Topic 2.
1 Resources and Reserves
Essential idea: Resource management and sustainable production carefully consider three key issues—
consumption of raw materials, consumption of energy, and production of waste—in relation to managing resources
and reserves effectively and making production more sustainable.
2.1 Resources and reserves
Nature of design: Concepts and principles:
As non-renewable resources run out, • Renewable and non-renewable
designers need to develop innovative resources
solutions to meet basic human needs • Reserves
for energy, food and raw materials. • Renewability
The development of renewable and Guidance:
sustainable resources is one of the • The economic and political
major challenges of the 21st century importance of material and land
for designers. (2.9) resources and reserves
considering set-up cost, efficiency
of conversion, sustainable and
constant supply, social impact,
environmental impact and
decommissioning
• Comparison of renewable and
non-renewable resources
• Positive or negative impact that a
development may have on the
environment
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International-mindedness:
• The impact of multinational
companies when obtaining
resources in different countries/
regions can be a significant issue
for the local population and have
major social, ethical and
environmental implications.
Theory of knowledge:
• To what extent should potential
damage to the environment limit
our pursuit of knowledge?
Utilization:
• Design technology topics 4, 8 and
10
• Biology topic 4
• Business management topic 5
• Economics topic 1
• Environmental systems and
societies topics 1 and 8
• Physics topic 8
Aims:
• Aim 3: Much of the development
of new resources is the product of
creating sustainable solutions to
existing problems.
• Aim 10: The legacy of the
industrial revolution is now being
felt as we face resource depletion.
The challenge for designers is to
continue to develop products that
meet the needs of humans, while
conserving the environment for
future generations.
Renewable Resources
Renewable resources are those that are consumed at a lesser rate than they are replaced by natural processes.

Examples are: oxygen, fresh water, solar energy, timber, and biomass. Renewable resources may also include
goods commodities such as wood, paper and leather.

Some resources such as geothermal power, plantation timber and water require careful management. Others such as
wind, solar, and tidal energies are thought of as limitless.

Wind Energy
Most wind energy comes from turbines that can be as tall as a 20-story building and have three 60m long blades.

The biggest wind turbines generate enough electricity to supply

about 600 U.S. homes. Wind farms have tens and sometimes
hundreds of these turbines lined up together in particularly windy
spots, like along a ridge. Smaller turbines erected in a backyard can
produce enough electricity for a single home or small business.

Wind is a clean source of renewable energy that produces no air or

water pollution. And since the wind is free, operational costs are
nearly zero once a turbine is erected. Mass production and
technology advances are making turbines cheaper, and many
governments offer tax incentives to spur wind-energy development.

Some people think wind turbines are ugly and complain about the
noise the machines make. The slowly rotating blades can also kill
birds and bats, but not nearly as many as cars, power lines, and high-
rise buildings do. The wind is also variable: If it's not blowing,
there's no electricity generated.

Nevertheless, the wind energy industry is booming. Wind was the second largest renewable energy source
worldwide (after hydropower) for power generation. Wind power produced more than 6 percent of global
electricity in 2020 with 743 GW of global capacity (707.4 GW is onshore).

The Top five countries with the highest wind energy capacity in 2020

1. China – 288.32 GW
2. United States – 122.32 GW
3. Germany – 62.85 GW
4. India – 38.63 GW
5. Spain – 27.24 GW

A single gigawatt is enough electricity to power about 750,000 homes.

Wind Energy - latest developments

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A Spanish company called Vortex Bladeless is proposing a radical new way to generate wind energy.

Their idea is the Vortex, a bladeless wind turbine that looks like a giant rolled tube shooting into the sky.

Instead of capturing energy via the circular motion of a propeller, the Vortex takes advantage of what’s known as
vorticity, an aerodynamic effect that produces a pattern of spinning vortices. Vorticity has long been considered the
enemy of architects and engineers, who actively try to design their way around these whirlpools of wind: With
enough wind, vorticity can lead to an oscillating motion in structures, which, in some cases, like the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge, can cause their eventual collapse.

https://vortexbladeless.com/

Solar Power
Solar is a renewable energy resource that uses photovoltaic (PV) systems to create electricity. A solar PV system
uses light to generate electricity, which you can then use to power your home or office, reducing your bills and
your impact on the environment.

1. The sun's light (photons) is absorbed

by the solar panel.

2. The silicon and conductors in the

panel convert the light into Direct
Current (DC) electricity, which then
flows into the inverter.

3. The inverter converts the DC into

Alternating Current (AC) electricity,
which you can use in your home.

4. Any additional electricity that's not

used by your home is fed back into the
grid.

5. Electricity is drawn from the grid

when you need more power than your
solar energy system can produce.

Photovoltaics is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materials (such as silicon)
exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb
photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured,
an electric current results that can be used as electricity.

Solar shingles (solar roof tiles) are photovoltaic cells designed to look like and
integrate with conventional asphalt roof shingles. First commercially available
in 2005, solar shingles were much more costly than traditional “bolt-on”
photovoltaic panels, and thus were used mainly by those wanting to go solar

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but maintain a traditional roofline. But more recently solar shingles have become price-competitive with bolt-on
panels, and are getting much more popular accordingly.

Eco-conscious home and building owners might find solar shingles especially attractive when they are re-shingling
anyway since the solar shingles also double as functional, protective and weather-proof roof shingles in their own
right.

Hydropower
Hydropower is electricity generated using the energy of moving water.

This energy has been exploited for centuries. Farmers since the ancient
Greeks have used water wheels to grind wheat into flour. Placed in a
river, a water wheel picks up flowing water in buckets located around the
wheel. The kinetic energy of the flowing river turns the wheel and is
converted into mechanical energy that runs the mill.

In the late 19th century, hydropower became a source for generating

electricity. The first hydroelectric power plant was built at Niagara Falls
in 1879. In 1881, street lamps in the city of Niagara Falls were powered
by hydropower.

In 1882 the world’s first hydroelectric power plant began operating in the United States in Appleton,
Wisconsin.

A typical hydro plant is a system with three parts:

an electric plant where the electricity is produced;
a dam that can be opened or closed to control water flow; and a reservoir where water can be stored. The water
behind the dam flows through an intake and pushes against blades in a turbine, causing them to turn.

The turbine spins a generator to produce electricity. The amount of electricity that can be generated depends on
how far the water drops and how much water moves through the system. The electricity can be transported over
long-distance electric lines to homes, factories, and businesses.

In 2020, hydropower supplied 17% of global electricity generation, the third-largest source after coal and natural
gas.

Top 10 Hydropower Producing Countries in the World 2020

1.China - 356.4 GW
2. Brazil - 109.1 GW
3. US - 102.8 GW
4. Canada - 81.4 GW
5. India - 50.1 GW

One of the world's largest hydro plants is at

Three Gorges on China's Yangtze River.

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Hydropower is the cheapest way to generate electricity today. That's because once a dam has been built and the
equipment installed, the energy source—flowing water—is free. It's a clean fuel source that is renewable yearly by
snow and rainfall.

Hydropower is also readily available; engineers can control the flow of water through the turbines to produce
electricity on demand. In addition, reservoirs may offer recreational opportunities, such as swimming and boating.

Disadvantages of Hydropower
Disturbance of habitat
The formation of large and huge dams destroys the living beings around them. Local life is disturbed as human
can’t live in such a flooded area and plants are destroyed. People living nearby have to relocate.

Installation costs
Although the effective cost is zero but the manufacturing and building a dam and installation of the turbines is very
costly due to which many countries do not employ this alternative source of energy. If the initial cost had been less;
then it would have used more commonly. Its construction requires a lot of human capital and labour. Its
maintenance is also very costly.

Limited use
As the hydroelectric power is produced by the water which depend on the yearly rain falls so only those areas can
use this method which receives a good amount of rainfall water because this method needs a huge reservoir of
water.

Divert natural waterway

Dams and rivers collect water for the production of electricity which alters the natural system of water flow thus
depriving houses of the water they need.

Effects on agriculture
Making dams on rivers affect the amount, quality and temperature of water that flow in streams which has drastic
effects on agriculture and drinking water.

Fish killing
The water while flowing through the dam collects nitrogen which can damage and also kills fish. They can also
damage the reproduction of fishes thus eliminating the whole species of fishes.

Disputes between people

Changing the river pathway and shortage of water can cause serious disputes between people.

Biomass and Biofuel

The term Biomass most often refers to organic matter such as timber and crops grown specifically to be burnt to
generate heat and power.

Biomass is sustainable and generally carbon neutral because the carbon released in the combustion process is offset
by the carbon trapped in the organic matter by photosynthesis during its growth. To be truly carbon-neutral we
need to make sustainable use of plants or trees as fuel, and replant them as we harvest them - so that the carbon is
reabsorbed in a continuous and virtuous cycle.

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The most popular UK biomass crops are short rotation coppice, willow and poplar, Miscanthus (Elephant Grass),
Reed Canary Grass and Oil Seed Rape.

As well as specifically grown crops, other agricultural by-products are also referred to as biomass, such as straw,
grain husks, forest products, waste wood and animal wastes such as slurry and chicken litter

The Difference between Biomass and Biofuel is simply that biomass is used to produce biofuel.

Making Biogas
Biogas can be produced on a large scale using a digester. This is a
container into which plant or animal waste is added. Air must be kept
out to make sure that the bacteria inside respire anaerobically. The
production of biogas is affected by temperature.

Industrial digesters are often built underground to help maintain a

constant temperature. The waste may be added in a continuous flow,
and the biogas and remaining solids may be removed continuously
too.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHXFSVl4CfA

Disadvantages of Biomass
While some consider their use "carbon neutral," the
machinery required to farm the plants for biofuels does
create carbon emissions, this machinery is also typically not
powered by biofuels. Research suggests despite this fact that
biofuels help to reduce carbon emissions by 50-60%.

One of the main detractors to the use of biofuels is that

setting aside land for biofuel crops means less land for food
production. Some foreign countries have said that it is
unethical to use crops for biofuel when global hunger is an
ever present problem.

In addition, the easiest way to clear the land to plant monocultures of pulpwood, timber and palm oil for biomass, is
to torch it.

Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It's clean and sustainable. A geothermal heat pump system can take
advantage of the constant temperature 55ºF to 12ºC of the upper ten feet (three meters) of the Earth's surface to heat
a home in the winter, while extracting heat from the building and transferring it back to the relatively cooler ground
in the summer.

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Geothermal water from deeper in the Earth can be used directly for heating homes and offices, or for growing
plants in greenhouses. Some U.S. cities pipe geothermal hot water under roads and sidewalks to melt snow.

To produce geothermal-generated electricity, wells, sometimes a mile (1.6 kilometres) deep or more, are drilled
into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that drive turbines linked to electricity generators.

There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash, and binary. Dry steam, the oldest geothermal
technology, takes steam out of fractures in the ground and uses it to directly drive a turbine. Flash plants pull deep,
high-pressure hot water into cooler, low-pressure water. The steam that results from this process is used to drive the
turbine. In binary plants, the hot water is passed by a secondary fluid with a much lower boiling point than water.
This causes the secondary fluid to turn to vapour, which then drives a turbine. Most geothermal power plants in the
future will be binary plants.

There are many advantages of geothermal energy. It can be extracted without burning a fossil fuel such as coal, gas,
or oil. Geothermal fields produce only about one-sixth of the carbon dioxide that a relatively clean natural-gas-
fuelled power plant produces. Binary plants release essentially no emissions. Unlike solar and wind energy,
geothermal energy is always available, 365 days a year. It's also relatively inexpensive; savings from direct use can
be as much as 80 percent over fossil fuels.

But it has some environmental problems. The main concern is the release of hydrogen sulphide, a gas that smells
like rotten egg at low concentrations. Another concern is the disposal of some geothermal fluids, which may
contain low levels of toxic materials. Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades,
eventually specific locations may cool down.

Nonrenewable Resources
Non-renewable resources are resources for which there is a limited supply. The supply comes from the Earth itself
and, as it typically takes millions of years to develop, is finite.

Categories of Non-Renewable Resources

Non-renewable resources can generally be separated into two main categories; fossil fuels and nuclear fuels.

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Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are derived from organic matter which has been trapped between layers of sediments within the Earth
for millions of years.

 The organic matter, typically plants, have decomposed and

compressed over time, leaving what are known as fossil fuel
deposits.

 These deposits, and the materials produced from them, tend to

be highly combustible, making them an ideal energy source.

 They are difficult to obtain as they are typically retrieved

through drilling or mining.

Crude Oil/Petroleum
Crude oil is a non-renewable resource that builds up in liquid form
between the layers of the Earth’s crust.

 It is retrieved by drilling deep into the ground and pumping the

liquid out. The liquid is then refined and used to create many
different products.

 Crude oil is a very versatile fuel and is used to produce things

like plastics, artificial food flavourings, heating oil, petrol,
diesel, jet fuel, and propane.

Gas
Natural gasses gather below the Earth’s crust and, like crude oil, must be drilled for and pumped out.
Methane and ethane are the most common types of gasses obtained through this process.
These gasses are most commonly used in home heating as well as gas ovens and grills.

Coal

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Coal is the last of the major fossil fuels. Created by compressed organic matter, it is solid like rock and is obtained
via mining.

Coal is most typically used in home heating and the running of power plants.

Advantages of Fossil Fuels

 A major advantage of fossil fuels is their capacity to generate huge amounts of electricity in just a single
location.

 Fossil fuels are very easy to find.

 When coal is used in power plants, they are very cost effective. Coal
is also in abundant supply.

 Transporting oil and gas to the power stations can be made through
the use of pipes making it an easy task.

 Power plants that utilise gas are very efficient.

 Power stations that make use of fossil fuel can be constructed in almost any location. This is possible as
long as large quantities of fuel can be easily brought to the power plants.
Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels
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  Pollution is a major disadvantage of fossil fuels. This is because they give off carbon dioxide when burned
thereby causing a greenhouse effect. This is also the main contributory factor to the global warming
experienced by the earth today.

 Coal also produces carbon dioxide when burned compared to burning oil or gas. Additionally, it gives off
sulphur dioxide, a kind of gas that creates acid rain.

 Environmentally, the mining of coal results in the destruction of wide areas of land. Mining this fossil fuel
is also difficult and may endanger the lives of miners. Coal mining is considered one of the most dangerous
jobs in the world.

 Power stations that utilize coal need large amounts of fuel. In other words, they not only need truckloads
but trainloads of coal on a regular basis to continue operating and generating electricity. This only means
that coal-fired power plants should have reserves of coal in a large area near the plants location.

 Use of natural gas can cause unpleasant odours and some problems especially with transportation.

 Use of crude oil causes pollution and poses environmental hazards such as oil spills when oil tankers, for
instance, experience leaks or drown deep under the sea. Crude oil contains toxic chemicals which cause air
pollutants when combusted.

Nuclear Fuels
The other form of non-renewable resource used to produce energy, nuclear fuels, is primarily obtained through the
mining and refining of uranium ore.

 Uranium is a naturally occurring element found within the Earth's core.

 Most uranium deposits occur in small quantities which miners gather together, refine, and purify.

 Once gathered, the uranium is brought together and compounded into rods.

 The rods are then submersed into tanks of water.

 When it reaches critical mass, uranium begins to break down and release energy which heats the water it is
immersed in. This is known as "fission."

 The heated water then creates pressure and it is this pressure which drives the turbines that generate the
electricity we use every day.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power

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Radioactive Waste: The waste produced by nuclear reactors needs to be disposed off at a safe place since they are
extremely hazardous and can leak radiations if not stored properly.

Nuclear Accidents: While so many new technologies have been put in place to make sure that such disasters won’t
happen again like the ones Chernobyl or more recently Fukushima but the risk associated with them are relatively
high. Even small radiation leaks can cause devastating effects. Some of the symptoms include nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea and fatigue.

High Cost: Another practical disadvantage of using nuclear energy is that it needs a lot of investment to set up a
nuclear power station. It is not always possible by the developing countries to afford such a costly source of
alternative energy. Nuclear power plants normally take 5-10 years to construct as there are several legal formalities
to be completed and mostly it is opposed by the people who live nearby.

Non Renewable: Nuclear energy uses uranium which is a scarce resource and is not found in many countries. Most
of the countries rely on other countries for the constant supply of this fuel. It is mined and transported like any
other metal. Supply will be available as long as it is there. Once all extracted, nuclear plants will not be of any use.
Due to its hazardous effects and limited supply, it cannot be termed as renewable.

Reserves
Reserves are the portion of an identified resource which can be economically and legally recovered. Reserves can
be divided into two groups: Proved Reserves and Probable Reserves

Proved Reserves
Proved Reserves represent those resources that are considered economically recoverable using current
technologies.

Probable Reserves

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After an oil exploration firm conducts a seismic survey of a piece of land, it obtains the proven and probable
reserves in that area. Probable reserves are those which have a 50% chance of being present. For example if an oil
company believes that there is decent chance of a successful drilling operation, they would classify those reserves
as "probable."

Renewability
This term is refers to a resource that is inexhaustible therefore can be replenished. Hardwood trees (such as many
rainforest species) take a fair bit of time to mature to a point where it is useable as a resource, therefore, it is
considered non-renewable. On the other hand, softwoods (such as Pines or conifers) mature more quickly and are
considered a renewable resource.

However, the primary supposition about renewable forms of energy is that use of such resources will not result in
depletion or exhaustion. While it is true that natural energy flows such as sun and wind are not directly subject to
degradation by use, there may still be indirect limitations on renewability. The exploitation of natural energy flows
may require that systems of non-renewable “support” resources be used to capture, store, and convert natural
energy into useful forms. Poor resource management practices that degrade the support resources may therefore, in
effect, endanger renewability. Biomass is an illustrative case of a renewable energy resource with non-renewable
support components. The soil and water management practices of American agriculture, a large-scale biomass
production system, are resulting in serious degradation and depletion of these vital system elements. This
degradation represents a threat to the future of biomass food and energy supplier

Economic and political importance of material and land resources

You should consider the impact of resource security for nations and international treaties. An example of the
economic and political importance of material and land/sea resources is the extraction of oil. The extraction of oil
has been at the centre of many issues regarding resource security and international treaties.

 The Invasion of Kuwait in 1990 is one such example. Iraq accused the Kuwaiti government of ‘slant
drilling‘ from the border into Iraqi reserves this stealing Iraqi oil. It is also thought that Iraq invaded in
order to procure Kuwaiti oil - considered to be 20% of global reserves. A third reason was that Kuwait was
over producing oil, thus dropping the price of global oil which affect the Iraqi economy.

Often, multinational companies licensed to extract resources have limited consideration for the local population.
Governments need to balance the economic benefits and political impact of resource extraction.

The economic and political importance of material and land resources and reserves considering set-up cost,
efficiency of conversion, sustainable and constant supply, social impact, environmental impact and
decommissioning.

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