4 cCARBOHYDRATES

Introduction
Nature, Composition and Classification0
10 0Eos) obiedatzetaa

Food Sources
Utilisation in the bodytA (Yneqetiizoiosneyioq bollso o o
Regulation of blood sugarlaaod eaballo aogoda eiseob
Recommended Dietary Allowances0bth geloil alnoeolkoldsl
Clinical Problems
Dietary Fibreuspidaaceib bns onom obuloni olubiods lea
Classification and Sources
Physiological Properties
Role in Health and Disease
Some problems due to high fibre diets
Sugar substitutes od
Study Ouestionshmpst oi 3o iso to

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter we will consider carbohydrates, the primary fuel for our body.
Can you imagine ameal without rice, chapati or some other cercal preparation?
No. Rice,wheat and other grains are an important part of each of our meal
everyday. Thus cereals are our staple food. In the Indian dietary, about 65 to 80
per cent energy is provided by carbohydrates.
There are practical reasons for the universal use of carbohydrates in diets.
The yieldof cereals, the primary source of carbohydrates, is high per unit area.
Therefore, they are widely available and are an economic source of energy.
They are easily packed and have a long shelf-life in dry storage. They are mild
flavoured and combine well with other foods. Carbohydrate foods are easy to
prepare.
Let us consider the nature, composition, properties, functions, food sources.
utilisation, requirement, and erect of deficiency of carbohydrates,
 46 Fundamentals of Foods and Nutrition

NATURE, COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION

Carbohydrates are synthesised by all green plants using
from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air. solar
importanceworld.enery,Wa
photosynthesis,the prefix photo indicates the This complex
process. Plants are thus the primary process
of
Carbohydrates contain carbon,
source of food in the sunlight
indicates that water and oxygen occur hydrogen and oxygen. The
in the
same proportion assuffix
The members of the
simplest class of
in
a water.
hydra,
saccharidecarbohydratecontaining).
s single
monosaccharide
(mono
an cxample of this class.
or one, or sugar
have
Thc unit
1oform achain.
(malt sugar) are Cane or beet
disaccharides
sugar (sucrose),contain two sugars linked i Glucose
of sugars are members of this class.
milk sugar
(lactose), and maltoss togethe:
called
polysaccharides Carbohydrates
dextrins, glycogen, cellulose, (poly many). Anong long chain
lages.Table 4.1 presents the
made up,of
them are starch.
nature. hemicelluloses, pectins,
types and sources of plant gums and muci.
Simple carbohydrates
include
carbohydrat es occurring in
molecules,
In contrast, which dissolve in watermono- and
and
dis
are absorbed acchari des. These are small
starches
taining several hundred small and very
dietary fibres are very large, quickly in the body.
polbersysacchar id es are sugar units and are complex molecules, con
of each of referred as complex to absorbed slowly. Therefore
these classes carbohydrat e s.
hemi
way ctheseellulounitsses, lignin) differ in (starch,
the pectins, gums,
are united in the type of small units mucilages, cellulose,
Individual mem
molecule. they contain and in the
corn Glucose, the most
common
is syrup.inAfter absorption of food it monosaccharide, is
present in honey, fruits and
present blood as an easily is
Sucrose is the ordinary sugaravailable tsource ransportofedenergy
through blood and hence
beverages and fo0d
table. it is mainly available in the
preparat
manufact u io ns as a
sweetener, grocery store and used in
ltredis also cane sugar in the
in the from As you
temperate
vegetfructose
ables. Sucrose regions. can note fron the
tropics and sugar beets
by action onhydrolysed to present
and is in
citric acid from fruits). digestive cnzymes
a
mixture ofmolasses,
equal honey, truits and
sugar and it is used in This mixture of glucosewhen
or
boiledamounts
with
of glucose
preparation of candies and fructose is acid (such as
Maltose does not and called
nature. Iticings. invert
of occur free formin
in
grains or in digestion of starch by is formed
action enzymes. It during
molecules. Lactose is the sugar in milk. of
It yields contains
and two
glucose sprout
galactose glu ing
cose
on hy-
 Carbohydrates 47

Table 4.1: Forms and Sources of Carbohydrates

Carbohvdrates Main Food Sources Remarks

Polysaccharides
Cellulose & hemi-Celluloses Stalks &leaves of vegetables Indigestible
Outer covering of sceds Indigestible
Pectins Friuts Indigestible
Gums & mucilages Plant secretions & seed exudatcs Indigestible
Starch & dextrins Grains. legumes &tubers Digestible
Meats & seafood Digestible
Glycogen
Disaccharides
Cane & beet sugar, mollasses Digestible
Sucrose
Lactosew2a00 10bea Milk &milk productsd oawe 10 S Digestible
Maltosedaot o aMalt products, some breakfast cereals Digestible
MonosaccharidesRy E 2 22tle -oilw
Fruits, honey, con syrup Digestible
Glucose
Digestible
Fructose Fruits, honey

sucrose and maltose and less sweet

drolysis by lactase. It is less soluble than
insufficiency, can1not utilise lactose
than glucose. Persons, who have lactase
hence have to restrict their intake of milk and milk products. Children,
and
without the liver enzyme lactase, cannot digest milk and have to
who are born
be fed soya milk instead.ssM9lEVe OVan atngs nt bia a
Starch is found in cereal grains,legumes and in tubers. Glycogen is found in
polysaccharides.
meats and seafood. These are digestible
mucilages are indigestible
Cellulose and hemicelluloses, pectins, gums and leaves of vegetables and
polysaccharides.Celluloses are found in stalks and
present in fruits and gums and mucilages
outer coverings of seeds. Pectins are
are part of plant exudates and seeds.

PROPERTIES
taste and are hygroscopic(absorb wa
Sugars are soluble in water, are sweet to
hygroscopic, they need to be stored in air
ter from the atmosphere). As they are
containers. Sugars vary in their solubility in water;sucrose is more soluble
ight Fruc
glucose. Carbohydrates, can be ranked according to their swectness.
than soluble sugar. It isfollowed by
sucrose, glu
tose is the sweetest and the most
48 " Fundamentals of Foods and Nutrition

Table 4.2: Comparative Sweetness of Sugars

Sugar Sweetness Value
Fructose 173

Invert sugar 130

Sucrose 100
Glucose e 74

Galactose n 32
Maltose etS32
Lactose 16

COse, dextrin and lactose, The

Table 4.2. relative sweetness of sugars is
indicated in
Starches are not sweet. but bland in
tures it becomes less sweet as flavour. Tender corn is sweet, as it ma
tain starch, which sugars are converted to starch.
changes to sugars during the Raw fruits con
development of sweet taste. ripening process with
FUNCTIONS
Carbohydrates have many inmportant
1. The
primary function of functions in theinbody:
energy. Each gramme of carbohydrates the body is to supply
kcal/g. Carbohydrates arecarbohydrate,
a source of
as starch or
sugar, provides 4
al9is needed for physical activities as alsoreadily
the available energy, which
brain and the central work of the
h supply of glucose fromnervous
the system are dependent onbody the
cells. The
2. blood to meet their constant
energy
sldiheeo Carbohydrates
act also as reserve fuel needs.
glycogen, stored in muscles and liver. The supply in the form of
the body is over 300g. But it must total amount of
be
maintained by glycogen
carbohydrates frequent intervals, so that the regular intake of
at
in

3.
protein tissue is prevented. breakdown of fat and
Carbohydratesserve other special functions
in the
hydrates provide chemical framework, body. Carbo-
nitrogen to synthesise non-essential amino which
acids incombine with the
4. Carbohydrates and their derivatives work as the body.
metabolic compounds. These include nucleicprecursors of
connective tissue and galactosides of nerve tissue.acids, the important
matrix of
 ocbieCarbolydrates 49

5. Lactose, the milk sugar, provides galactose needed for brain

development. It aids absorption of calcium and phosphorus, thus
helping bone growth and maintenance.
6. Lactose forms lactic acid in the intestinal track duc to the action of the
bacteria (lactobacilli) present there. These lactobacilli synthesise
some of the B-complex vitamins. It aids, bacteria (lactobacilli)present
to suppress the activities of putrefactive bacteria and protects us from
their undesirable effects.
7. Carbohydrates are an important part of some compounds, which
increase our resistance to infection (immunopolysaccharídes).RNA.
Ribose, a five carbon sugar, is an essential part of DNAand
Carbohydrates are a part of important compounds, which are
valve, cartilage,
components of nervous tissue (galactolipid), heart
bone and skin (chondroitin sulfate).
complete normal metabolism
8. Carbohydrates are needed for ensuring
of fats, thus preventing acidosis.
dehydration. Alow carbohydrate
9. Carbohydrates are needed to prevent electrolytes (especially
as also
diet causes loss of water from tissues
urine and can lead to involuntary
sodium and potassium) in the
dehydration. smooth
Dietary fibre acts like a sponge and absorbs water. It helps bulky
10. the digestive tract and the soft,
movement of food waste through
eliminated.
stools are comfortably
FOOD SOURCES
plants and occur in several forms. Starch is
Carbohydrates are synthesised by and roots and tubers. These foods are
and legumes)
found in plant seeds (cereals the human dietary (Table 4.3).9o 2owe bae
in
the primary energy sources carbohydrate in the forn of cereals, dals and
The intake of complex is sufficient. Cercals, which are the staple
dietary
legumes, in normal Indian major part ofthe energy and proteins,
and
dietary, contribute significant amounts of
food in the Indian Dals and legumes provide
some minerals and vitamins. addition toenergy. Potatoes, yams, jackfruit
B-vitamins, in
proteins, iron and
in the diet. Vegetables and fruits provide dietary
are good sourceof starch Milk is the only animal food, which is the source
fibre, minerals and vitamins. inthe diet.
important sugar lactose
of avery
snites0L9ilh tol a d t iguortboold odloini vluinr
t botrino lbes
50 Fundamentals of Foods and Nutrition

Table 4.3: Carbohydrate Content of Foodste

Food Carbohydrate

Rice, rice flakes, rawa,

g100 g
75-78
ghnit Calorieshunit
B opao 86-88
vermicelli, etc.
Wheat flour (atta), jowar 69-72L0oity17-18
O2210 82-87
Dals. 58-60
adt15eabni 84-87
Tapoica or cassava iu 38tt s 19odhe 80
Banana*
Potato, colocasia, chiku, peas.16-22 8-11l S0 40-49
yam, jackfruit
Mango
Orange, guava, pear, apple,
carrot, onion, clusterbeanstii7-13 3-6 24-30
Leafy and other vegetables bshpunst0Ds
Milk 1-4-s 6-17
Sugar KDsn7jibdpc 100
100
* One banana has 20
about 80 g edible portion.

Sugars arefound fruits; the

in
rus fruits and guava percentage
is about three in
and seventeen in
food as they are a dilute mango. Thus truits are anmnelons, ten in cit
source of excellent snack
Sugars found in plant sap or juicequick energy and other nutrients.
give pure 100 per cent
sugar. It (sugar-cane and beetroot) is extracted to
energy. The intake of foods highmust
in
be used
Ijuudi ciously , as it
and sweets needs to be added
controlled to avoid sugars, such as soft provides only
obesity. drinks, syrups
UTILISATION IN THE BODY
Starch is partly hydrolysed by ptyalin
dextrose and maltose. Starch and (salivary
dextrose are further amylase)
in the
amylase in the small intestine. Maltose,
sucrose mouth to
hydrolysed
to
are furthermaltose by
and
down to glucose, fructose and galactose
(simple lactose
sugar units) by the
maltase, sucrase and lactase.
broken
The glucose formed by the digestion of the
mainly into the blood through the walls of the starch and sugar is
enzymes
The glucose thus absorbed helps to maintain theintestine and carried to
glucose level in the absor
l
blood andib
v ed
er.
the
 od Carbohydrates " 51
olvcogen stores in the muscle and the liver. Whenever we need energy,the gly
eogen is broken down to glucose which is oxidised and the energy
used by the body. Any excess glycogen is converted to fat. produced is

REGULATION OF BLOOD SUGAR

Liver glycogen is continually converted to glucose and diffuses into the blood
to replace the blood glucose uscd up by the tissues.Muscle glycogen is used for
energy by the muscles. Only when muscle glycogen is oxidised to lactic acid,
the lactic acid is carried to liver and converted to glucose and glycogen.
In normal persons, the blood sugar level is maintained at a constant level,
which is 70 to 100 mg per 100 ml, under fasting conditions. Anumber of hor
mones regulate the reactions, and ensure the maintenance of normal blood
sugar level. These hormones are insulin, glucagon, epinephrine,
1d1lotant ot
giuco
corticoids, thyroxine and growth hormones.wo ola

RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCEbt tisie

minimum of 100g carbohydratesare needed in the diet to cnsure the efficient
A
carbohydrate
Oxidation of fats. Most diets supply more than this amount. If theconverted into
excess is
foods are consumed in excess of the body's nced, the
has been fixed for carbohy
fat and is stored as reserve. No daily allowance supplies up to 80per cent
drates. As it is the cheapest source of food energy, it
the proteins' supply about 10 per
of thecalories in the low cost diets in India. If
carbohydrates must supply the remain
cent of the calories, fat 20 per cent, then
ing 70 per cent calories.pbnsueilbs bis hllooieoil obplnia ob

CLINICAL PROBLEMS
sweets, mithais,candy, soft drinks,etc., in ex
Obesity: It is very easy to take swectscontain a lot of fat also,which is a
these
cess of one'sneeds. Most of the energy intake exceeds expenditure,
concentrated sourceof calories. When
Over a period of time, overweight and obesity can
the excess is deposited as fat. predisposing factor for a number of health prob
a
OcCur. Obesity is known to be
lead to
lems.
remains in contact with the tecth, it tends to
Dental caries: If sugar nay lead to dental caries. Chewy sweets
checked, it taught
tooth decay. If it is not teeth for long periods, unless children are
with
tend to remain in contact after eating candy, as also food.
to rinse their mouth thoroughly
52 " Fundamentals of Foods and Nutrition

DEFICIENCY

If lessthan required amount of carbohydrates is consumed the

body
its own fat andthen its tissue proteins for heat and energy. To prevent First burta
diet mustsupply therequired amount of carbohydrates ihis dal
DIETARY FIBRE
Cellulose, hemi-cellulose and pectins which are
regularlylAO
fruits, coverings of seeds and the structural parts ofcomponents of the skins.
edible plants
ferred to as 'Fibre. Cellulose is not are
soluble
occur in ripe fruits have the ability to in hot or cold water.
Pectinsusually
re
whit
erty of pectins is made use of in the absorb water and to from gels.
The structural parts of
This
preparation of jams and jellies. prop-
man intestinal tract are plants, which are not digested by enzymes in the
known as dietary fibres. E
hu
Classification and Sources: Dietary fibre includes: Vdoat
(i) Structural parts of
lignin), which are notplant cell walls
soluble in (cellulose, hemi-celluloseand
Water insoluble fibres are water, are classed as
nuts and vegetables. found in whole wheat, insoluble fibre.
(ii) Viscous plant
wheat bran, seeds,
and mucilages.fibres are soluble in water. These include
Soluble fibres are found in
legumes and beans. fruits, oatpectins, gums
and barley,
Functions: The human body does not have
down cellulose,
body.However, in view of theirand pectins and enzymes
hemi-cellulose so fibre iscapable of breaking
not digested in the
stances serve a useful ability to absorb
water,
wastes. They stimulate purpose
the
in helping with
the these indigestible sub
testinal tract by adding bulkperistalitic
to the (rhythmic) elimination of intestinal
Theinsoluble fibre intestinal
necds chewing and may
movements
contents.
of the
gastroin
Dietary fibre
Thus there is absorbs water, swells and thus improve mastication of food.
digestion increased contact between the increases surface area of the
improves.
mass of fibre
ensures
There also a
is
feeling
food
of
mass and enzymes and
mass.
hence
smooth fullness. The spongelike
zinc, etc. reduces transit time elimination
Fibre of faeces. swollen
and
out of the Soluble fibre binds bile binds some minerals such as calcium,
body.
ever, nutrition There is no
acids and cholesterol and helps carry iron,
allowance for fibre. these
to 25 researchers recomnended dietary
grammes or more per day.dieticians Suggest that fibre intake be How-
and
increased
 Carbohydrates 53
50 g. Guava, red gram tender
2.6 to 3.1g.
50 g.Cluster beans. peas, berries
16 to 2.0 g.
50 g.French beans, ghosala, figs,
grapes, sapota, seetaphal 0.9 to 1.5 g
25 g. Whole legumes, nuts
0.9 to 1.5 g.eng
50 g. Leafy vegetables
0.5to 0.6g . t L
50 g. Fruits - bananas,
apples, limes, etc. 0.4 to 0.6 g
50g. Other vegetables 0.3 to 0.5 g.
25 g. Whole wheat or
ejowar or bajra flour 0.3 to 0.5g-sL 3o 3aut
50g. Roots & tubers 0.2 to 0.6 g.

lg.Dry Masala Mix E 0.2 to 0.3g . 9 t o n

Figure 4.1: Fibre content of foods.

Food Sources: Whole grain cereals, whole wheat flour, fruits such as
apples which can be eaten with their skin, bananas, pineapple, vegetables such
as cabbage, amaranth are good sources of fibre (Figure 4.1). Unusual sources
include agar-agar obtained from sea weed (Table 4.4).
Table 4.4: Fibre Content of Foods
Food Fibre g/1 00gE P t
al Cereals, wholeo sluderl2-1.9it b
Cereals, refined 02-0.7

Tuhnod alahn Pulses, wholetw eoltatno 3.7-5.3io o

Pulses, split d .7-1.5t
Nuts and oilseedston 3-6.6ole lo
Vegetables
Leafy and other 0.5-3.2
sis 04-1.8
Roots and tubersdt
Fruits 0.5-2.7

tt 1. EP-Edible
portion.LSxoR
 54 " Fundamentals of Foods and Nutrition
Utilisation in the Body: As has already been described, these groups of
substances are not digestible and do not contribute any nutrients to the bod
These indigestible substance, however, do serve a useful purpose in facilit
peristaltic movs
ing the elimination of intestinal wastes. They stimulate the
ments of the gastrointestinal tract.
Requirements: The exact amount of fibre needed by the human body can
to Sixs grahe
not stated. Some experts feel 100 mg fibre per kg or about five
consisting of a ray
per day is sufficient for the adult. An average mixed diet
vegetable, fresh fruit with skins, cooked fruits and vegetables willusually Dro.
vide sufficient fibre. Fibre content of the diet can be increased by use of some
whole grain cereals or whole wheat bread. Chapatis made from whole wheat
flour are also a good source of fibre.
Effect of Deficiency: Lack of fibre in the diet usually makes it difficult to
climinate food waste from the body. Consistent shortage of fibre in the diet
coud lead to constipation and other disturbances of the colon. This condition
could be corrected by including foods containing whole grain cereals, fruits
with skins and vegetable and fruit salads in the diet.
Role in Health and Disease: Constipation is a common problem in large
percentage of the population. One of the reasons for this condition is the intake
of refined foods. An increase in fibre intake helps to correct this ailment.
Eating leafy vegetables, cluster beans, etc., has been found to ensure smooth,
regular elimination.
With regular elimination of softer stools, the formation of
reduced and diverticulosis is prevented orcontrolled. Pectinshaemorrhoids is
and gums bind
bile acids and cholesteroland thus redåce their
blood levels.
Dietary fibre by increasing bulk and needing more chewing
food intake. Thus it can help obese may reduce the
lose weight.
persons to reduce tofal energy intake and
The carbolhydrate absorption is
slowed,
and lowers insulin need of diabetics, which helps to regulate blood sugar
Large soft stools may dilute
potential
mayreduce content of carcinOgens in coloncarcinogens. Rapid transit of
mucosa andthus stools
lon cancer. reduce risk of co-
Some problems due to high fibre diets:
Dietary fibre is best
naturalfoods and not as fibre
supplements. Food sources
fibres, vitamins and minerals in taken
provide from
a
combination. whereas fibre variety doof
not supply any nutrients. An excessive intake of fibre may
supplements
result
obstruction, if it is not accompanied by a liberal intake of water. Ifein
 Carbohydrates 55
isincreased suddenly, complaints such as cramping, diarhoea and excessive
intestinal gas are common, To minimise these effects, the fibre content of the
diet should be gradually increased over a petiod of several weeks.
SUGAR SUBSTITUTES
Commercial sugar substitutes or artificial sweeteners are used by people, who
wish to reduce their calorie intake. Two of the commonly available sugar sub
stitutes are aspartame and saccharin.
Aspartame is a dipeptide of two amino acids, aspartic acid and
phenylalanine. Its trade names are Equal andNutrasweet. As the dipeptides
are unstable to heat, this Sweetener cannot be used in cooked or baked foods.
Persons,who suffer from phenylketonuria should avoid use of aspartame.
Saccharin is o-sulphobenzimide. It is 300to 500 times as sweet as sucrose
substitute
and passes through the body unchanged. It has been used as a sugar beverages and
for about hundred years without any adverse effects. It is used in
desserts.The only drawback is it leaves a bitter aftertaste.
lostalodD
STUDY QUESTIONS
food in India?
1. Why are cereals used as staple
2. What is photosynthesis?
3. List the properties of sugars.
are the functions of carbohydrates in our body?
4. What
5. What is dietary fibre?
diet?
6. Why is fibre important in the