Economic 0109raphy I 6

intellectual interest to tl1e study of geographical fa cts relating to commerce. He

thought that the primary use of economic geography is "to form Rome rca1mnahlc
estimate of the future course of commercial development so far as that is governed
by geographical conditions". In his treatment of the subject, however, Chisholm
emphasised commercial development, and considered the physical features and
climate in relation to products mainly. This emphasis on physical features and
climate in relation to products led others subsequently to think of economic
geography in terms of productive occupations. Jones and Darkenwald (1950)
state that, "Economic geography deals with productive occupations and attempts
to explain why certain regions are outstanding in the production and exportation
of various articles and why others are significant in the importation and utilisation
of the things. " On the other hand, Ellsworth Huntington (1940), however,
considers that all sorts of materials, resources, activities, customs, capabilities and
types of ability that play a part in the work getting a living are the subject matter of
economic geography.
Bengston and Van-Royen (19 5 7), in his book Fundamentals of Economic
Geography, have stated that:
Economic geography investigates the diversity in basic resources of the different
parts of the world. It tries to evaluate the effects that differences of physical
environment have upon the utilisation of these resources. It studies differences in
economic development in different regions or countries of the world. It studies
transportation, trade routes and trade resulting from this different development
and as affected by the physical environment.
Some of the other definitions of economic geography are as follows:
"Economic geography is the study of influence exerted on the economic activities
of man by his physical environment and more specially by the form and structure
of the surface of land, the climatic conditions which prevail upon it, and the place
relations in which its different regions stand to one another."
-J. Mcfarlane
"Economic geography has to do with similarities and differences from place to
place in the ways people make a living."
-R.E. Murphy
"Economic geography is that aspect of the ~ubject which ?~a.ls with the ~~fluence
of the environment - inorganic and organic - on the act1v1t1es of man.
-R.N. Brown
"Economic geography is concerned ~ith pr~blem of ma~!ng .~ living, with world
industries with basic resources and mdustnal commod1hes.
' - E.B. Shaw
"Economic geography is concerned with the distribution of man's productive
activities over the surface of the earth."
-N.J.G. Pounds
It thus becomes clear from above definitions that e~onomi~ ge~grap_hy
mainly deals with the man's productive activities and their ~elat1onsh1p with
environmental conditions. These activities are of three t~pe~: pnmary, sec~~dary
and tertiary. The primary activities are those which obtam s1mpl~ commod1t1es or
raw materials from the soil, the sea and the rocks. They are agnculture, fo~estry,
fishing and mining. These goods are then manufactured, processed or fabncated
 I
6 I Economic Geo0r1phy
d roup of activities.
in factories and workshops . This constitutes the sec~ne:~ fnsurance, brokers,
After manufacturing, transport services as well ~s servic . activities. All these
dealers, etc. are required. These services con st itu~\tertl~rynmental conditions.
human activities are in some way or other linked wit envir? Geography (1998),
Wheeler, Muller, Thrall and F1'k, mt • heir · bOok Economic• • a human - physical
.
. .
exp\am economic geography y co~s• erm b 'd · g two contmua. .
. Accordingly, economic
continuum and a topical - regional co~tm~:~· nd consumption activ-
geography, emphasising human production, di stri u:to~: which climate, terrain,
ities, naturally falls toward the hu_n:ian end of th e~~~:~el of analysis. The second
soi\, and hydrology will play a critical role at si° . f spatial variation in human
continuu~ represents a~ approach to the ana ~rst;e economic geography of a
and physical elements, m other wo rd s study t'l all the world is covered. It
•
region, a second region, at h'If d regto
· n and so on un 1
. h d' t 'bution of various kmds .
of
also deals with the principles involved m t e ts n
economic activities. . of economic geography with the
A major change has occurred m the nature · t' ' Alexander and
' .l . f10n' or 'area1 vana ton .
inclusion of the theme, spaha var::i d ( ) in their book Economic
Gibson (1979) and Hartshorn and _ exan er 1988 . fareal variation on
Geography have stated that "economic geography IS th e st udr O h . d
the earth's surface in man's activities related to producmg, exc angmg an
consuming wealth". b · f •
In pursuit of that goal the economic geographer asks three as1c ques tons.
(i) Where is the economic activity located?
(ii) What are the characteristics of the economic activity?
(iii) To what other phenomena is the economic !ctivity relat~d? · . .
According to Loyod and Dicken (1972), As a behavtoural science with
spatial dimension of economic system, economic geography is concerned with the
construction of general principles and theories that explain the operation of the
economic system."
A major change in the study of economic geography has been in the form of
behavioural approach and systems analysis. Behaviour denotes the actions of
individuals or groups, it follows that economic phenomena in some way reflects
individual and group values, policies and decisions. While system is a set of
identified elements so related together that they form a complex whole. Systems
analysis means considerations of such a whole as a whole, rather than as
something to be analysed into separate parts. Economic geographers utilise the
system concept in order to better understand the component elements of some
part of reality, and the relations between them. In fact, economic geography now
has grown as a developed branch of geography with specialised branches having
their own status and importance.

Economic Activities as Core of Economic Geography

Economic Geography focuses on the distribution of production, distribution and
consumption activities. The_ eco~o~ic geographer wishes to display the spatial
distribution of these economic act1V1ttes and to understand why they are located as
they are. A significant part of this understanding lies in recognising how economic
activities are interrelated in particular areas and how the activities are tied to other
>

Economic Geography I 7

economic activities at other locations. Economic activities still form the core
of
economic geograph~. whatever may be the approach of study. Economic activiti
cH
can be grouped mto three categories, viz., production, exchange and
consumption.

Production
• Primary pro~uc~ion includes age-old activities of production which are
directly and_ mdirectly taken from the earth such as hunting animals and
gathering wild produc ts; extracting minerals from the earth's crust; fishing
from rivers, lakes and oceans ; and growing trees. In general, five primary
activities recognised are: agriculture, cattle grazing, forest production,
hunting and fishing , and mining and quarrying.
• Secondary production increases the value or usefulness of a previously
existing item by changi ng its form. Such activities include manufacturing
and commercial agriculture.
• Tertiary production involves the service sector rather than the tangible goods .
In tertiary produc tion no particu lar article is directly related , various kinds of
aids are rather used for transpo rt, distribution and primary and secondary
production.
• Quaternary services represe nt special type of services such as financial,
health, educat ion, information, data processing, etc.
• Quinary activities include high-level managerial and executive administrative
services both public and private. Research scientists, legal authorities,
financial advisers and professional consultants are included in this category.

Exchange
Exchange services are essential for goods produced. It is through exchange that
a
product reaches to its consum er. The following services are· included in exchan
ge
activities:
(i) Transp ortatio n and distrib ution services.
(ii) Exchanging services and ideas by telecommunication or face-to-face
contact.
(iii) Satisfying the needs of people by changing their location (passenger trans-
portation).
(iv) Warehousing and distribution.
(v) Wholesale trade market ing activities.
(vi) Retail trade market ing activities. . .
These exchanges increase the value of an ite~ because of services provided
and also play an import ant role in moder n economies.

Consumption
A third aspect of all the econom ic activity involve~ the con~umption of goods and
services. The term ,consum ption' refers to the fmal or d_irect use. of goods a_nd
services to satisfy the wants and needs of human bemgs . This aspect,
i.e.
geography of consum ption has largely been ignore d by geogra~hy. But now,
there is a growin g interes t among geogra phers to study spatial aspects
of
consumer behaviour.
,..

8 I Economic Geography

. ·t' nal interrelationship at

The above mentioned activities arc havmg. funcl _io elationship is related
various stages of economic · pro d uct1on.
· Th'is· funct1ona. mterr
. rvices. The d'1rcct or
.
to secondary and tertiary pro d uc t'ion through various f se
duction depen d s upon
indirect functional relation of all the resource\ 0
r7 those areas. Just as the
location, relief, climate, soil and technical know- obwl' oh d functional interrela-
.
various aspects of primary pro d uc f10 n have esta isthee factors o f secon d ary
11
tionship with one another, in the same w~y, a 'th the factors of primary
production have established functional rela_ttonh wif nctional relation with the
. roduct10n
. f ast'onal
u · h'1p of
Production. In the same way ter t rnry P interrelations
d t'
primary and secondary pro uc ton. Thts unc I
d Tt f material but also e ects a
n
I 0
production not only changes the form an uti y
transformation in their ownership a nd value.

Approaches to Economic Geography d £ systematic analysis of

1 h s have been deve Iope or
In geography, severa approac e d t d in economic geography. The
the subject. The same has .also bee\ a c:~ ~e divided into three categories:
approaches to study economic geograp Y
1. Traditional Approaches
2. Philosophic Approaches
3. Modern Approaches

Tradittana/Approaches .
These are the approaches which are common in geography and__frequently u~ed rn
economic geography. These are: (i) Regional Approach, (n) Commodity or
Topical Approach, and (iii) Principles Approach.
(i) Regional Approach: The term 'region' is very popular in geographical li~er-
ature and refers to a suitable areal unit, e.g. a climatic region, a natural region,
an industrial region, an agricultural regjon, an administrative or political
region and so on. A region is having common geo-economic characteristics, a
resource base, economic development and to some extent similarities in
culture and demographic _structure. Therefore, several geographers have
chosen this region approach in economic geography. An advantage of the
regional approach is that it gives a better knowledge of different parts of a unit,
their relationship to each other and to the unit as a whole.
(ii) Commodity or Topical Approach: This approach provides a systematic
description and interpretation of the world distribution pattern of a
commodity (wheat), or an industry (cotton textile industry), or a human
occupation (fishing): It analyses the whole sequence of their development, and
catches t~em on their _march to progression or retrogression. This topical or
commodity a~proach •~ ver~ popular: !he syst~matic economic geography, if
we choose this appellation, ts the legitimate child of this very conception.
(iii) Principles Approach: In every sphere of human activity certain fundamental
truths or principles hold good: indeed, they provide the rock-foundations
upon which the varied and varying superstructures rest. The concepts of
Economic Geography are through and through permeated with the same
spirit whether we talk of Regional Economic Geography or Systematic
10 I Economic Oeo-graphy

(ii) Belwvioural Approach: Incorporation of the behavioural science outlook in

geography is known as behaviouralism. In economic geography behavioural
approach now has become very common. Economic geographers study the
overall results of economically-oriented behaviour_ ~s they ~ppear in the
landscape. In economic geography, the study of dec1s1on-n:iakmg process is
an important aspect. The type of decision-making, which ts the concern of
economic geography, can be classified as problem-solving or behavioural
decision-making with such results as new locations for shops, farms or
factories. Similarly, the study of consumer behaviou_r,_ movem_ent or trip
behaviour, etc. are considered to be important. The dec1s1on-makmg process
and other aspects of behavioural analysis will be discussed in detail in other
chapters of the book.
(iii) Institutional Approach: Ron Martin (2003) has emphasised the need of insti-
tutional approach in economic geography. He stated that the form and
evolution of the economic landscape cannot be fully understood without
giving due attention to the various social institutions on which economic .
activity depends and through which it is shaped. In other words, economic
activity is socially and institutionally situated and it cannot be explained by
reference to atomistic individual motives alone, but has to be understood as
enmeshed in wider structures of social, economic and political rules, proce-
dures and conventions. It is the role of these systems, both formal and
informal, which is the focus of an institutional approach to economic
geography.

Recent Trends in Economic Geography

During ~ast four decades, economic geography has experienced tremendous
chan~es m met?odology, contents and approaches. These changes have occurred
t
~ th theoretical as ~ell as in applied field. All these changes are the part of the
e~e ~pment ~f the subject, but because of these chc.11ges economic geography has
fam~ _a special s~atus among other branches of geography. Some of the recent
ren s m economic geography are as follows:
Increasing Use of Quantitative Methods and G/S
In C?mparison to other branches of eo ra h th . .
has mcreased in economic geographg rt. Ph Y,b e use of quantitative techniques
y. is as ecome more popular with the use
of computers.
. Through the use of high-speed digital com .
mat10n can now be processed both quic . kl puters, massive amounts of infor-
be programmed to handle virtually an k' Y . . . Moreover, a computer can
dand easily
st
revolution, as it is aptly called , has af/ md of atistical technique. The computer
iecte econom.ic geography no less than other
d.1 . 1' d
sc1p mes, an a number of texts no h
of it. However, the use of computers wh s ow geographers howd to take advantage
. developmentas .as many pitfalls as a vantages.
Recen t teehnoIog1cal
1
(mapping) have had a beneficial impact ~~nr arge-shcm ?le data storage, and display
. t, storage, analysis and output f esearc . econ om1c . geography. GI S
a11ows the mpu
area coordinates. Large data sets comprising of spatial data, with either point or
.m over1a1.d 1asr h' frequently lead. to new. hyp o numero . bl es, when viewed
us va na
10n, th .
geographic relationships that have not previousfy besis and provide insights into
een noted or understood.
• ::~ - -
~

Economic Geography I 11
Impact of the Mathematics: Concept of Probabll/ty and
Random ProceBBeB
for sometime, social sci~ntists have been ques
tioning the total predictability of
human action a~d behaV1?ur. Th~ original impu
lse for this came from the pure
sciences, especially physics, which has elev
ated unpredictability to a formal
principle - the so-called uncertainty principle
. According to Werner Heisenberg,
who formulated _the principle in 1927, som
e natural phenomena can never be
completely descnbed. Befo~e_th~ wor k of Heis
enberg and his colleagues physicist s
had taken a more deterministic approach;
specific results were thought to be
wholly predictable ~rom s~ecific conditions.
In contrast, the principle of uncer-
tainty, or indeterminacy, introduced a worl
d in which physical laws no longer
completely descri?ed or pre~i~ted anything, but
instead yielded statistical approx-
imations of very high probab1hty. Thus, the entir
e nature of science was changed.
There is no need, of course, for geographers
to jump to the conclusion that
the earth's surface is governed by the mechani
cs of a roulette wheel, or to see
economic development as a 'per man ent float
ing crap game'. More important it is
a proper appreciation of the different ways in
which chance, or randomness, can
enter into economic affairs. It can stem
from the impfrfection, of human
decisions, since the limits on man 's perceptual
abilities at any one time are consid-
erable. It can arise from the many apparently
on occasion - for example, there are more pote
more town sites than towns. It can arise beca
equal choices that can confront us
ntial route ways than routes, and
use, after all, the goals of individuals
and groups do vary over time. Finally, it can arise
'background noise', that is, the infinite number
because of what has been called
I
i
could not be taken into acco unt at the time of
of factors that, although present, t
the actual decision or occurrence.
In geography, recognition that the traditiona
always apply stems to a great extent from the
l modes of explanation do not
influence of other social sciences,
I•
which have brou ght dissatisfaction with avail
increasing realisation of the unpredictability
This recognition, as we have seen, has been acco
able methods and concepts, and an
and uncertainty of human choice. I
mpanied by the growth of sophis-
ticated statistical techniques.

Reliance on Models
A model is an idealised repr esen tatio n of reali
ty that is intended to demon:sn-ate
certain properties of the real world. By mod
el building we abstract certain
factors from reality, so that rath er than havi
ng to consider simultaneously a
whole host of them , we can deal with what
we perceive as the essential few. By
their very definition models cann ot convey the
whole truth, but only a compre-
hensible part of it.
Models have many uses. They can be a set
of ~orking_ hypothese~ f~~ the
researcher; guides for the visualisation ~f cor1:
1plex mteract1o_ns; orgamsa io~al
frameworks for the classification and manipula
tion of data; or simple and ef , chve
teaching aids. Thu s, models can be concepts
, notions, or just hunches._They are
useful chiefly because they are economical.
Not only ~o they ~ra~smit general
information in a highly compressed form; they
can also m certam circumstances
express a theory as precisely as any verbal form
ulation. _They can al~o dra~ our
attention to the differences between abstracti
on and reahty, and provide a simple
picture for the student. In short, models are
designed to make understanding
 12 I Economic 011ogr1phy

easier . Some of the simplest models are almost everyday used. They include mapH,
aerial photographs, floor plans, and flow charts. Others are used on the pioneer
fringes of research.

Economic Location Theory

Economic geography is an extremely broad field in the sense that it ~~m!nes a
th
wide range of activities. This breadth is shared, of course, by ~ drscrphne of
economics, and the social sciences in general. Like econo'!1rcs, . economic
geography is unified as a body of knowledge that is not so much rd~ntrfied by the
subject matter studied as by a set of interlocking principles o~ t~eorres, which are
constantly evolving. In case of economic geography, these prmcrples and theories
are those of the location of economic activities, known formally and collectively by
the term 'location theory'. Location theory seeks to explain the basic universal
factors that determine and influence the location of all kinds of economic activity.
In economic geography, several location theories have been adopted to explain
agricultural and industrial location. But now theories related to decision-making
process have become important.
Behavioural Focus
A new trend in economic geography is the behavi.oural focus, i.e. more attention
now has been given to behavioural pattern, in which the emphasis is placed on
how locational decisions are actually made. It is one thing to describe a region as
producing a particular crop or combination of crops; it is another to understand
?ow the farmers in the region have come to decide what crops to raise. The behav-
10ural pattern of market participants, i.e. consumer, trader-wholesaler, retailer
and producer now has become an important aspect of study in economic
ge_ography. Similarly, the behavioural pattern movement of the people now deter-
mmes_the selection ~nd location of transport routes. The spatial analysis of the
hehaVIo~ral pattern m all the economic activities now has become focus of the
economic geography.
Policy Implications
·
of eco economic
Contemporary
cation . .. ograph.ers are a1so now interested in the policy impli-
. ge
nom1c actlVltles It is rec · d h h
fundamental in affecting the l~vel and lo~;t~1se t at t e .role .o~ _gover~ment !s
carried out not only by the f d on of economic actlVltles. This role 1s
I but also by state and local govern·
ments. Alternative public p~li'ec~a glovdernmd~nffts,
. ies ea to I erent
- some t'1mes qmte. d'ff
1 erent -
Iocattonal patterns.

Applied Economic Geography

Apart from theoretical developments in · .
inclination _towards the applied aspec/:n0°;•c geography, it has now mo~e
geography 1s referred to under the gen era11ath eler oftrend m modern economic
. a 1· d .
many professional geographers are now wor k'mg m . PPpl1e ·geography.• Since,
· s
governme_nt agencies, business and industr , now . annmg or~amsauon •
and techmques to a wide range of practical p[ bl USmg geographic concepts
ments in applied geography is the contem o~r ems. Close)~ related to devel~p-
p Yconcern with problem-solv!llg
I
I
7

Economic Oeoaraphy I 1a

approache!i in economic _geography . A background of mathematics, statistics,

and computer programmmg ~nd location analysis is useful. Practical skills such
as cartography. remote sensmg, GIS , are extremely helpful in the analysis of
spatial problems.

Globalisation Trends
The concept of globalisati?n has spread throughout the social sciences, including
economic geography· This n~w outlook on geography is challenging the tradi -
tional approaches to economic geography. Such phrases as 'the global shopping
mall', 'the global workplace', or 'the global city' attempt to capture the essence of
globalisation. This concept is based on the new communication technologies and
their impact on the local and global economy, as well as on social, cultural and
political life. The significance of globalisation may be ·understood in terms of
following characteristics :
(i) Capital has become more globally mobile.
(ii) The market has become less regulated, breaking down governmental and
political control.
(iii) Multinational firms have become principal agents of change.
(iv) The national political forces have been weakened, giving way to multina-
tional corporations.
(v) Dual trends have been set in motion, the one trend toward more homoge-
neous global conditions as a result of widespread competition, and the other
toward enhanced differences as localities strive to maintain their identities.
Globalisation represents a complex set of processes, which economic
geographers have only just begun to understand. ·
More Emphasis on Spatial Pattern and Processes
The distribution of economic activities over the earth's surface or within a region
may be viewed as forming a pattern or spatial distribution. This pattern may be a
nodal or point pattern, a linear pattern. Combining the linear and nodal pattern,
one may define a nodal region, which is useful in many kinds of analysis in
economic geography. These spatial patterns are often depicted on the choropleth
map. Another type of spatial pattern is the surface, which may be illustrated carto-
graphically in a variety of ways. The most common method of surface mapping is
by use of isolines, these lines connect points of equal magnitude. Spatial patterns
often combine to form hierarchies, interlocking sequences of patterns ranging
from small to large scale. Such spatial hierarchy reflects the extent and dimensions ·
of an economic system. . .
Apart from spatial pattern, economic geographers also deal with spatial
processes. The word 'process' implies something happening over time. A spatial
process, then, involves change within some or all the elements of a system.
Geographers are concerned with the interplay between pattern and process and
these two concepts are avenues that geographers use to ana_ly_se spatia! economic
system. Economic patterns change because of hu~an dec1s1ons, ~h1ch ma~ be
based on different economic goals, different perceptions of economic alternatives,
 7
14 I Economic Oeography

.
d,ffcrcnt preference and cultural systems. 1n con temporary
.
economic geography
,
emphasis has been given on spatio-temporal analySJS.

Systems Analysis .
. . ·
Like other social sc1ent1sts, economic geograp hers areThalsob usmg .
systems
.
• · f ·f es e as1c
analysis as a method of analysmg economic ac tvt t . 1 d th concept t t th
18
simple enough. A system is a set of identified elements so ~e ate. a foge er
they form a complex whole. Systems ana1ysts · ean considerations o such a
m .
whole as a whole, rather than as something to be analysed mto sep~rate pa_rts. A
system as opposed to a mere assemblage (one might almost say hea_p) ts ~ot
just a totality of parts, but rather a totality of relations among a nd mcludmg
those parts. Systems analysis is an approach or methodo!o~y rather tha~ a
philosophy or a scientific paradigm. In other words, •.t 1s. an analytical
technique or tool that can aid in the understanding or eluc1dat1~n of complex
structures, not a generalised theory in itself - although some of its champ10ns
may see it as one.
Economic geographers utilised the system concept in order to better
understand the component elements of some part of reality, and the relations
between them. To continue with our example, if we look at the world economic
scene as an entity, we can break it down into component sub-systems. Given
better understanding of the structure, we could then perhaps try to rearrange
the elements spatially in order to maximise some human welfare function. And
in fact the acceptance by some economic geographers of this notion of the
world economy is regarded by some as one of the major conceptual advances of
recent years.
Specialisation and Development of Sub-Branches
In economic geography, several branches have been developed due to speciali-
sation. Since economic activities are diversified, their study has also been
specialised. This specialisation has given new status to economic geography. The
main branches of economic geography are:
(i) Agriculture Geography
(ii) Industrial Geography
(iii) Transport Geography
(iv) Marketing Geography
(v) Geography of Resources
(vi) Geography of Planning and Development
Allt· thelisnkebr~nhches no~ have become independent fields of study, but at the
~ame tme_ wit economic geography too. Contemporary economic geography
ts developmg at a fast rate due to new researches in these sub-branch
.d 1 · · • • . es and l its
appI1e va ue ts mcreasmg m c0mpartso n to other branches of geography. a so
Environmental Concern and Sustainable Development
Nowada!s, environmental problems are ?f g~eat concern in most of the subjects.
Economic geographers are also now takmg mterest in problems associated with
 Economic 0to9raphy I 15

environment. both global as well as re~ional. Thi 11 111 more hecause of the fact
that economic activities are also one of the main cau14 c11 of environmental degra ·
dation . The economic activities like mining, indu stry, tran11portation arc directly
responsible for pollution, climatic change and global warming . Therefore, there
is a need to manage the economic activities in a sustainable way. Similarly,
resource utilisation , especially over-exploitation of natural and economic
resources is increasing day by day and it is high time to take steps for their
proper utilisation so that not only the present generation but our future genera-
tions will also be able to use them. The concept of sustainable development has
now become an integral part of the study of economic geography. Economic
geographers know the distribution, production and potentialities of world
resources and they are in a position to suggest their conservation policy. The
beginning in the field of sustainable development has already been done , but
there is still a long way to go.

Other Trends
Apart from the above mentioned major trends in economic geography, the other
trends are as follows:
(i) New concepts of development
I
(a) Integrated development
(b) Regional development
(c) Sustainable development
(d) Economic development and quality of life
(ii) Study of market-oriented economy
(iii) Environmental relation of the economy
(iv) Interdisciplinary nature
(v) Decision-making process
I
(vi) Use of gravity model
(vii) Production and transport cost analysis
I
(viii) Concept of isotropic and anisotropic space
(ix) Concept of time and space in economic development
(x) New development in locational theories related to economic development
(xi) Use of remote sensing and GIS in studying resource distribution and utilisation
(xii) Economic geographical forecasting
(xiii) Planning for regional economic development
(xiv) Emphasis on the societal impact of economic activities .
(xv) Feminism and economic geography, i.e. gendering work and working gender
(xvi) The economic geography of global trade
(xvii)Telecommunications and economic space
16 I Economic Geography

In brief, economic geography is a highly developed branch of huma

geography. To the centuries-old methods of description and synthesisn
modern research in economic geography has been added by developments i~
the social and behavioural sciences, in computer science, in statistics, in
mathematics, and in GIS. The use of the scientific method to study economic
spatial systems has permitted new ways of understanding old questions. The
principles of economic location theory have formed a core around which
economic geography is focused.