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About the Authors xi
Preface xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Environmental
Science 1
Chapter Opener: To Frack, Or Not to
Frack 1
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 2
Environmental science offers important insights
into our world and how we influence it 2
Humans alter natural systems 3
Environmental scientists monitor natural systems
for signs of stress 4
Human well-being depends on sustainable
practices 11
Science is a process 14
Environmental science presents unique
challenges 18
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Using Environmental Indicators to Make a Better
City 19
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 21
Check Your Understanding 21
Apply the Concepts 22
Measure Your Impact: Exploring Your Footprint 23
Chapter 2 Matter, Energy, and Change 24
Chapter Opener: A Lake of Salt Water, Dust
Storms, and Endangered Species 25
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 26
Earth is a single interconnected system 26
All environmental systems consist of matter 27
Energy is a fundamental component of
environmental systems 34
Energy conversions underlie all ecological
processes 39
Systems analysis shows how matter and energy
flow in the environment 40
Natural systems change across space and
over time 43
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Managing Environmental Systems in the Florida
Everglades 43
Contents
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 45
Check Your Understanding 46
Apply the Concepts 47
Measure Your Impact: Bottled Water versus
Tap Water 47
Chapter 3 Ecosystem Ecology and
Biomes 48
Chapter Opener: Reversing the Deforestation
of Haiti 49
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 50
Energy flows through ecosystems 50
Matter cycles through the biosphere 54
Global processes determine weather and
climate 61
Variations in climate determine Earth’s dominant
plant growth forms 65
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Is Your Coffee Made in the Shade? 76
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 77
Check Your Understanding 78
Apply the Concepts 79
Measure Your Impact: Atmospheric Carbon
Dioxide 79
Chapter 4 Evolution, Biodiversity, and
Community Ecology 80
Chapter Opener: The Dung of the Devil 81
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 82
Evolution is the mechanism underlying
biodiversity 82
Evolution shapes ecological niches and
determines species distributions 87
Population ecologists study the factors that
regulate population abundance and
distribution 91
Growth models help ecologists understand
population changes 93
Community ecologists study species
interactions 97
The composition of a community changes over
time and is influenced by many factors 101
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Bringing Back the Black-Footed Ferret 103
CONTENTS ■ vii
 REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 104
Check Your Understanding 105
Apply the Concepts 106
Measure Your Impact: The Living Planet Index 106
Chapter 5 Human Population Growth 108
Chapter Opener: The Environmental
Implications of China’s Growing
Population 109
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 110
Scientists disagree on Earth’s carrying
capacity 110
Many factors drive human population
growth 111
Many nations go through a demographic
transition 117
Population size and consumption interact to
influence the environment 120
Sustainable development is a common, if
elusive, goal 125
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Gender Equity and Population Control in
Kerala 126
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 127
Check Your Understanding 128
Apply the Concepts 129
Measure Your Impact: National Footprints 129
Chapter 6 Geologic Processes, Soils, and
Minerals 130
Chapter Opener: Are Hybrid Electric
Vehicles as Environmentally Friendly as We
Think? 131
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 132
The availability of Earth’s resources was
determined when the planet formed 132
Earth is dynamic and constantly changing 133
The rock cycle recycles scarce minerals and
elements 141
Soil links the rock cycle and the biosphere 144
The uneven distribution of mineral resources has
social and environmental consequences 149
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Mine Reclamation and Biodiversity 153
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 154
Check Your Understanding 154
Apply the Concepts 155
viii ■ CONTENTS
Measure Your Impact: What is the Impact of Your
Diet on Soil Dynamics? 155
Chapter 7 Land Resources and
Agriculture 156
Chapter Opener: A Farm Where Animals Do
Most of the Work 157
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 158
Human land use affects the environment in many
ways 158
Land management practices vary according to
their classification and use 160
Residential land use is expanding 163
Agriculture has generally improved the human
diet but creates environmental problems 165
Alternatives to industrial farming methods are
gaining more attention 171
Modern agribusiness includes farming meat and
fish 174
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
The Dudley Street Neighborhood 176
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 177
Check Your Understanding 178
Apply the Concepts 179
Measure Your Impact: The Ecological Footprint of
Food Consumption 179
Chapter 8 Nonrenewable and Renewable
Energy 180
Chapter Opener: All Energy Use Has
Consequences 181
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 182
Nonrenewable energy accounts for most of our
energy use 182
Fossil fuels provide most of the world’s energy
but the supply is limited 186
Nuclear energy offers benefits and
challenges 190
We can reduce dependence on fossil fuels by
reducing demand, and by using renewable
energy and biological fuels 194
Energy from the Sun can be captured directly
from the Sun, Earth, wind, and hydrogen 202
How can we plan our energy future? 209
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Meet TED: The Energy Detective 210
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 211
Check Your Understanding 212
 Apply the Concepts 213
Measure Your Impact: Choosing a Car: Conventional
or Hybrid? 213
Chapter 9 Water Resources and Water
Pollution 214
Chapter Opener: The Chesapeake Bay 215
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 216
Water is abundant but usable water
is rare 216
Humans use and sometimes overuse water for
agriculture, industry, and households 220
The future of water availability depends
on many factors 224
Water pollution has many sources 226
We have technologies to treat wastewater
from humans and livestock 228
Many substances pose serious threats
to human health and the environment 230
Oil pollution can have catastrophic
environmental impacts 233
A nation’s water quality is a reflection
of its water laws and their enforcement 234
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Is the Water in Your Toilet Too
Clean? 236
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 237
Check Your Understanding 238
Apply the Concepts 239
Measure Your Impact: Gaining Access
to Safe Water and Proper Sanitation 239
Chapter 10 Air Pollution 240
Chapter Opener: Cleaning Up in
Chattanooga 241
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 242
Air pollutants are found throughout the entire
global system 242
Air pollution comes from both natural and
human sources 247
Photochemical smog is still an environmental
problem in the United States 249
Acid deposition is much less of a problem
than it used to be 251
Pollution control includes prevention,
technology, and innovation 253
The stratospheric ozone layer provides
protection from ultraviolet solar radiation 256
Indoor air pollution is a significant hazard,
particularly in developing countries 259
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
A New Cook Stove Design 262
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 263
Check Your Understanding 263
Apply the Concepts 264
Measure Your Impact: Mercury Release From
Coal 265
Chapter 11 Solid Waste Generation and
Disposal 266
Chapter Opener: Paper or Plastic? 267
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 268
Humans generate waste that other organisms
cannot use 268
The three Rs and composting divert materials
from the waste stream 272
Currently, most solid waste is buried in landfills
or incinerated 277
Hazardous waste requires special means of
disposal 282
There are newer ways of thinking about solid
waste 284
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Recycling E-Waste in Chile 287
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 288
Check Your Understanding 288
Apply the Concepts 289
Measure Your Impact: Understanding Household
Solid Waste 289
Chapter 12 Human Health Risk 290
Chapter Opener: Citizen Scientists 291
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 292
Human health is affected by a large number of
risk factors 292
Infectious diseases have killed large numbers of
people 294
Toxicology is the study of chemical
risks 298
Scientists can determine the concentrations of
chemicals that harm organisms 300
Risk analysis helps us assess, accept, and
manage risk 305
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
The Global Fight Against Malaria 310
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 311
CONTENTS ■ ix
 Check Your Understanding 312
Apply the Concepts 313
Measure Your Impact: How Does Risk Affect Your
Life Expectancy? 313
Chapter 13 Conservation of Biodiversity 314
Chapter Opener: Modern Conservation
Legacies 315
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 316
We are in the midst of a sixth mass
extinction 316
Declining biodiversity has many causes 320
The conservation of biodiversity often focuses on
single species 327
The conservation of biodiversity sometimes
focuses on protecting entire ecosystems 329
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Swapping Debt for Nature 332
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 333
Check Your Understanding 334
Apply the Concepts 335
Measure Your Impact: How Large Is Your
Home? 335
Chapter 14 Climate Alteration and Global
Warming 336
Chapter Opener: Walking on Thin Ice 337
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 338
Global change includes global climate change
and global warming 338
Solar radiation and greenhouse gases make our
planet warm 339
Sources of greenhouse gases are both natural
and anthropogenic 342
Changes in CO2 and global temperatures have
been linked for millennia 345
Feedbacks can increase or decrease the impact
of climate change 352
Global warming has serious consequences for
the environment and organisms 353
x ■ CONTENTS
The Kyoto Protocol addresses climate change at
the international level 357
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Local Governments and Businesses Lead the Way
on Reducing Greenhouse Gases 358
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 359
Check Your Understanding 360
Apply the Concepts 361
Measure Your Impact: Carbon Produced by Different
Modes of Travel 361
Chapter 15 Environmental Economics,
Equity, and Policy 362
Chapter Opener: Assembly Plants, Free
Trade, and Sustainable Systems 363
UNDERSTAND THE KEY IDEAS 364
Sustainability is the ultimate goal of sound
environmental science and policy 364
Economics studies how scarce resources are
allocated 364
Economic health depends on the availability
of natural capital and basic human
welfare 369
Agencies, laws, and regulations are designed to
protect our natural and human capital 371
There are several approaches to measuring and
achieving sustainability 375
Two major challenges of our time are reducing
poverty and stewarding the environment 377
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
Reuse-A-Sneaker 380
REVISIT THE KEY IDEAS 381
Check Your Understanding 382
Apply the Concepts 383
Measure Your Impact: GDP and Footprints 383
Appendix: Fundamentals of Graphing APP-1
Bibliography BIB-1
Glossary GL-1
Index I-1
 About the Authors
Andrew Friedland is Richard and Jane Pearl Professor in Environmental Studies and
chair of the Environmental Studies Program at Dartmouth College. Andy regularly teaches
introductory environmental science and energy courses at Dartmouth and has taught
courses in forest biogeochemistry, global change, and soil science, as well as foreign study
courses in Kenya. In 2015, Andy brought his introductory environmental science course to
the massive, open, online course format through the DartmouthX platform.
Andy received a BA degree in both biology and environmental studies, and a PhD in
earth and environmental science from the University of Pennsylvania. For more than two
decades, Andy has been investigating the effects of air pollution on the cycling of carbon,
nitrogen, and lead in high-elevation forests of New England and the Northeast. Recently,
he has been examining the impact of increased demand for wood as a fuel, and the subse-
quent effect on carbon stored deep in forest soils.
[Nancy Nutile-McMenemy] Andy has served on panels for the National Science Foundation, USDA Forest Service,
and Science Advisory Board of the Environmental Protection Agency. He has authored or
coauthored more than 65 peer-reviewed publications and one book, Writing Successful Sci-
ence Proposals (Yale University Press).
Andy is passionate about saving energy and can be seen wandering the halls of the Envi-
ronmental Studies Program at Dartmouth with a Kill A Watt meter, determining the elec-
tricity load of vending machines, data projectors, and computers. He pursues energy saving
endeavors in his home as well and recently installed a 4kW photovoltaic tracker that follows
the Sun during the day.

Rick Relyea is the David Darrin Senior ‘40 Endowed Chair in Biology and the Executive
Director of the Darrin Freshwater Institute at the Rensselaer Institute of Technology. Rick
teaches courses in ecology, evolution, and animal behavior at the undergraduate and
graduate levels. He received a BS in environmental forest biology from the State University
of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, an MS in wildlife manage-
ment from Texas Tech University, and a PhD in ecology and evolution from the University
of Michigan.
Rick is recognized throughout the world for his work in the fields of ecology, evolu-
tion, animal behavior, and ecotoxicology. He has served on multiple scientific panels for
the National Science Foundation and the Environmental Protection Agency. For two
decades, he has conducted research on a wide range of topics, including predator-prey
[Brian Mattes] interactions, phenotypic plasticity, eutrophication of aquatic habitats, sexual selection, dis-
ease ecology, long-term dynamics of populations and communities across the landscape,
and pesticide impacts on aquatic ecosystems. He has authored more than 130 scientific
articles and book chapters, presented research seminars throughout the world, and
co-authored the leading ecology textbook, Ecology: The Economy of Nature. Rick recently
moved to Rensselaer from University of Pittsburgh, where he was named the Chancellor’s
Distinguished Researcher in 2005 and received the Tina and David Bellet Teaching Excel-
lence Award in 2014.
Rick’s commitment to the environment extends to his personal life. He lives in a
home constructed with a passive solar building design and equipped with active solar panels
on the roof.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS ■ xi

Content Advisory Board
Art Samel is an associate professor and chair of
geography at the School of Earth, Environment and
Society at Bowling Green University.
Teri C. Balser is Dean of Teaching and Learning for
the Faculty of Science and Engineering at Curtin
University, Australia
Dean Goodwin is an adjunct faculty member at
Plymouth State University, the University of New
Hampshire, and Rappahannock Community College,
Virginia.
xii ■ CONTENT ADVISORY BOARD
Michael L. Denniston was an associate professor of
chemistry at Georgia Perimeter College, where he
taught general chemistry and environmental science.
Jeffery A. Schneider is an associate professor of envi-
ronmental chemistry at the State University of New
York in Oswego, New York. He teaches general
chemistry, environmental science, and environmental
chemistry.
 Preface

We are delighted to introduce the second edition of Essentials of Environmental Science.

Our mission has been to create a book that provides streamlined coverage of the core
topics in the first environmental science course while also presenting a contemporary,
holistic approach to learning about Earth and its inhabitants. The book not only
engages the fundamentals of environmental science but also shows students how envi-
ronmental science informs sustainability, environmental policies, economics, and per-
sonal choices.
This book took shape over the course of a decade. Subject to a rigorous development
and review process to make sure that the material is as accurate, clear, and engaging as
possible, we wrote and rewrote until we got it right. College instructors and specialists
in specific topics have checked to make sure we are current and pedagogically sound.
The art development team worked with us on every graphic and photo researchers sifted
through thousands of possibilities until we found the best choice for each concept we
wished to illustrate. The end-of-chapter problems and solutions were also subject to
review by both instructors and students. Here’s what we think is special.

A Balanced Approach
with Emphasis on the Essentials
Daily life is filled with decisions large and small that affect our environment. From the
food we eat, to the cars we drive or choose not to drive, to the chemicals we put into
the water, soil, and air, the impact of human activity is wide-ranging and deep. And yet
decisions about the environment are not often easy or straightforward. Is it better for the
environment to purchase a new, energy-efficient hybrid car or to continue using the car
you already own, or to ride a bicycle or take public transportation? Can we find ways to
encourage development without creating urban sprawl? Should a dam that provides
electricity for 70,000 homes be removed because it interferes with the migration of
salmon?
As educators, scientists, and people concerned about sustainability, our goal is to help
today’s students prepare for the challenges they will face in the future. Essentials of
Environmental Science does not preach or tell students how to conduct their lives. Rather,
we focus on the science and show students how to make decisions based on their own
assessments of the evidence.

Ideal for a One-Semester First Course in Environmental Science

Essentials of Environmental Science contains 15 chapters, which is ideal for an initial, one-
semester course. At a rate of one chapter per week, both instructors and students are able
to get through the entire book in a given semester, therefore maximizing its use.

Focus on Core Content

We understand that students drawn to this course may have a variety of backgrounds.
Through its streamlined presentation of core content and issues, Essentials of Environmen-
tal Science seeks to stimulate and inspire students who may never take another science
course. At the same time, our text includes coverage appropriate for students who will
go on to further studies in science.

PREFACE ■ xiii
A Pedagogical Framework
to Reinforce Classroom Learning
We have built each chapter on a framework of learning tools that will help students get the
most out of their first course in environmental science. Pedagogical features include:
■ Chapter opening case studies: Each chapter opens with a detailed case study that

motivates the student by showing the subject of the chapter in a real-world context.
■ Understand the Key Ideas: A list of key concepts follows the opening case. This
tool helps students organize and focus their study.
■ Gauge Your Progress: After each major chapter section, these review questions ask
students to test their understanding of the material.
■ Photos and line art: Developed in conjunction with the text by specialists in the
field of science illustration, figures have been selected and rendered for maximum visual
impact.
■ Revisit the Key Ideas: Chapter summaries are built around the Key Ideas list to
reinforce chapter concepts.
■ Working Toward Sustainability: Chapters conclude with an inspiring story of
people or organizations that are making a difference to the environment.
■ Check Your Understanding: At the end of each chapter, Check Your
Understanding questions, in multiple-choice format, test student comprehension.
■ Apply the Concepts: A multilevel response question at the end of each chapter helps
students solidify their understanding of key concepts by applying what they have
learned in the chapter to relevant situations.
■ Measure Your Impact: In the Measure Your Impact question at the end of each
chapter, students are asked to calculate and answer everyday problem scenarios to assess
their environmental impact and make informed decisions.
■ Graphing Appendix: A graphing appendix at the end of the book helps students
review graphing essentials.

We’d Love to Hear from You

Our goal—to create a balanced, holistic approach to the study of environmental science—has
brought us in contact with hundreds of professionals and students. We hope this book inspires
you as you have inspired us. Let us know how we’re doing! Feel free to get in touch with
Andy at andy.friedland@dartmouth.edu and Rick at Env.Science.Relyea@gmail.com.

xiv ■ PREFACE
 Supplements

For the Instructor

Teaching Tips offer a chapter-by-chapter guide to help instructors plan lectures. Each chapter’s Teaching Tips out-
line common student misconceptions, providing suggestions for in- and out-of-class activities and a list of suggested
readings and websites.

Lecture PowerPoints have been pre-built for every chapter with your student in mind. Each lecture outline fea-
tures text, figures, photos, and tables to help enhance your lecture.

JPEGs for every figure from the text–including their labels–are available in high resolution to incorporate in your
lectures.

Labs give your students the opportunity to apply key concepts, collect data, and think critically about their
findings.

Printed Test Bank includes approximately 100 multiple-choice, free-response, and footprint calculation questions
per chapter. These questions are tagged to the “Key Ideas” for each chapter and organized by their level of
difficulty.

Computerized Test Bank includes all of the printed test bank questions in an easy-to-use computerized format.
The software allows instructors to add and edit questions and prepare quizzes and tests quickly and easily.

Course Management Coursepacks include the student and instructor materials in Blackboard, WebCT, and
other selected platforms.

For the Student

The following resources are available for students online at www.macmillanhighered.com/friedlandessentials2e:
Flash Cards
Drag and Drop Exercises
Labs
Science Applied Essays

SUPPLEMENTS ■ xv
Acknowledgments
From Andy Friedland . . .
A large number of people have contributed to this
book in a variety of ways. I would like to thank all of
my teachers, students, and colleagues. Professors
Robert Giegengack and Arthur Johnson introduced
me to environmental science as an undergraduate and
a graduate student. My colleagues in the Environmental
Studies Program at Dartmouth have contributed in
numerous ways. I thank Doug Bolger, Michael Dorsey,
Karen Fisher-Vanden, Coleen Fox, Jim Hornig, Rich
Howarth, Ross Jones, Anne Kapuscinski, Karol
Kawiaka, Rosi Kerr, David Mbora, Jill Mikucki, Terry
Osborne, Darren Ranco, Bill Roebuck, Jack Shep-
herd, Chris Sneddon, Scott Stokoe, Ross Virginia, and
D.G. Webster for all sorts of contributions to my
teaching in general and to this book.
In the final draft, four Dartmouth undergraduates
who have taken courses from me, Matt Nichols, Travis
Price, Chris Whitehead, and Elizabeth Wilkerson,
provided excellent editorial, proofreading, and writing
assistance. Many other colleagues have had discussions
with me or evaluated sections of text including Bill
Schlesinger, Ben Carton, Jon Kull, Jeff Schneider,
Jimmy Wu, Colin Calloway, Joel Blum, Leslie Sonder,
Carl Renshaw, Xiahong Feng, Bob Hawley, Meredith
Kelly, Rosi Kerr, Jay Lawrence, Jim Labelle, Tim
Smith, Charlie Sullivan, Jenna Pollock, Jim Kaste,
Carol Folt, Celia Chen, Matt Ayres, Becky Ball, Kathy
Cottingham, Mark McPeek, David Peart, Lisa Adams,
and Richard Waddell. Graduate students and recent
graduate students Andrew Schroth, Lynne Zummo,
Rachel Neurath, and Chelsea Vario also contributed.
Four friends helped me develop the foundation for
this textbook and shared their knowledge of environ-
mental science and writing. I wish to acknowledge
Dana Meadows and Ned Perrin, both of whom have
since passed away, for all sorts of contributions during
the early stages of this work. Terry Tempest Williams
has been a tremendous source of advice and wisdom
about topics environmental, scientific, and practical.
Jack Shepherd contributed a great deal of wisdom
about writing and publishing.
John Winn, Paul Matsudeiro, and Neil Campbell
offered guidance with my introduction to the world of
publishing. Beth Nichols and Tom Corley helped me
learn about the wide variety of environmental science
courses that are being taught in the United States.
A great many people worked with me at or through
W. H. Freeman and provided all kinds of assistance. I
particularly would like to acknowledge Jerry Correa,
xvi ■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Ann Heath, Becky Kohn, Lee Wilcox, Karen Misler,
Cathy Murphy, Hélène de Portu, Beth Howe, and
Debbie Clare. I especially want to thank Lee Wilcox
for art assistance, and much more, including numerous
phone conversations. Thanks also to Bill Minick, Julio
Espin, Christine Buese, and Tracey Kuehn. We were
grateful to David Courard-Hauri for help with the first
edition.
Taylor Hornig, Susan Weisberg, Susan Milord, Carrie
Larabee, Kim Wind, and Lauren Gifford provided edito-
rial, administrative, logistical, and other support.
I’d also like to acknowledge Dick and Janie Pearl
for friendship, and support through the Richard and
Jane Pearl Professorship in Environmental Studies.
Finally, I’d like to thank Katie, Jared, and Ethan
Friedland, and my mother, Selma, for everything.
From Rick Relyea . . .
First and foremost I would like to thank my family—
my wife Christine and my children Isabelle and Wyatt.
Too many nights and weekends were taken from them
and given to this textbook and they never complained.
Their presence and patience continually inspired me to
push forward and complete the project.
Much of the writing coincided with a sabbatical
that I spent in Montpellier, France. I am indebted to
Philippe Jarne and Patrice David for supporting and
funding my time at the Centre d’Ecologie Fonction-
nelle et Evolutive. I am also indebted to many
individuals at my home institution for supporting my
sabbatical, including Graham Hatfull and James
Knapp.
Finally, I would like to thank the many people at W.
H. Freeman who helped guide me through the publica-
tion process and taught me a great deal. As with any
book, a tremendous number of people were responsible,
including many whom I have never even met. I would
especially like to thank Jerry Correa for convincing me
to join this project. I thank Becky Kohn, Karen Misler,
Cathy Murphy, and Lee Wilcox for translating my
words and art ideas into a beautiful final product. Addi-
tional credit goes to Norma Roche and Fred Burns for
their copyediting, and to Debbie Goodsite and Ted
Szczepanski for finding great photos no matter how odd
my request. Thanks also to Bill Minick, Julio Espin,
Christine Buese, and Tracey Kuehn. Finally, I thank
Ann Heath and Beth Howe for ensuring a high-
quality product and the dozens of reviewers who
constantly challenged Andy and me to write a clear,
correct, and philosophically balanced textbook.
Reviewers
We would like to extend our deep appreciation to the following instructors who reviewed the book manuscript
at various stages of development. The content experts who carefully reviewed chapters in their area of expertise
are designated with an asterisk (*).
M. Stephen Ailstock, Anne Arundel Community College
Deniz Z. Altin-Ballero, Georgia Perimeter College
Daphne Babcock, Collin County Community College District
Jay L. Banner, University of Texas at San Antonio
James W. Bartolome, University of California, Berkeley
Brad Basehore, Harrisburg Area Community College
Ray Beiersdorfer, Youngstown State University
Grady Price Blount, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi
Edward M. Brecker, Palm Beach Community College,
Boca Raton
Anne E. Bunnell, East Carolina University
Ingrid C. Burke, Colorado State University
Anya Butt, Central Alabama Community College
John Callewaert, University of Michigan*
Kelly Cartwright, College of Lake County
Mary Kay Cassani, Florida Gulf Coast University
Young D. Choi, Purdue University Calumet
John C. Clausen, University of Connecticut*
Richard K. Clements, Chattanooga State Technical
Community College
Jennifer Cole, Northeastern University
Stephen D. Conrad, Indiana Wesleyan University
Terence H. Cooper, University of Minnesota
Douglas Crawford-Brown, University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill
Wynn W. Cudmore, Chemeketa Community College
Katherine Kao Cushing, San Jose State University
Maxine Dakins, University of Idaho
Robert Dennison, Heartland Community College
Michael Denniston, Georgia Perimeter College
Roman Dial, Alaska Pacific University
Robert Dill, Bergen Community College
Michael L. Draney, University of Wisconsin, Green Bay
Anita I. Drever, University of Wyoming*
James Eames, Loyola University New Orleans
Kathy Evans, Reading Area Community College
Mark Finley, Heartland Community College
Eric J. Fitch, Marietta College
Karen F. Gaines, Northeastern Illinois University
James E. Gawel, University of Washington, Tacoma
Carri Gerber, Ohio State University Agricultural Technical
Institute
Julie Grossman, Saint Mary’s University, Winona Campus
Lonnie J. Guralnick, Roger Williams University
Sue Habeck, Tacoma Community College
Hilary Hamann, Colorado College
Sally R. Harms, Wayne State College
Barbara Harvey, Kirkwood Community College
Floyd Hayes, Pacific Union College
Keith R. Hench, Kirkwood Community College
William Hopkins, Virginia Tech*
Richard Jensen, Hofstra University
Sheryll Jerez, Stephen F. Austin State University
Shane Jones, College of Lake County
Caroline A. Karp, Brown University
Erica Kipp, Pace University, Pleasantville/Briarcliff
Christopher McGrory Klyza, Middlebury College*
Frank T. Kuserk, Moravian College
Matthew Landis, Middlebury College*
Kimberly Largen, George Mason University
Larry L. Lehr, Baylor University
Zhaohui Li, University of Wisconsin, Parkside
Thomas R. MacDonald, University of San Francisco
Robert Stephen Mahoney, Johnson & Wales University
Bryan Mark, Ohio State University, Columbus Campus
Paula J.S. Martin, Juniata College
Robert J. Mason, Tennessee Temple University
Michael R. Mayfield, Ball State University
Alan W. McIntosh, University of Vermont
Kendra K. McLauchlan, Kansas State University*
Patricia R. Menchaca, Mount San Jacinto Community College
Dorothy Merritts, Franklin and Marshall College*
Bram Middeldorp, Minneapolis Community and Technical
College
Tamera Minnick, Mesa State College
Mark Mitch, New England College
Ronald Mossman, Miami Dade College, North
William Nieter, St. John’s University
Mark Oemke, Alma College
Victor Okereke, Morrisville State College
Duke U. Ophori, Montclair State University
Chris Paradise, Davidson College
Clayton A. Penniman, Central Connecticut State University
Christopher G. Peterson, Loyola University Chicago
Craig D. Phelps, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey,
New Brunswick
F. X. Phillips, McNeese State University
Rich Poirot, Vermont Department of Environmental
Conservation*
Bradley R. Reynolds, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga
Amy Rhodes, Smith College*
Marsha Richmond, Wayne State University
Sam Riffell, Mississippi State University
Jennifer S. Rivers, Northeastern Illinois University
Ellison Robinson, Midlands Technical College
Bill D. Roebuck, Dartmouth Medical School*
William J. Rogers, West Texas A&M University
Thomas Rohrer, Central Michigan University
Aldemaro Romero, Arkansas State University
William R. Roy, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Steven Rudnick, University of Massachusetts, Boston
Heather Rueth, Grand Valley State University
Eleanor M. Saboski, University of New England
Seema Sah, Florida International University
Shamili Ajgaonkar Sandiford, College of DuPage
Robert M. Sanford, University of Southern Maine
Nan Schmidt, Pima Community College
Jeffery A. Schneider, State University of New York at Oswego
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ■ xvii
(reviewers continued)
Bruce A. Schulte, Georgia Southern University
Eric Shulenberger, University of Washington
Michael Simpson, Antioch University New England*
Annelle Soponis, Reading Area Community College
Douglas J. Spieles, Denison University
David Steffy, Jacksonville State University
Christiane Stidham, State University of New York at Stony
Brook
Peter F. Strom, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey,
New Brunswick
Kathryn P. Sutherland, University of Georgia
Christopher M. Swan, University of Maryland, Baltimore
County*
Karen Swanson, William Paterson University of New Jersey
xviii ■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Melanie Szulczewski, University of Mary Washington
Donald Thieme, Valdosta State University
Jamey Thompson, Hudson Valley Community College
Tim Tibbets, Monmouth College
John A. Tiedemann, Monmouth University
Conrad Toepfer, Brescia University
Todd Tracy, Northwestern College
Steve Trombulak, Middlebury College
Zhi Wang, California State University, Fresno
Jim White, University of Colorado, Boulder
Rich Wolfson, Middlebury College*
C. Wesley Wood, Auburn University
David T. Wyatt, Sacramento City College

Students Are Engaged When Material
Is Made Relevant and Personal
Human Health Risk
Citizen Scientists
T
he neighborhood of Old Diamond in Norco, Loui-
siana, is composed of four city blocks located
between a chemical plant and an oil refinery,
both owned by the Shell Oil Company. There are
approximately 1,500 residents in the neighbor-
hood, largely lower-income African Americans. In 1973, a pipe-
line explosion blew a house off its foundation and killed two
residents. In 1988, an accident at the refinery killed seven
The unusually high rates of disease raised suspicions that the residents
were being affected by two nearby industrial facilities.
workers and sent more than 70 million kg (159 million pounds)
of potentially toxic chemicals into the air. Nearly one-third of
the children in Old Diamond suffered from asthma and there
were many cases of cancer and birth defects. The unusually
high rates of disease raised suspicions that the residents were
being affected by the two nearby industrial facilities.
By 1989, local resident and middle school teacher Margie
Richard had seen enough. Richard organized the Concerned
Citizens of Norco. The primary goal of the group was to get
Shell to buy the residents’ properties at a fair price so they
could move away from the industries that were putting their
health at risk. Richard contacted environmental scientists and
quickly learned that to make a solid case to the company and
to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), she needed
to be more than an organizer; she also needed to be a scientist.
The residents all knew that the local air had a foul smell,
but they had no way of knowing which chemicals were pres-
ent or their concentrations. To determine whether the air they
were breathing exposed the residents to chemical concentra-
tions that posed a health risk, the air had to be tested. Richard
learned about specially built buckets that could collect air
samples. She organized a “Bucket Brigade” of volunteers and
slowly collected the data she and her collaborators needed.
As a result of these efforts, scientists were able to document
b The citizens of Norco, Louisiana, live in the shadows of chemical
plants and oil refineries. [Mark Ludak/The Image Works]
Chapter Highlights
that the Shell refinery was releasing more than 0.9 million kg
(2 million pounds) of toxic chemicals into the air each year.
The fight against Shell met strong resistance from com-
pany officials and went on for 13 years. But in the end, Margie
Richard won her battle. In 2002, Shell agreed to purchase the
homes of the Old Diamond neighborhood. The company also
agreed to pay an additional $5 million for community devel-
opment and it committed to reducing air emissions from the
refinery by 30 percent to help improve the air quality for those
residents who remained in the area. In 2007, Shell agreed that
it had violated air pollution regulations in several of its Loui-
siana plants and paid the state of Louisiana $6.5 million in
penalties.
For her tremendous efforts in winning the battle in
Norco, Margie Richard was the North American recipient of
the Goldman Environmental Prize, which honors grassroots
environmentalists. Since then, Richard has brought her mes-
sage to many other minority communities located near large
polluting industries. She teaches
people that success requires a
combination of organizing people
to take action to protect their envi-
ronment and learning how to be a
citizen scientist. ■
Sources: The Goldman Environmental
Prize: Margie Richard. http://www
.goldmanprize.org/node/100;
M. Scallan, Shell, DEQ settle emission
charges, Times-Picayune (New Orleans), Margie Richard became
March 15, 2007. http://www.nola.com/ a citizen scientist to
news/t-p/riverparishes/index.ssf?/ help document the
base/news-3/1173941825153360
.xml&coll=1.
health risk of nearby
chemical plants. [Photo
courtesy of Goldman
Environmental Prize]
291
Chapter Opening Case Studies
An intriguing case study launches each chapter and
prompts students to think about how environmental
challenges relate to them.
CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS ■ xix
 Students Are Engaged When Material
Is Made Relevant and Personal (continued)
MEASURE YOUR IMPACT
What is the Impact of Your Diet on Soil Dynamics? In
the landmark 1997 report “Livestock Production: Energy
Inputs and the Environment,” Cornell University ecologist
David Pimentel wrote that feeding grain to cattle con-
sumes more resources than it yields, accelerates soil erosion,
and reduces the supply of food for the world’s people.
Some highlights of the report include the following:
r
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FTUJNBUFE

NJMMJPO
UPOT
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QMBOU
QSPUFJO

is fed to U.S. livestock to produce an estimated 7 mil-
lion tons of animal protein for human consumption.
About 26 million tons of the livestock feed comes
from grains and 15 million tons from forage crops. For
every kilogram of high-quality animal protein pro-
duced, livestock are fed nearly 6 kg of plant protein.
The 7 billion animals consume five times as much
grain as the entire U.S. human population.
r
&WFSZ
LJMPHSBN
PG
CFFG
QSPEVDFE
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of water. Some 900 liters of water go into producing
a kilogram of wheat. Potatoes are even less “thirsty,”
at 500 liters per kilogram.
r
"CPVU

QFSDFOU
PG
64
DSPQMBOE
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UP

erosion at 13 times the rate of soil formation. Soil
loss is most severe in some of the richest farming
areas: Iowa, for example, loses topsoil at 30 times
Local and regional examples make
WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
I
n certain parts of the world, such as
the United States, sanitation regula-
tions impose such high standards on
Is the Water in
household wastewater that we classify Your Toilet Too
relatively clean water from bathtubs
and washing machines as contami- Clean?
nated. This water must then be treated
as sewage. We also use clean, drinkable water to flush
our toilets and water our lawns. Can we combine
these two observations to come up with a way to save
water? One idea that is gaining popularity throughout
the developed world is to reuse some of the water we
normally discard as waste.
This idea has led creative homeowners and plumb-
ers to identify two categories of wastewater in the
home: gray water and contaminated water. Gray water is
defined as the wastewater from baths, showers, bath-
room sinks, and washing machines. Although no one
would want to drink it, gray water is perfectly suitable
for watering lawns and plants, washing cars, and flush-
ing toilets. In contrast, water from toilets, kitchen sinks,
and dishwashers contains a good deal of waste and
contaminants and should therefore be disposed of in
the usual fashion.
Around the world, there are a growing number of
commercial and homemade systems in use for storing
gray water to flush toilets and water lawns or gardens.
For example, a Turkish inventor has designed a house-
hold system allowing the homeowner to pipe wastewa-
ter from the washing machine to a storage tank that
dispenses this gray water into the toilet bowl with each
flush (FIGURE 9.25).
Many cities in Australia have considered the use of gray
water as a way to reduce withdrawals of fresh water and
reduce the volume of contaminated water that requires
treatment.The city of Sydney estimates that 70 percent of
the water withdrawn in the greater metropolitan area is
used in households, and that perhaps 60 percent of that
water becomes gray water.The Sydney Water utility com-
pany estimates that the use of gray water for outdoor
purposes could save up to 50,000 L (13,000 gallons) per
household per year.
Multilevel response questions at the end
of each chapter encourage students to
apply chapter concepts to everyday
situations.
xx ■ CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS
Measure Your Impact
the rate of soil formation. Iowa has lost one-half of
its topsoil in 150 years of farming. That soil took
thousands of years to form.
In the end-of-chapter “Measure Your Impact”
Over the course of 1 week, make a daily record of what
you eat and drink. At the end of the week, answer the fol-
exercises, students calculate and answer
lowing questions:
(a) Evaluate the components of your diet for the
problem scenarios to assess their
week. How many portions of animal protein did
you eat each day?
environmental impact and make informed
(b) Most agricultural fields receive inputs of
phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium, which are decisions.
usually obtained by mining rocks containing those
elements, grinding them up, and adding them to
fertilizers. Assess the likely impact of this practice on
the demand for certain rocks and on soil dynamics.
(c) Describe changes you could make to your diet to
minimize the impacts you cited above.
(d) How do you think your diet would compare to
that of a person in a developing country? How
would their ecological footprint compare to
yours? Hint: You may have to draw upon
previous chapters you have read as well as this South Dakota Wyoming
South Dakota
chapter to answer this question. Wyoming
Nebraska
Nebraska
Kansas
Colorado
Numerous U.S. Examples Colorado Kansas
New
Oklahoma
Mexico
the material relevant. Oklahoma Texas
Water-level change 200 km
New Mexico in meters
Saturated thickness
More than 45
of Ogallala aquifer in meters
30 to 45 (b)
15 to 30 Less than 60
7 to 15 60 to 180
Texas 3 to 7 More than 180 (as much as
370 in some places)
–3 to +3
3 to 7
200 km 7 to 15
More than 15
Unfortunately, many local and state (a)
regulations in the United States and
around the world do not allow use of
FIGURE 9.4 The Ogallala aquifer. The Ogallala aquifer, also called the High Plains aquifer,
is the largest in the United States, with a surface area of about 450,000 km2 (174,000 miles2).
gray water. Some localities allow the (a) The change in water level from 1950 to 2005, mostly due to withdrawals for irrigation that
use of gray water only if it is treated, have exceeded the aquifer’s rate of recharge. (b) The current thickness of the aquifer.
filtered, or delivered to lawns and gar-
dens through underground drip irri-
gation systems to avoid potential bacterial contamination.
Arizona, a state in the arid Southwest, has some of the
least restrictive regulations. As long as a number of
guidelines are followed, homeowners are permitted to
reuse gray water. In 2009, in the face of a severe water
shortage, California reversed earlier restrictions on gray
Working Toward Sustainability
At the end of each chapter, students are
inspired by a success story that focuses on
how environmental problems are being
addressed by individual action.
FIGURE 9.25 Reusing gray water. A Turkish inventor has
designed a washing machine that pipes the relatively clean
water left over from a washing machine, termed gray water, to
a toilet, where it can be reused for flushing. Such technologies
can reduce the amount of drinkable water used and the volume
of water going into sewage treatment plants. [Sevin Coskun]
APPLY THE CONCEPTS
Apply the Concepts
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has developed (a) Identify two major sources of mercury pollution
guidelines for the consumption of canned tuna fish. These and one means of controlling mercury pollution.
guidelines were developed particularly for children, preg- (b) Explain how mercury is altered and finds its way
nant women, or women who were planning to become into albacore tuna fish.
pregnant, because mercury poses the most serious threat (c) Identify two health effects of methylmercury on
to these segments of society. However, the guidelines can humans.
be useful for everyone.
 Students Identify and Master Key Ideas
Using In-Chapter Pedagogy
Understand the Key Ideas
Humans are dependent on Earth’s air, water, and soil for our
existence. However, we have altered the planet in many
ways, large and small. The study of environmental science
can help us understand how humans have changed the
planet and identify ways of responding to those changes.
After reading this chapter you should be able to
■ define the field of environmental science and discuss its
importance.
■ identify ways in which humans have altered and
continue to alter our environment.
p p g p
GAUGE YOUR PROGRESS
✓ What is the scientific method, and how do
scientists use it to address environmental
problems?
✓ What is a hypothesis? What is a null hypothesis?
✓ How are controlled and natural experiments
different? Why do we need each type?
■ describe key environmental indicators that help us
evaluate the health of the planet.
■ define sustainability and explain how it can be
measured using the ecological footprint.
■ explain the scientific method and its application to the
study of environmental problems.
■ describe some of the unique challenges and limitations
of environmental science.
Revisit the Key Ideas
■ Define the field of environmental science and discuss
its importance.
Environmental science is the study of the interactions
among human-dominated systems and natural systems
and how those interactions affect environments. Studying
environmental science helps us identify, understand, and
respond to anthropogenic changes.
■ Identify ways in which humans have altered and
continue to alter our environment.
The impact of humans on natural systems has been
significant since early humans hunted some large animal
species to extinction. However, technology and population
growth have dramatically increased both the rate and the
scale of human-induced change.
■ Describe key environmental indicators that help us
evaluate the health of the planet.
Five important global-scale environmental indicators are
biological diversity, food production, average global
surface temperature and atmospheric CO2 concentrations,
human population, and resource depletion.
■ Define sustainability and explain how it can be
measured using the ecological footprint.
Sustainability is the use of Earth’s resources to meet our
current needs without jeopardizing the ability of future
Gauge Your Progress
The questions in the “Gauge Your
Progress” feature, found at the end of
each major section in the chapter, help
students master one set of concepts
before moving on to the next.
Understand the Key Ideas/
Revisit the Key Ideas
“Key Ideas,” introduced at the
beginning of each chapter and
revisited at the end, provide a
framework for learning and help
students test their
comprehension of the chapter
material.
generations to meet their own needs. The ecological
footprint is the land area required to support a person’s
(or a country’s) lifestyle. We can use that information to
say something about how sustainable that lifestyle would
be if it were adopted globally.
■ Explain the scientific method and its application to the
study of environmental problems.
The scientific method is a process of observation,
hypothesis generation, data collection, analysis of results,
and dissemination of findings. Repetition of measurements
or experiments is critical if one is to determine the validity
of findings. Hypotheses are tested and often modified
before being accepted.
■ Describe some of the unique challenges and limitations
of environmental science.
We lack an undisturbed “control planet” with which to
compare conditions on Earth today. Assessments and
choices are often subjective because there is no single
measure of environmental quality. Environmental systems
are so complex that they are poorly understood, and
human preferences and policies may have as much of an
effect on them as natural laws.
CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS ■ xxi
 Students Visualize the Concepts
Using Art as a Learning Tool

Instructive Art and Photo Program

(a) Random distribution
The text uses visuals to make complex
ideas accessible. The illustration program
includes fully integrated teaching captions
to help students understand and remember
important concepts.

(b) Uniform distribution

(c) Clumped distribution

FIGURE 4.13 Population distributions. Populations in nature

distribute themselves in three ways. (a) Many of the tree species
in this New England forest are randomly distributed, with no
apparent pattern in the locations of individuals. (b) Territorial
nesting birds, such as these Australasian gannets (Morus
serrator), exhibit a uniform distribution, in which all individuals
maintain a similar distance from one another. (c) Many pairs of
eyes are better than one at detecting approaching predators.
The clumped distribution of these meerkats (Suricata suricatta)
provides them with extra protection. [a: David R. Frazier
Photolibrary, Inc./Science Source; b: Michael Thompson/Earth
Scenes/Animals Animals; c: Clem Haagner/ARDEA]

Beech and maple

Aspen, cherry, broadleaf forest
Perennial Shrubs and young pine
Annual forest
Lichens weeds and
weeds
Exposed and grasses
rocks mosses
Time

FIGURE 4.21 Primary succession. Primary succession occurs in areas devoid of soil.
Early-arriving plants and algae can colonize bare rock and begin to form soil, making the
site more hospitable for other species to colonize later. Over time, a series of distinct
communities develops. In this illustration, representing an area in New England, bare rock
is initially colonized by lichens and mosses and later by grasses, shrubs, and trees.

xxii ■ CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

ESSENTIALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
SECOND EDITION
 1
C H A P T E R
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
418
“So art, whether it be painting or sculpture, poetry or music,
has no other object than to brush aside the utilitarian symbols,
the conventional and socially accepted generalities, in short,
everything that veils reality from us, in order to bring us face to
face with reality itself” (Laughter, p. 157). It is true that if we
read further on this page, and elsewhere in Bergson, we will be
able to see that there is for him in art and in the spiritual life a
kind of intelligence and knowledge. But it is difficult to work out
an expression or a characterisation of this intelligence and this
knowledge. “Art,” he says, “is only a more direct vision of
reality.” And again: “Realism is in the work when idealism is in
the soul, and it is only through ideality that we can resume
contact with reality” (ibid.).
419
It is only fair to Bergson to remember that he is himself aware
of the appearances of this dualism in his writings, that he
apologises as it were for them, intending the distinction to be,
not absolute, but relative. “Let us say at the outset that the
distinctions we are going to make will be too sharply drawn,
just because we wish to define in instinct what is instinctive,
and in intelligence what is intelligent, whereas all concrete
instinct is mingled with intelligence, as all real intelligence is
penetrated by instinct. Moreover [this is quite an important
expression of Bergson’s objection to the old “faculty”
psychology], neither intelligence nor instinct lends itself to rigid
definition; they are tendencies and not things. Also it must not
be forgotten that ... we are considering intelligence and instinct
as going out of life which deposits them along its course”
(Creative Evolution, p. 143).
420
He talks in the Creative Evolution of a “real time” and a “pure
duration” of a real duration that “bites” into things and leaves
on them the mark of its tooth, of a “ceaseless upspringing of
something new,” of “our progress in pure duration,” or a
“movement which creates at once the intellectuality of mind
and the materiality of things” (p. 217). I have no hesitation in
saying that all this is unthinkable to me, and that it might
 indeed be criticised by Rationalism as inconsistent with our
highest and most real view of things.
421
He admits himself that “If our analysis is correct, it is
consciousness, or rather supra-consciousness that is at the
origin of life” (Creative Evolution, p. 275).
422
“Now, if the same kind of action is going on everywhere,
whether it is that which is striving to remake itself, I simply
express this probable similitude when I speak of a centre from
which worlds shoot out as rockets in a fireworks display—
provided, however, that I do not present [there is a great idea
here, a true piece of ‘Kantianism’] this centre as a thing, but as
a continuity of shooting out. God thus defined has nothing of
the already made. He is unceasing life, action, freedom.
Creation so conceived is not a mystery; we experience it in
ourselves when we act freely” (Creative Evolution, p. 262).
423
See p. 155, note 1.
424
It is somewhat difficult, and it is not necessary for our
purposes, to explain what might be meant by the “Idealism” of
Bergson—at least in the sense of a cosmology, a theory of the
“real.” It is claimed for him, and he claims for himself that he is
in a sense both an “idealist” and a “realist,” believing at once
(1) that matter is an “abstraction” (an unreality), and (2) that
there is more in matter than the qualities revealed by our
perceptions. [We must remember that he objects to the idea of
qualities in things in the old static sense. “There are no things;
there are only actions.”] What we might mean by his initial
idealism is the following: “Matter, in our view, is an aggregate
of images. And by ‘image’ we mean [Matter and Memory, the
Introduction] a certain existence which is more than that which
the idealist calls a representation, but less than that which the
realist calls a thing—an existence placed half-way between the
‘thing’ and the ‘representation.’ This conception of matter is
simply that of common sense.” ... “For common sense, then,
the object exists in itself, and, on the other hand, the object is
 in itself pictorial, as we perceive it: image it is, but a self-
existing image.” Now, this very idea of a “self-existing image”
implies to me the whole idealism of philosophy, and Bergson is
not free of it. And, of course, as we have surely seen, his
“creative-evolution” philosophy is a stupendous piece of
idealism, but an idealism moreover to which the science of the
day is also inclining.
425
There is so much that is positive and valuable in his teaching,
that he is but little affected by formal criticism.
426
Cf. “We have now enumerated a few of the essential features
of human intelligence. But we have hitherto considered the
individual in isolation, without taking account of social life. In
reality man is a being who lives in society. If it be true [even]
that the human intellect aims at fabrication, we must add that,
for that as well as other purposes, it is associated with other
intellects. Now it is difficult to imagine a society whose
members do not communicate by signs,” etc. etc. (Creative
Evolution, p. 166). Indeed all readers of Bergson know that he
is constantly making use of the social factor and of “co-
operation” by way of accounting for the general advance of
mankind. It may be appropriate in this same connexion to cite
the magnificent passage towards the close of Creative
Evolution in which he rises to the very heights of the idea
[Schopenhauer and Hartmann had it before him, and also
before the socialists and the collectivists] of humanity’s being
possibly able to surmount even the greatest of the obstacles
that beset it in its onward path: “As the smallest grain of dust
[Creative Evolution, pp. 285–6] is bound up with our entire
solar system, drawn along with it in that undivided movement
of descent which is materiality itself, so all organised beings,
from the humblest to the highest, ... do but evidence a single
impulsion, the inverse of the movement of matter, and in itself
indivisible. All the living hold together, and all yield to the same
tremendous push. The animal takes its stand on the plant, man
bestrides animality, and the whole of humanity, in space and in
time, is one immense army galloping beside and before and
 behind each of us in an overwhelming charge to beat down
every resistance and clear the most formidable obstacles,
perhaps even death.”
427
Cf. p. 160 and p. 262.
428
He comes in sight of some of them, as he often does of so
many things. “It is as if a vague and formless being, whom we
may call, as we will [C.E., p. 281], man or superman, had
sought to realise himself, and had succeeded only by
abandoning a part of himself on the way. The losses are
represented by the rest of the animal world, and even by the
vegetable world, at least in what these have that is positive
and above the accidents of evolution.”
429
From what has been said in this chapter about Bergson, and
from the remarks that were made in the second chapter about
Renouvier and the French Critical Philosophy, the reader may
perhaps be willing to admit that our Anglo-American
Transcendental philosophy would perhaps not have been so
abstract and so rationalistic had it devoted more attention, than
it has evidently given, to some of the more representative
French thinkers of the nineteenth century.
430
We must remember that nowhere in his writings does Bergson
claim any great originality for his many illuminative points of
view. He is at once far too much of a catholic scholar (in the
matter of the history of philosophy, say), and far too much of a
scientist (a man in living touch with the realities and the
theories of the science of the day) for this. His findings about
life and mind are the outcome of a broad study of the
considerations of science and of history and of criticism. By
way, for example, of a quotation from a scientific work upon
biology that seems to me to reveal some apparent basis in fact
(as seen by naturalists) for the “creative evolution” upon which
Bergson bases his philosophy, I append the following: “We
have gone far enough to see that the development of an
organism from an egg is a truly wonderful process. We need
 but go back again and look at the marvellous simplicity of the
egg to be convinced of it. Not only do cells differentiate, but
cell-groups act together like well-drilled battalions, cleaving
apart here, fusing together there, forming protective coverings
or communicating channels, apparently creating out of nothing,
a whole set of nutritive and reproductive organs, all in orderly
and progressive sequence, producing in the end that orderly
disposed cell aggregate, that individual life unit which we know
as an earthworm. Although the forces involved are beyond our
ken, the grosser processes are evident” (Needham, General
Biology, p. 175; italics mine). Of course it is evident from his
books that Bergson does not take much account of such
difficult facts and topics as the mistakes of instinct, etc. And I
have just spoken of his optimistic avoidance of some of the
deeper problems of the moral and spiritual life of man.
431
“This amounts to saying that the theory of knowledge and
theory of life seem to us inseparable [Creative Evolution, p.
xiii.; italics Bergson’s]. A theory of life that is not accompanied
by a criticism of knowledge is obliged to accept, as they stand,
the concepts which the understanding puts at its disposal: it
can but enclose the facts, willing or not, in pre-existing frames
which it regards as ultimate. It thus obtains a symbolism which
is convenient, perhaps even necessary to positive science, but
not a direct vision of its object.”
432
I more than agree with Bergson that our whole modern
philosophy since Descartes has been unduly influenced by
physics and mathematics. And I deplore the fact that the “New
Realism” which has come upon us by way of a reaction (see p.
53) from the subjectivism of Pragmatism, should be travelling
apparently in this backward direction—away, to say the very
least, from some of the things clearly seen even by biologists
and psychologists. See p. 144.
433
As I have indicated in my Preface, I am certainly the last
person in the world to affect to disparage the importance of the
thin end of the wedge of Critical Idealism introduced into the
English-speaking world by Green and the Cairds, and their first
followers (like the writers in the old Seth-Haldane, Essays on
Philosophical Criticism). Their theory of knowledge, or
“epistemology,” was simply everything to the impoverished
condition of our philosophy at the time, but, as Bergson points
out, it still left many of us [the fault perhaps was our own, to
some extent] in the position of “taking” the scientific reading of
the world as so far true, and of thinking that we had done well
in philosophy when we simply partly “transformed” it. The really
important thing was to see with this epistemology that the
scientific reading of the world is not in any sense initial “fact”
for philosophy.
 INDEX

Absolutism, 13, chap. viii.

Action, 91 n., 105, chap. iv.
Activity-Experience, 105, 109
Alexander, S., 163
Anti-Intellectualism, 73, 239
Appearance and Reality, 84
Arcesilaus, 155
Aristotle, 155
Armstrong (Prof.), 49 n.
Attention, 119
Augustine, 107
Avenarius, 41

Bain, 120
Baldwin, J. M., 156, 110 n.
Bawden (Prof.), 17, 85
Belief, 64, 65, 229 n., 251
Bergson, 72, 104, 126
Berthelot, 117
Blondel, 32, 34
Bosanquet, B., 110, 185, chap. viii.
Bourdeau, 26, 133 n., 193
Boyce-Gibson (Prof.), 154
Bradley, F. H., 74, 75, 91
Browning, R., 117
Brunschvig, 30
Bryce, James, 193
Butler, 119

Caird, E., 112

Carlyle, 125
Chesterton, W. K., 117, 156
Cohen, 48 n.
Common-sense Beliefs, 7
Common-sense Philosophy, 117
Comte, 120
Contemplation, 96
Cornford, 184
Curtis (Prof. M. M.), 22

Dawes-Hicks (Prof.), 163

De Maistre, 170
Descartes, 66, 121
Desjardins, P., 37
Dewey, J., 16, 17, 37, 62, 147, 173, 175
Du Bois Reymond, 110
Duncan (Prof.), 122
Duns Scotus, 119

Eleutheropulos, 43
Elliot, H. S. R., 66
Epicureanism, 118
Eucken, 39, 154
Ewald (Dr.), 44, 48

Flournoy, 180
Fouillée, 37 n.
Fraser, A. C., 112
Futurism, 26

Geddes, P., 123

Goethe, 195, 215
Gordon, A., 152–3
Green, T. H., 199
Gregory (Prof.), 24

Inge (Dean), 29, 31

Invention, 192

James, W., 3, 4, 24, 35, 39, 45, 50, 65, 135, 182, 192 n.
Jerusalem, W., 43
Joachim, 56
Jones, Sir H., 56
Joseph, 57

Kant, 119, 121, 247

Kant and Hegel, 183
Knox (Capt.), 15

Lalande, A., 29, 33, 164

Lankester (Sir R.), 167
Lecky, 70
Leighton (Prof.), 133
Le Roy, 31
Locke, 61, 119
Lovejoy (Prof.), 49

MacEachran (Prof.), 49 n.
Mach, 40
Mackenzie, J. S., 112
Maeterlinck, 90
Mallarmé, 214
Marett, 160
Mastermann, G. F. G., 118
M’Dougall, 104
McTaggart, J. M. E., 92
Meaning, 21, 51, 149
Mellone, 57
Merz, 157
Münsterberg, 46

Natorp, 48
Needham (Prof.), 101, 260
New Realism, 53
Nietzsche, 118, 139, 151

Ostwald, 40, 41

Pace (Prof.), 187

Paleyism, 247
Papini, 24, 135
Pascal, 119
Pater, W., 124
Peirce, 3, 22
Perry (Prof.), 53, 185
Perry, Bliss, 171, 179
Plato, 57, 61, 121, 150, 151
Pluralism, 87
Poincaré, 30
Pradines, 36 n.
Pragmatism, and American philosophy, 49, chap. vii.;
and British thought, 54;
and French thought, 28;
and German thought, 38;
and Italian thought, 23;
 a democratic doctrine, 105;
its ethics, 136;
its pluralism, 162;
its sociological character, 164, 262;
its theory of knowledge, 131;
its theory of truth, 127;
its theory of reality, 135
Pratt (Prof.), 51, 127

Radical Empiricism, 85
Renan, 110
Renouvier, 29
Rey, 31
Riley, W., 26 n.
Ritzsche, 45
Royce, J., 54
Russell, B., 61, 66 n., 169

Santayana, 171, 181, 190

Schellwien, 44
Schiller, F. C. S., 12, 14, 16, 132, 133
Schinz, 192 n.
Schopenhauer, 28, 119, 151, 260
Seth, James, 14 n.
Seth-Haldane, 260
Shaw, Bernard, 124
Sidgwick, H., 56, 118, 119 n., 140
Sigwart, 42
Simmel, 44
Spencer, 41 n.
Starbuck, 28
Stoicism, 118
Stout, G. F., 55
Subjective Idealism, 259

Taylor, A. E., 57, 77, 78, 199 n., 219

Teleology, 88, 198
Tertullian, 119
Theism, 215 n.
Themistius, 155
Thompson, J. H., 144
Titchener, 157
Truth, 59, 81, 163
Tufts, 147
Tyndall, 110

Vaihinger, 39

Walker, L. J., 31
Ward, James, 30, 55, 143, 162
Wells, H. G., 123
Westermarck, 145
Windelband, 46, 150
Wollaston, 224

Printed by R. & R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh.

 Transcriber’s Notes
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