H and O all lie on the line y=−x

Worked Example 2
Determine the equations of the tangents to the circle x 2+ ( y−1 )2=80 , given
1
that both are parallel to the line y= x +1
2
Figure 3: Circle with equation x 2+ ( y−1 )2=80 with tangents at points A and
B.
1
The tangents to the circle, parallel to the line y= x +1, must have a gradient
2
1
of . From the sketch we see that there are two possible tangents.
2
Step 2: Determine the coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝐵.

To determine the coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝐵 , we must find the equation of the
1
line perpendicular to y= x +1and passing through the centre of the circle.
2
This perpendicular line will cut the circle at 𝐴 and 𝐵
Figure 4: Circle with equation x 2+ ( y−1 )2=80 with tangents at points A and
B and perpendicular bisector to tangents.
Notice that the line passes through the centre of the circle.
To determine the coordinates of 𝐴 and 𝐵, we substitute the straight

line y=−2x+1 into the equation of the circle and solve for x
This gives the points𝐴(−4;9) and 𝐵(4;−7)
Step 3: Determine the equations of the tangents to the circle.
Tangent at A
Tangent at B
1
The equation of the tangent at point 𝐴 is y= x +11 and the equation of the
2
1
tangent at point 𝐵 is y= x−9
2
Conclusion
In this lesson, we continued learning about the tangents of a circle and went
through various types of questions about them. To ensure that you understand
how to find the tangent of a circle and all of its properties, keep practising until
you feel comfortable with the process.
18.4 Lesson 3: Arithmetic sequences

1. Introduction
A sequence is a set of numbers in a particular order. We can describe a sequence
using words (like a sequence of even numbers), but can we describe it
mathematically? Yes, we can! This lesson will cover arithmetic sequences,
including how to identify them and describe their terms mathematically. We'll
also learn how to create a formula to calculate any term in the sequence.
 Calculate the nth term of an arithmetic sequence.
2. Arithmetic sequences
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence where consecutive terms are calculated by
adding a constant value (positive or negative) to the previous term. We call this
constant value the common difference (d)(𝑑). For example,
3;0;−3;−6;−9;…
This is an arithmetic sequence because we add −3−3 to each term to get the next
term:
Table 1: Terms of an arithmetic sequence.
First term T1 3
Second term T2 3+(−3)= 0
Third term T3 0+(−3)= −3
Fourth term T4 −3+(−3)= −6
Fifth term T5 −6+(−3)= −9
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
2.1 The general term for an arithmetic sequence
For a general arithmetic sequence with a first term a𝑎 and a common
difference d𝑑, we can generate the following terms:
Therefore, the general formula for the thth term of an arithmetic sequence is:
Definition - Arithmetic sequence

An arithmetic (or linear) sequence is an ordered set of numbers (called terms) in
which each new term is calculated by adding a constant value to the previous
term:
where 𝑇𝑛 is the th term;

𝑛 is the position of the term in the sequence;
𝑎 is the first term and
𝑑 is the common difference.
To test whether a sequence is an arithmetic sequence or not, please check if the

difference between any two consecutive terms is constant:
If this is not true, then the sequence is not an arithmetic sequence.
2.2 Arithmetic mean

The arithmetic mean between two numbers is the number halfway between the
two numbers. In other words, it is the average of the two numbers. The
arithmetic mean and the two terms form an arithmetic sequence.
For example, the arithmetic mean between 77 and 1717 is calculated:
Worked Example 1
Find the common difference and write down the next 3 terms of the
sequence −1;10;21;32;43;54;…
Work out the common difference d
Work out the next three terms
Worked Example 2
Given the sequence −15;−11;−7;…173
1. Is this an arithmetic sequence?
2. Find the formula of the general term.
3. Determine the number of terms in the sequence.

Step 1: Check if there is a common difference between successive terms.
Step 2: Determine the formula for the general term.
Write down the formula and the known values:
Step 3: Determine the number of terms in the sequence.
Therefore, there are 48 terms in the sequence.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we learnt about arithmetic sequences.
To revise:
 An arithmetic sequence is one where each subsequent number increases

by the same amount.
 Finding the nth term just means finding the general formula that will
generate any term in a sequence, given the position of that term.
The formula for the nth term is , where:
Tn=nth term (value of the term in the nth position)

a = Value of the 1st term
n = Position of the desired term
d = Common difference
18.5 Lesson 4: Quadratic sequences

1. Introduction
The word QUADRATIC refers to terms of the second degree (or squared). In
Algebra, we use the quadratic formula to solve second-degree equations. In this
lesson, we will learn about quadratic sequences. Unlike an arithmetic sequence
we previously learnt about, which has a common difference, the quadratic
sequence will not have a common difference until the second difference is taken,
or the difference of the difference!
 Solve the nth term of a quadratic sequence.
2. Quadratic sequence
Definition - Quadratic sequence

A quadratic sequence is a sequence of numbers in which the second difference
between any two consecutive terms is constant.
The general formula for the nth term of a quadratic sequence is:
Consider the sequence: 1,4,9,16,25,… which has general term
Figure 1: A demonstration of calculating the first and second difference of a

Quadratic sequence.
The first difference was taken, but we did not find a common difference. The
first difference gives the uncommon values 3,5,7,9. However, we persisted and
took a difference of the differences: 5−3=2, 7−5=2 and 9−7=2. The second layer
of differences revealed a common value: 2. The sequence is quadratic if the first
difference does not have a common difference, but the second difference does!
It is important to note that the first differences of a quadratic sequence form an

arithmetic sequence. This sequence has a common difference of 2 between
consecutive terms. In other words, a linear sequence results from taking the first
differences of a quadratic sequence.
The sequence of squares is another beautiful visual. What’s more, the visual truly
justifies why we call these numbers 'squares'.
Figure 2: A sequence of squares.
It is also remarkable that the sequence of squares can be created by the sequence
of partial sums of odd numbers. The wonder of mathematics continues to astound
us!
3. Worked Examples
Worked Example 1
A quadratic pattern is given by . Find the values
of b and c if the sequence starts with the following terms:
−1;2;7;14;…
Starting with the first term, we have n=1 and T1=−1
For the second term, we use n=2𝑛=2 and T2=2
We must solve these equations simultaneously. We can do this by substitution.

Here we will show the solution using the 'elmination' method (which means
subtracting one equation from the other to cancel the c𝑐's).
Finally, calculate the value of c𝑐. As usual for simultaneous equations, this
means that we must substitute the b=0 into either of the equations we used
above. Let's use the equation −2=b+c
The final answers are b=0and c=−2
NOTE: Now we know that the general term of the sequence is Tn=𝑛2−2. We
can use this to check our answers. We know that T3=7. Substitute n=3 into
the general formula to check:
Worked Example 2
Consider the pattern below. How many small square tiles will be in
the 10th10th term of the pattern
Figure 3: A sequence of squares.

The pattern is a quadratic sequence:
Figure 4: The first and second differences of the quadratic sequence.
We can view 2 separate patterns. The 2nd,3rd, 4th and 5th figures contain a
pattern of squares: 1,4,9,16,… Below, the squares are shaded yellow which
creates the Pattern of squares. The top and bottom rows create a linear pattern
(blue), which is an arithmetic sequence.
Figure 5: The quadratic sequence shown as two separate sequences.
In Figure 5 above
First pattern:
Second pattern:
Third pattern:
Fourth pattern:
Fifth pattern:
The blue sequence is 2,4,6,8,10,… which has general term bn=2n
The yellow sequence is 0,1,4,9,16,…which has the general term yn=(n−1)2
The blue and the yellow sequence together make the overall figure’s
sequence, an𝑎𝑛
Conclusion
In this lesson, we covered quadratic sequences. These are sequences whose
second difference forms an arithmetic sequence. We learnt how to calculate this
second difference as well as that the general formula for the nth𝑛th term of a
quadratic sequence is:
18.6 Lesson 5: Geometric sequences

1. Introduction
In this lesson, we continue the topic of sequences. In this lesson, we will focus
on geometric sequences. Geometric sequences have a common ratio. We will
learn about this common ratio and how to calculate the general formula for
geometric sequences.
 Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to geometric

sequences.
2. Geometric sequences
Definition - Geometric sequence

A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers in which each new term
(except for the first term) is calculated by multiplying the previous term by a
constant value called the constant ratio (r)
This means that the ratio between consecutive numbers in a geometric sequence
is a constant (positive or negative). Recall from the linear arithmetic sequence
how the common difference between terms was established. In the geometric
sequence, we can determine the constant ratio (r)(𝑟) from:
More generally,
2.1 The general term for a geometric sequence

The general geometric sequence can be expressed as:
Therefore, the general formula for a geometric sequence is:
Formula - The general formula for a geometric sequence
where
a𝑎 is the first term in the sequence;

r𝑟 is the constant ratio.
To test whether a sequence is a geometric sequence or not, check if the ratio

between any two consecutive terms is constant:
If this condition does not hold, the sequence is not geometric.
2.2 Geometric mean

The geometric mean between two numbers is the value that forms a geometric
sequence together with the two numbers. For example, the geometric mean
between 5 and 20 is the number that has to be inserted between 5 and 20 to
form the geometric sequence: 5;x;20
Important: remember to include both the positive and negative square root.
The geometric mean generates two possible geometric sequences:

5;10;20;…
In general, the geometric mean (x) between two numbers a𝑎 and b𝑏 forms a
geometric sequence with a and b
For a geometric sequence: 𝑎;𝑥;𝑏
Determine the constant ratio:
3. Worked Examples
Worked Example 1
Determine the constant ratios for the following geometric sequence and write
down the next three terms
Worked Example 2
Here is a geometric sequence 2;4;8;16;32;…
a. Calculate the value of T10
b. Which term will have the value 16384
We know that a𝑎, the first term, is 2
Step 1: We can work out the value of r𝑟 as follows:
Step 2: Determine the general formula for the nth term

The general formula for a geometric sequence is:
We substitute known values
Step 3: Use the general formula to calculate T10𝑇10

Substitute n=10 into the general formula:
Step 4: Use the general formula to calculate n𝑛 when Tn=16 384𝑇𝑛=16

384
Conclusion
In this lesson, we focused on geometric sequences. We learnt that geometric
sequences have a common ratio. Each term after the first term is obtained by
multiplying the previous term by r, the common ratio. We also learnt that the
general formula for the nth term of a geometric sequence is
18.7 Wrap-up video: Analytical geometry 2 and
sequences and series 1
Learning outcomes
Find the equation of a tangent to a circle.
Solve problems involving a tangent.
Calculate the nth term of an arithmetic sequence.
Solve the nth term of a quadratic sequence.
Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to geometric sequences
19.1 Signposting video: Sequences and series 2

Mathematics Grade 12 Module 19 Sign Posting
Learning outcomes
Understand Sigma notation.
Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to finite arithmetic series.
Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to finite geometric series.
Solve problems involving convergence and divergence in infinite geometric

series
Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to infinite geometric series.
19.2 Lesson 1: Introduction to Series and Their
Notations
1. Introduction
A couple decides to start a university fund for their daughter. They plan to invest
R50 in the fund each month. The fund pays 6% annual interest, compounded
monthly. How much money will they have saved when their daughter is ready to
start college in 6 years? Each month, the amount deposited incurs interest (i) and
the other is a new deposit (d), and these are added to the principal (p), so each
month the amount (a) is a=P+(i× d), this is repeated each month. From this we
can see that this is a sequence, each month and in this lesson, we will learn about
series which are related to sequences.
 Understand sigma notation.
2. Introduction to Series and Their Notations

It is often important and valuable to determine the sum of the terms of an
arithmetic or geometric sequence. The sum of any sequence of numbers is called
a series.
To find the total amount of money in the university fund and the sum of the
amounts deposited, we need to add the amounts deposited each month and the
amounts earned monthly. The sum of the terms of a sequence is called a series.
Consider, for example, the following series.
The nth of a series is the sum of a finite number of consecutive terms beginning
with the first term. The notation
2.1 Sigma notation

Summation notation is used to represent series. Summation notation is often
known as sigma notation because it uses the Greek capital letter sigma, ΣΣ to
represent the sum. Summation notation includes an explicit formula and specifies
the first and last terms in the series. An explicit formula for each term of the
series is given to the right of the sigma. A variable called the index of summation
is written below the sigma. The index of summation is set equal to the lower
limit of summation, which is the number used to generate the first term in the
series. The number above the sigma, called the upper limit of summation, is the
number used to generate the last term in a series.
In general
Formula - Sigma notation
where
𝑖 is the index of the sum;

m𝑚 is the lower bound (or start index), shown below the summation symbol;
𝑛 is the upper bound (or end index), shown above the summation symbol;
𝑇𝑖 is a term of a sequence;
the number of terms in the series =end index−start index+ 1
The index i𝑖 increases from 𝑚 to 𝑛 by steps of 1
For example, to interpret the notation

we see that it asks us to find the sum of the terms in the series a n=2 n for n=1
through n=5. We can begin by substituting the terms for 𝑛 and listing out the
terms of this series.
We can find the sum of the series by adding the terms:

Important note
The sum of the first n𝑛 terms of a series can be expressed in summation
notation as follows:
This notation tells us to find the sum of ai𝑎𝑖 from i=1𝑖=1 to 𝑛
2.2 Rules for Sigma notation

1. Given two sequences, a i and b i
2. For any constant c𝑐 that is not dependent on the index 𝑖
3. Be accurate with the use of brackets:

Example 1:
Example 2:
Note: the series in the second example has the general term 𝑇𝑛=2𝑛 and the +1 is
added to the sum of the three terms. It is very important in Sigma notation to use
brackets correctly.
4. For a given series
o The values of 𝑖 start at m𝑚 (𝑚 is not always 1)
o increase in steps of 1
o and end at 𝑛
3. Worked Examples
Let's go through some worked examples.
Worked Example 1
Expand the sequence and find the value of the series:
Step 1: Expand the formula and write down the first six terms of the sequence
This is a geometric sequence 2;4;8;16;32;64 with a constant ratio

of 22 between consecutive terms.
Step 2: Determine the sum of the first six terms of the sequence
Worked Example 2
Find the value of the series:
Step 1: Expand the sequence and write down the five terms
Step 2: Determine the sum of the five terms of the sequence

Conclusion
In this lesson we learnt about sigma notation, to summarise, here some important
points from the lesson
 Formula - Sigma notation
 The sum of the first n𝑛 terms of a series can be expressed in summation

notation as follows:
 Rules for Sigma notation
1.
2.
3. Be accurate with the use of brackets:
4.
19.3 Lesson 2: Finite arithmetic series
1. Introduction
Just as we studied special types of sequences, we will look at special types of
series. Recall that an arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which the difference
between any two consecutive terms is a common difference, d𝑑. The sum of the
terms of an arithmetic sequence is called an arithmetic series.
 Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to finite arithmetic

series.
2. Arithmetic series
Recall an arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers, such that the difference
between any term and the previous term is a constant number called the common
difference (d). The sum of the terms of an arithmetic sequence is called an
arithmetic series. If we sum an arithmetic sequence, it takes a long time to work
it out term by term. We, therefore, derive the general formula for evaluating a
finite arithmetic series. We start with the general formula for an arithmetic
sequence of n𝑛 terms and sum it from the first term (a) to the last term in the
sequence (l)
This general formula is useful if the last term in the series is known.
We substitute l=a+(n−1)d into the above formula and simplify:
The general formula for determining the sum of an arithmetic series is given by:
General formula for a finite arithmetic series
OR
For example, we can calculate the sum S20for the arithmetic

sequence Tn=3+7(n−1) by summing all the individual terms:
or, more sensibly, we could use the general formula for determining an
arithmetic series by substituting a=3, d=7 and n=20
2.1 Calculating the value of a term given the sum of n𝑛 terms

If the first term in a series is T1 then S1=T1
We also know the sum of the first two terms S2=T1+T2, which we rearrange to
make T2 the subject of the equation:
Similarly, we could determine the third and fourth term in a series:
3. Worked Examples
Worked Example 1
Find the sum of the first 30 terms of an arithmetic series with Tn=7n−5 by
using the formula.
Step 1: Use the general formula to generate terms of the sequence and write
down the known variables
This gives the sequence: 2;9;16…
Step 2: Write down the general formula and substitute the known values
Worked Example 2
Find the sum of the series −5−3−1+⋯⋯+123
Step 1: Identify the type of series and write down the known variables
Step 2: Determine the value of n𝑛
Worked Example 3
Given an arithmetic sequence with T2=7 and d=3, determine how many
terms must be added together to give a sum of 2146
Step 1: Write down the known variables
Step 2: Use the general formula to determine the value of n𝑛

but 𝑛must be a positive integer, therefore n=37
Step 3: Use the general formula to find the sum of the series
Conclusion
In this lesson we focused on finite arithmetic series, we learnt what they are and
the general formula as well worked through some examples that
involved finite arithmetic series
19.4 Lesson 3: Finite geometric series

1. Introduction
Just as the sum of the terms of an arithmetic sequence is called an arithmetic
series, the sum of the terms in a geometric sequence is called a geometric
series. Recall that a geometric sequence is a sequence in which the ratio of any
two consecutive terms is the common ratio, 𝑟. In this lesson, we are going to
learn about finite geometric series
 Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to finite geometric

series.
2. Finite geometric series

Just as with arithmetic series, we can do some algebraic manipulation to derive a
formula for the sum of the first 𝑛 terms of a geometric series.
Alternatively
The general formula for determining the sum of a geometric series is given by:
General formula for a finite geometric series
This formula is easier to use when r<1𝑟<1
Alternative formula:
This formula is easier to use when r>1
3. Worked Examples
Worked Example 1
Calculate:
Step 1: Write down the first three terms of the series
We have generated the series 32+16+8+⋯
Step 2: Determine the values of 𝑎 and 𝑟
Step 3: Use the general formula to find the sum of the series
Worked Example 2
Given a geometric series with T1=−4 and T4=32. Determine the values
of 𝑟 and 𝑛 if Sn=84
Step 1: Determine the values of 𝑎 and 𝑟
Therefore the geometric series is −4+8−16+32…Notice that the signs of

the terms alternate because 𝑟<0
We write the general term for this series as

Step 2: Use the general formula for the sum of a geometric series to determine
the value of n𝑛
r=−2 and n=6
Conclusion
This lesson focussed on finite geometric series, we learnt how this is the sum of
the terms of a geometric sequence as well as the general formulas, which are
19.5 Lesson 4: Convergence and divergence in

infinite geometric series
1. Introduction
When a series is convergent, it means the series "converges" to a value as the

terms of series tend to infinity. When a series is divergent, it means it does NOT
converge to any specific value. In this lesson we are going to learn more about
convergent and divergent series as well as how to test for convergency
 Solve problems involving convergence and divergence in infinite

geometric series.
2. Convergence and divergence in infinite geometric series

Thus far, we have looked only at finite series. Sometimes, however, we are
interested in the sum of the terms of an infinite sequence rather than the sum of
only the first n terms. An infinite series is the sum of the terms of an infinite
sequence. We express the sum of an infinite number of terms of a series as
If the sum of a series gets closer and closer to a certain value as we increase the
number of terms in the sum, we say that the series converges. In other words,
there is a limit to the sum of a converging series. If a series does not converge,
we say that it diverges. The sum of an infinite series usually tends to infinity, but
there are some special cases where it does not.
Important note
 An arithmetic series never converges: as n𝑛 tends to infinity, the series

will always tend to positive or negative infinity.
 Some geometric series converge (have a limit) and some diverge
(as n𝑛 tends to infinity, the series does not tend to any limit or it tends to
infinity).
2.1 Infinite geometric series

If the terms of an infinite geometric series approach 0, the sum of an infinite
geometric series can be defined. The terms in the following series approach 0:
1+0,2+0,04+0,008+0,0016+⋯1+0,2+0,04+0,008+0,0016+⋯
The common ratio is r=0,2𝑟=0,2. As n𝑛 gets large, the values of of rn𝑟𝑛 get very
small and approach 00. Each successive term affects the sum less than the
preceding term. As each succeeding term gets closer to 00, the sum of the terms
approaches a finite value. The terms of any infinite geometric series
with −1<r<1−1<𝑟<1 approach 00
Test for convergence:

If −1<𝑟<1, then the infinite geometric series converges.
If 𝑟<−1 or 𝑟>1, then the infinite geometric series diverges.
We derive the formula for calculating the value to which a geometric series
converges as follows:
Formula
3. Worked Examples
Worked Example 1
Given the general term:
1. Determine if it forms an arithmetic or geometric series.

2. Calculate S1,S2,S10 and S100
3. Determine if the series is convergent or divergent.
The general term

forms the series 23;49;827…
1.
2.
3.
This series is convergent (since r<1𝑟<1) and converges to 2

Worked Example 2
Calculate for which values of 𝑝 the geometric series
will converge.
Step 1: Determine the value of r𝑟
A geometric series converges (has a finite sum) if the constant ratio is
between −1 and 1. So we need to determine the value of r𝑟 for this series. As
always, the ratio comes from any two consecutive terms:
So we know that
Step 2: Apply the condition for convergence to determine the possible values
of 𝑝
The sum to infinity only exists for a converging geometric series. We know
that a geometric series converges if −1<𝑟<1 , so we can determine the possible
values of 𝑝 using:
For the series to converge, 𝑝 must be in this range: −3<p<5
Conclusion
In this lesson, we learnt about convergency and divergency in infinite geometric

series. Remember the simple test for this is to first work out the constant ratio
(r𝑟) of the infinite geometric series and determine if it satisfies the following
 If −1<𝑟<1, then the infinite geometric series converges.

 If 𝑟<−1 or 𝑟>1, then the infinite geometric series diverges.
19.6 Lesson 5: The sum of an infinite geometric

series
1. Introduction
Thus far, we have looked only at finite series. Sometimes, however, we are
interested in the sum of the terms of an infinite series rather than the sum of only
the first n𝑛 terms. An infinite series is the sum of the terms of an infinite
sequence. In this lesson, we will learn about the sum of an infinite geometric
series.
 Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to infinite geometric

series.
2. The sum of an infinite geometric series

We have previously learnt that the formula for calculating the value to which a
geometric series converges as follows:
Formula
Now consider the behaviour of rn for −1<𝑟<1 as n𝑛 becomes larger.
Since r𝑟 is in the range −1<𝑟<1, we see that rn gets closer to 0 as 𝑛 gets larger.
Therefore (1−rn) gets closer to 1. Therefore,
The sum of an infinite geometric series is given by the formula

Formula - Infinite geometric series
where
 a𝑎 is the first term of the series;
 r𝑟 is the constant ratio.
Alternative notation:
In words: as the number of terms (𝑛) tends to infinity, the sum of a converging
geometric series (𝑆𝑛) tends to the value
3. Worked Examples
Worked Example 1
Given the series 18+6+2+⋯.Find the sum to infinity if it exists.
Step 1: Determine the value of r
We need to know the value of r to determine whether the series converges or
diverges.
Since −1<𝑟<1, we can conclude that this is a convergent geometric series.

Step 2: Determine the sum to infinity
Write down the formula for the sum to infinity and substitute the known
values:
As n𝑛 tends to infinity, the sum of this series tends to 27, no matter how many
terms are added together, the value of the sum will never be greater than 27.
Worked Example 2
Determine the possible values of 𝑎 and 𝑟 if
Step 1: Write down the sum to infinity formula and substitute known values
Step 2: Apply the condition for convergence to determine possible values

of a𝑎
For a series to converge: −1<𝑟<1
For the series to converge 0<a<10 and −1<r<1

Conclusion
In this lesson, we learnt about the sum of an infinite geometric series, this is
given by the following formula
19.7 Wrap up video: Sequences and series 2
Learning outcomes
Understand Sigma notation.
Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to finite arithmetic series.
Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to finite geometric series.
Solve problems involving convergence and divergence in infinite geometric

series.
Solve problems involving number patterns that lead to infinite geometric series.
20.1 Signposting video: Financial mathematics 1

Mathematics Grade12 Module 20 Sign Posting
Learning outcomes
Apply simple and compound growth formulae to solve problems related to
finance.
Apply simple and compound decay formulae to solve problems related to

finance.
Calculate nominal and effective interest rates.
Use logarithms to determine the time period n.
Investigate the future value formula.
20.2 Lesson 1: Simple and compound growth

1. Introduction
In previous grades, we have covered and practised using various financial
formulas, including simple and compound interest, depreciation, and nominal
and effective interest rates. We will be reviewing these important formulas
before delving into our main focus for Grade 12 financial mathematics.
By the end of this revision lesson, you will have a solid understanding of simple
and compound interest, allowing you to tackle any finance-related problems with
confidence. So let's get started and refresh our memories on these crucial
formulas before we move on to exploring financial math in more detail.
 Apply simple and compound growth formulae to solve problems related

to finance.
2. Simple and compound growth

2.1 Simple growth
Interest is a fee paid for the use of borrowed money or money earned on
money saved.
Stop and think
What exactly is simple interest?
When a person is paid interest at regular intervals on a sum of money invested,

without the interest being added to the original sum invested, the interest earned
is called simple interest.
In this case, the interest is calculated only on the original amount invested or
borrowed.
Note: In some cases, the interest charged when borrowing money is

calculated as simple interest on the full amount of the loan over the
repayment period.
We can use the formula below to make these calculations.
Formula
Simple interest:
A=P(1+¿)
Where:
P − principal amount. This is the original amount borrowed or invested.

A − accumulated amount. This is the total amount of money paid after.
i − interest rate per annum (p.a.)
n − number of years
2.2 Compound growth
You already know how to calculate the percentage increase for one year. But
what if that same percentage change continues for multiple years – do you
have to do a percentage change calculation for every year?
Fortunately, there is a formula which will immediately give us the correct

answer. You will notice that it includes a repeated multiplying factor.
Formula
Compound interest:
n
A=P ( 1+i )
A −𝐴 − accumulated amount (final amount)

P −𝑃 − principal amount
i −𝑖 − interest rate
n −𝑛 − number of years
3. Calculating growth
Let's practise! Here are two Worked Examples that show you how we can
calculate simple and compound growth.
Worked Example 1
Nkosi invests R20 000 at a simple interest of 8,8% p.a. over 5 years.
a) Calculate the total value of her investment after 5 years.
b) How much total interest will she earn?
a)
Step 1: List the values.
Step 2: Substitute into the formula.
∴ The total investment after 5 years will be R28 800.
b)
Worked Example 2
Calculate the value of an investment of R15 000 that earns compound interest of
7,2% over 6 years. Round your answer to two decimal places.
Activity 1
Can you answer the following questions on interests and investments? Give
them a try!
Question 1
Calculate each of the following and decide which option would be the best
investment.
Option A: An amount x𝑥 is invested at a simple interest rate of 11% p.a. for 6

years.
Option B: An amount x𝑥 is invested at a compound interest rate of 9% p.a. for
6 years.
Answers
Option A:
Conclusion
In this lesson, we practised calculating simple and compound growth.
Study tip
 Simple interest is the interest on an initial sum of money. Each year you
receive or are charged the same amount of interest.
o The formula for simple interest is: A=P(1+¿).

 Compound interest is interest worked out on an initial amount and added to
the initial amount to calculate the subsequent amount.
o The compound growth formula is A=P ( 1+i )n.
20.3 Lesson 2: Simple and compound decay

1. Introduction
In previous grades, we have learnt about and practised using several financial
formulas such as simple and compound interest, depreciation, and nominal and
effective interest rates.
In this lesson, we will focus on reviewing simple and compound decay. By the
end of this revision lesson, you will have a firm grasp of simple and compound
decay, enabling you to approach finance-related problems with certainty.
 Apply simple and compound decay formulae to solve problems related to

finance.
2. Simple and compound decay

Previously we investigated compound interest and learnt how compound interest
can grow your money. But not everything grows bigger; some things get smaller
over time, such as the value of a car. For such calculations, in 'finance speak' this
would be termed depreciation or decay.
2.1 Simple decay
Simple depreciation, or the straight-line method of depreciation, is when a
quantity decreases by a percentage of the amount present. In other words,
depreciation is the loss in value of an asset through age or use.
Formula
Simple decay:
A=P(1−¿)
Where:
P − principal amount. This is the original amount borrowed or invested.

A − accumulated amount. This is the total amount of money paid after.
i − interest rate per annum (p.a.).
n − number of years.
2.2 Compound decay

Compound depreciation is a depreciation calculation method that involves a
gradual decrease in the depreciation amount over time as the value of the asset
decreases. To calculate compound depreciation, we use the same formula as for
compound growth, with one small difference:
Formula
Compound decay
n
A=P ( 1−i )
Let's recap
You can watch the following videos from the Grade 11 Mathematics course to
further revise simple decay and compound decay.
3. Calculating decay
Let's practise! Here are two Worked Examples that show you how we calculate
simple and compound decay.
Worked Example 1
Thomas wants to sell his motorboat. The current value of his motorboat is R30
000. Calculate its original value if he bought it 4 years ago and the value
depreciates on the straight-line method (simple) of 7% p.a. Round off your
answer to two decimal places.
Therefore, the current value of the motorboat is R41 666,67.

Worked Example 2
Monashre sold her laser cutting machine for R32 000. Three years ago she
bought the machine for R40 000. The value of the machine depreciates at the
reducing balance method (compound) at a rate of 11% p.a. Did she sell the
machine for a good price?
Therefore, she sold the machine for a good price, as the current value of the
machine is R28 198,76 and she sold it for R32 000.
Activity 1
Give it a try! Answer the questions below.
Question 1
A particular motorbike was bought for R55 000. What will the book value be
after 4 years if the rate of depreciation is 14% p.a., where depreciation is based
on:
a) The straight-line method (simple decay)
b) The reducing-balance method (compound decay)

Conclusion
In this lesson, we practised calculating simple and compound decay.
Study tip
 Simple decay, or the straight-line method of depreciation, is when a
quantity decreases by a percentage of the amount present.
o To do calculations of depreciation problems, we use this
formula: A=P(1−¿).
 Compound decay is the process of reducing an amount by a consistent

percentage rate over a period of time.
n
o The compound decay formula is A=P(1−i ) .
20.4 Lesson 3: Nominal and effective interest

1. Introduction
Previously, we learnt about the concepts of nominal and effective interest rates
and how they differ from each other. Today, we will revisit these concepts.
By the end of this lesson, you will have a clear understanding of how nominal
and effective interest rates work and how they affect your investments or loans.
So, let's get started!
 Calculate nominal and effective interest rates.
2. Nominal and effective interest

An interest rate takes two forms: nominal interest rate and effective interest rate.
 The nominal interest rate doesn't take into account the compounding
period.
 The effective interest rate does take the compounding period into account
and therefore is a more accurate measure of interest charges.
Let's have a look at the differences between nominal and effective interest rates.
Table 1: Nominal and effective interest rates.
Effective interest rate Nominal interest rate
The rate that actually earned An annual rate
Calculated by making the effective time period Doesn't depend on the effective
equal to the compounding period. rate of interest
Cannot be greater than the

Depends on the nominal rate of interest
effective rate of interest
May be equal to or greater than the nominal rate of

interest
 We use i(m) to represent the nominal interest rate, where m is how often
interest is compounded each year.
 We use ieff to represent the effective interest rate per year.
Formula
Nominal and effective interest
m
i
1+i eff =(1+ )m
m
3. Calculating nominal and effective interest rates

Let's practise! Here are two Worked Examples that show you how we calculate
nominal and effective interest rates.
Worked Example 1
Calculate the yearly effective interest rate (to two decimal places) if an
investment offers a nominal rate of 12,5% p.a. compounded.

Worked Example 2
Calculate the nominal interest rate if the effective interest rate is 14%
compounded quarterly.
Activity 1
Can you answer the following questions? You will never know unless you
try, so give it a go!
Question 1
Amari's investment grows from R5 000 to R8 460 in a period of 3 years. If

the interest rate is compounded quarterly, calculate the nominal interest rate.

Conclusion
In this lesson, we practised calculating nominal and effective interest.
Study tip
Most common periods that are used:
 Quarterly (i.e. four times a year; every 3 months)

 Semi-annually or bi-annually (i.e. twice a year; every 6 months)
 Monthly (i.e. 12 times a year; every month)
 Daily (i.e. 365 times a year; every day)
Nominal interest rate: The annual interest rate achieved per annum.
Effective interest rate: The actual rate achieved per annum.
We use this formula to calculate these interests:

m
i
1+i eff =(1+ )m
m
20.5 Lesson 4: Calculating time period

1. Introduction
Today, we're exploring the use of logarithms to calculate the time period 'n'.
Financial calculations are essential in investments and loans. Logarithms help to
solve exponential equations that arise in finance, allowing us to work with
exponential growth or decay and determine the time period.
In this lesson, you will learn how to apply logarithmic functions to calculate n in
exponential growth or decay situations. You'll also learn to solve practical
financial problems and interpret the results meaningfully.
Let's explore the relationship between logarithms and financial mathematics. Are
you ready? Let's get started!
 Use logarithms to determine the time period n.
2. Calculating the time period n

To determine the time period n𝑛 in calculations involving simple interest, we can
easily rearrange the formula to make n𝑛 the subject. However, we rely on
understanding logarithms in compound interest calculations to find the value
of n𝑛 as n𝑛 appears as an exponent in the formula.
Formula
Compound interest
n
A=P ( 1+i )
A − accumulated amount (final amount)

P − principal amount
i − interest rate
n − number of years
In order to solve n𝑛:
Step 1: Rearrange the formula to make n𝑛 the subject of the formula.

Step 2: Take the logarithms of both sides of the equation.
Step 3: Use the power rule of logarithms the exponent down.
Step 4: Isolate n.
Important note
Use definition:
Change of base:
Watch the following video that shows how to calculate the time period of an
investment.
https://youtu.be/AaZqHbtjWcw
Video 1: Calculating the time period of an investment using logarithms.
3. Find the time period of an investment
Let's practise! Here are two Worked Examples that show how we can calculate
the time period of an investment.
Worked Example 1
Saanvi had an initial investment of R5 000 that grew to R8 000 after an
unknown period of time, at an interest rate of 6% p.a. compounded yearly.
Calculate the name period (in years) of the investment using logarithms.
Step 1: Use the compound interest formula and values.
Step 2: Substitute the value and solve n𝑛.
The R5 000 was invested for about 8 years.

Worked Example 2
Tsepiso invests R2 800 into a savings account which pays 8,4% p.a.
compounded yearly. After an unknown period of time, his account is worth
R4 680. For how long did he invest his money (years)?
Step 1: Use the compound interest formula and values.
Step 2: Substitute the value and solve n𝑛.
The R2 800 was invested for 7 years.
Note: We round up, as 6 years won't deliver R4 680. The money needs to be
invested for at least 7 years.
Activity 1
Conclusion
In this lesson, we practised calculating the time period of an investment.
Study tip
When calculating the time period of an investment, it is useful to remember the
following steps:
 Start with the compound interest formula A=P ( 1+i )n

 Rearrange the formula by dividing both sides by the initial amount.
 Take the logarithm of both sides of the equation.
 Use the power rule of logarithms to bring down the exponent n𝑛.
 Substitute the given values into the formula.
 Round off the final answer.
20.6 Lesson 5: The future value formula

1. Introduction
Today, we will derive the future value formula and examine its components and
applications. This formula is crucial for estimating the value of investments and
at a future date, enabling us to make informed financial decisions.
You will gain an understanding of how the future value formula works and its
significance in financial mathematics. You will also develop the skills to
calculate the future worth of investments, equipping you with the knowledge to
make sound financial decisions for your future.
 Investigate the future value formula.

2. Future values
Different financial arrangements, like investment funds, pension funds, loan
repayments, mortgage bonds (home loans) and other types of annuity, usually
require monthly payments. If someone 'defaults' on a payment, it means that they
didn't make a payment for a particular month. The period of time that investment
lasts is also called its 'term'.
Annuity
A series of equal payments made at regular intervals over a specific period of
time. These payments can be made monthly, quarterly, annually or at other
consistent intervals
Annuities are subject to an interest rate, which can affect the growth or
accumulation of the funds in the annuity.
Future value annuity
A deposit of the same amount of money regularly into a savings account or
investment fund, it's called an annuity. After a specific period of time, you can
access the total amount that has accumulated. The money you deposit also earns
compound interest at a fixed rate, which helps it to grow even more over time.
Present value annuity
Regular and equal payments to gradually repay a loan or bond over a set period
of time. With each payment you make, the amount you owe becomes smaller.
The remaining balance of the loan is charged compound interest, which means
the interest is calculated based on the reduced amount you still owe.
In future value annuities, we save a fixed amount of money on a regular basis

in an account. This account earns compound interest at a specific rate. We do this
to ensure we have enough money for a future goal or need.
Stop and think
How would you save up some money to go on your dream vacation?
A good approach would be to set aside a certain amount of money in a

savings account every month that earns compound interest. Over time, the
interest adds up, and your savings grows even faster. This way, when the
time comes for your vacation, you'll have enough money saved up to enjoy
it without any financial worries.
Let's say that at the end of each year for 5 years you deposit R1 200 into an
investment account. If the interest rate is 12% p.a. compounded yearly,
determine the value of your investment at the end of the 5 years.
Step 1: Write down the information and the compound interest formula.
Step 2: Draw a timeline.
Figure 1: A timeline for savings account over 5 years.

2.1 Deriving the formula
Before we look at the formula, it is important to remember that an annuity is a
sequence of equal payments made at equal time intervals. Now we will
investigate the relationship between a future value annuity and the geometric
sequence to determine the formula. Can you remember the formula for the
sum of geometric series?
Formula
Geometric series
Have a look at the diagram below representing the 5 payments over 5 years
that you will make to save for your dream vacation. Note that this is a
geometric series with a constant ratio r=1+0,12𝑟=1+0,12.
Figure 2: A geometric series of five equal payments over 5 years.
Activity 1
How can we calculate your total savings after a 5-year period? We can use the
formula of a geometric series!
Step 1: List the given values.
From the calculation above, we can see that we can use the geometric series
formula to calculate the future value of an annuity. We can derive the following
formula when calculating the future value:
Where:
Therefore:
Formula
The future value
Important note
If we are given the future value and need to calculate the value of the payments,
we can use the following formula by making x𝑥 the subject:
3. Calculating future values

Let's practise! Here are two Worked Examples that show how we can calculate
future values.
Worked Example 1
Aadil has been invited to go on an international soccer tour once he turns 16 (in
2 years). However, he needs to contribute an amount of R20 000 towards the
tour. How much does Aadil need to save at the end of every month in a savings
account that earns an interest rate of 10,5% p.a. compounded monthly?
Step 1: List the given values and the formula.
In order to determine the monthly payments, we need to make x𝑥 the subject of

the formula.
Aadil must save R752,52 each month in order to go on the soccer tour when he
Worked Example 2
Imran, Aadil's father, started saving for his retirement 20 years ago when he
deposited R1 000 into his investment account, which earns an interest of 13,5%
p.a. compounded monthly. At the end of each month thereafter, he deposits R1
000 into the account. What is the current value of his retirement savings?
Step 1: List the given values and the formula.
Imran has saved R1 228 622,33 for his retirement in the last 20 years.
Activity 1
Challenge yourself by completing the following questions. You can do it!
Question 1
Bonolo wants to be able to provide his daughter, Lisebo, with a car when she
Conclusion
In this lesson, we practised calculating the future value of annuities.
Study tip
 Timelines are useful to visualise given information.
 Payments that are made more than once p.a. are determined by
multiplying the number of payments (n𝑛) by the number of years (p):
Table 2: Compounding terms.
Term p
Yearly\ annually 1
Half-yearly\ bi-annually 2
Quarterly 4
Monthly 12
Weekly 52
Daily 365
 If the nominal interest rate is given, convert it to the effective interest

rate:
20.7 Wrap-up video: Financial mathematics 1

Learning outcomes
Apply simple and compound growth formulae to solve problems related to

finance.
Apply simple and compound decay formulae to solve problems related to

finance.
Calculate nominal and effective interest rates.
Use logarithms to determine the time period n.
Investigate the future value formula.

Term 2 Mathematics Garde 12

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Term 2 Mathematics Garde 12

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Term 2 Mathematics Garde 12

Module 11: Algebra 1

 Use factorisation to solve quadratic equations.

11.2 Lesson 1: Factorising

By now, you know that algebra is an important topic in Mathematics, as it is the

We need to ensure that we understand all algebra concepts, as the final

 Use factorisation to solve quadratic equations.

2.1 Revision of definitions

 Variable – A symbol that represents an unknown value, such as x.

 A polynomial is an expression which involves one or more variables that

2.2 Quadratic polynomials

 Taking out the common factor

Factorisation is essentially the reverse of multiplying out brackets. We need to be

Step 1: Note the restrictions.

The LCD will be (x+2)(x+1). We will need to manipulate the equation by

We can now cancel out the denominators.

3 x (x+ 1)+(x+2)( x +1)=4 ( x +2)

When we simplify and divide by 2, we get 2 x 2+ x−3=0 . We now have a

 Quadratic equations are equations of the second degree.

11.3 Lesson 2: The quadratic formula

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Solve quadratic equations with the quadratic formula.

Step 1: Check whether the expression can be factorised.

Step 2: Substitute the coefficients into the quadratic formula.

We should now be able to confidently apply the quadratic formula to any

11.4 Lesson 3: Completing the square

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Solve quadratic equations by completing the square.

 Solve quadratic equations by completing the square.

2. Completing the square

1. Write the equation in the standard form of a x 2 bx+ c

Step 1: Write the equation in the standard form of ax2+bx+c

Step 2: Ensure that the coefficient of a2=1

Step 4: Write this trinomial as a perfect square.

Take square roots on both sides of the equation.

Step 6: Solve for a.

Factorise the equation as a difference of two squares.

11.5 Lesson 4: Simultaneous equations

We will go through a variety of examples, going from simple linear equations to

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Solve equations simultaneously.

The point of intersection actually gives the solution to the simultaneous

2.1 Solving by substitution

2.2 Solving by elimination

1. Isolate one of the variables to make it the subject of both equations.

2.3 Solving by using graphs

The steps to solving a simultaneous equation graphically are as follows:

1. Let y be the subject of each equation.

Step 1: Make y the subject of equation (1).

Step 2: Substitute this into the second equation and simplify.

Step 3: Factorise and solve for x.

Step 1: Make a the subject of the second equation.

We multiply the whole equation by 2 to cancel out the fraction.

Step 1: Let y be the subject of each equation.

1. The substitution method

The more we practise a variety of examples of simultaneous equations, the

11.6 Lesson 5: The k-method

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Use the k-method to solve a quadratic equation.

Step 1: Determine the restrictions for x.

Step 3: Determine the restrictions for k.

We multiplied the equation by k to cancel out the denominator

Step 5: Use the values of k to solve for x

Step 2: Substitute k for n2 to turn this into a quadratic equation.