Towards Identification of Appliances in Conventional
Homes using ML and Descriptive Statistics
Hajer Alyammahi, Student Member, IEEE, and Panos Liatsis, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract— Providing ancillary services for future smart grids is
challenging because of the rapidly growing electricity demand,
while having uncertainties in renewable power generation, limited
availability of conventional spinning reserves, and expensive
storage systems. Thus, Home Energy Management Systems
(HEMSs) have been gaining increased attention nowadays. To
capitalize on the potential of HEMS, which supports customer
participation and two-way power communication so as to
maintain the generation-load balance, two interconnected
challenges, i.e., load monitoring and identification of appliances
consumption, need to be addressed. In this contribution, a
comprehensive nonintrusive load monitoring (NILM) algorithm
for appliance identification is proposed, which only requires a
single sensing point from conventional homes, i.e., the aggregated
power signal. Machine learning algorithms and both time-domain
2022 IEEE International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2) | 978-1-6654-8561-6/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/ISC255366.2022.9922599
and frequency-domain based feature extraction are utilized in the
development of the proposed solution. Simulation experiments are
performed using the Reference Energy Disaggregation Dataset
(REDD), a real household power consumption dataset. Simulation
results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed NILM
strategy with F1-score values of 97.659%, higher than those
reported in the state-of-the-art.
Index Terms—nonintrusive load monitoring, smart homes,
appliance identification, machine learning, feature extraction,
time-domain features, frequency-domain features, REDD.
I. INTRODUCTION
R ECENTLY, there is an increasing amount of attention on
the applications of Home Energy Management Systems
(HEMS), due its significant benefits in achieving sustainable
and reliable smart grids [1]. Providing balance between
generation and demand in real time is a core requirement for
maintenance of reliable grid operation. Traditionally, such
balance was achieved by varying the amount of spinning
reserves to match the required demand. Unlike conventional
power plants, smart grids need more power reserves to
compensate for the fluctuations in both the generation as well as
the demand side, with the penetration of renewable energy
resources increasing uncertainties in power generation [1]-[3].
To control energy flows in HEMS, it is necessary to monitor
and identify the consumption of appliances in the household.
Appliance monitoring and identification is a promising solution
for the implementation of useful power applications, such as
balancing generation and demand through Demand Response
(DR) [3]. Additionally, some useful information could be
inferred from load monitoring data, such as consumer power
profiles and behavioral patterns, including times doing certain
activities, home occupation, sleep patterns, and other daily
living activities. For example, the consumer may switch ON the
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TV at fixed times or turns OFF the AC when they leave home
[4].
The process of identifying and monitoring home appliances
in the household can be categorized into two groups: Intrusive
Load Monitoring (ILM) and Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring
(NILM) [5]. In ILM, each appliance is connected to a smart plug
to monitor and record its consumption power signal. This
solution is relatively expensive as it needs multiple sensors and
access to a communication network, however, importantly, its
large scale deployment is difficult. The main benefit of this type
of techniques is it is high accuracy [6]. In contrast, NILM uses a
single sensing point (typically, a standard home meter) to
monitor and identify appliances, which can be achieved with the
help of statistical and machine learning techniques, among
others. Furthermore, no communication network is required for
the identification process. Such a technology can be easily
deployed in large-scale, and can support the transition of
conventional homes to smart homes, in the context of future
smart grids. However, there is a major stumbling block, i.e., the
accuracy of NILM is lower than ILM [4],[7]. In this research,
we propose a NILM system, utilizing information from the
aggregated power signal time series, through the extraction of
appropriate time- and frequency-domain features, which are
subsequently used by machine learning systems to identify
which appliances are ON.
The NILM problem requires the status identification of N
appliances using a single signal, i.e., this is a potentially severely
underdetermined problem. Mathematically, the aggregated
power signal can be represented as the weighted sum of the
power consumed by each household appliances:
( )= ∑ ( ) ( )
(1)
( ) the aggregated power at time t;
where:
( )
a binary variable indicating the appliance ON/OFF
( )
status at time t;
the individual device consumption at time t.
Hart was the first person who considered the problem of
NILM in the 1980’s [8]. Since then, there have been numerous
efforts to develop methods, which are able to accurately identify
the status of appliances, as well as to maintain performance as
the number of devices increases, i.e., the scalability issue. NILM
techniques are generally divided into three categories: Hidden
Markov Model (HMM) based techniques, event detection-
based, and feature-based techniques [7]. HMM-based
 techniques are statistical models in which the power signal is The reminder of this paper is organized as follows. Section
assumed to be a Markov process with hidden states, i.e., the II provides a comprehensive overview of the proposed NILM
appliances’ ON/OFF states. Since the appliance states cannot be method. The choice of performance evaluation metrics is
observed directly, the aim is to learn them by observing the explained in Section III. Simulation results are shown and
aggregated power signal [9],[10]. In the case of event detection- discussed in Sections IV and V, respectively. Section VI
based techniques the goal is to detect the times when state concludes the work.
transition occurs [8],[11]. A wide variety of features have been
investigated in feature-based techniques. Most common II. PROPOSED NILM STRATEGY
electrical features include active power, reactive power, power A. Overview of NILM
factor, phase angle, and voltage [12],[5]. Statistical features,
The main goal of the NILM problem is to monitor and
such as min, max, mean, median, and RMS, were used in [12],
identify household appliances in conventional homes using a
[13]. Frequency-domain features, such as current harmonics and
single sensing point, the aggregated power signal, as
V-I trajectory, were used in [14],[15]. Additionally, some user
demonstrated in Fig. 1(a), where the aggregated power signal is
behavior can also be utilized to assist with appliance
composed by the summation of individual devices consumption.
identification, for instance, start/end times of using an appliance,
Fig.1(b) shows an example of the time series of the aggregated
and duration to finish a task [16],[17]. Moreover, Principal
power signal for a home for the period of a month, while Fig.1(c)
Component Analysis (PCA) has been widely used in the
shows the time series of the individual power consumption
literature to extract compact information for appliance detection
signals for a total of 18 devices, over the same time period.
[18]-[21].
Information regarding the dataset used in this work is given at
However, these studies do not address the labelling of
the end of this section.
ON/OFF appliance status, which is considered as the base step
prior to the load identification process. By looking at actual
device consumption, a device can operate with different power
levels, which could vary from watts to Kilowatts. Moreover, the
aggregated signal contains noise, which could make it
challenging to set a low threshold value to determine the
transition from the ON/OFF status and vice versa. In the context
of feature methods, an important design parameter is the choice
of the window size to calculate the features. Indeed, a very
(a)
limited number of studies investigated the effect of window
length on identification accuracy [20].
This paper focuses on the development of a novel NILM
approach, which is considered as a cornerstone in turning
conventional homes into smart homes. The work described in
this research aims at overcoming the shortcomings of NILM
methods, specifically, improving appliance identification
performance within a computationally simple architecture. The
novelties and contributions of the proposed NILM method are
as follows:
1) The proposed NILM approach learns the local signal
characteristics through the use of a shifted window centered
on the samples of the aggregated power signal time series so
as to resolve the problem of appliance status identification. (b)
The impact of window length on identification performance
is systematically investigated.
2) A comprehensive set of descriptive statistical features,
encompassing both the time and frequency domains, are
extracted from the aggregated power signals. These features
mainly focus on central tendency, variability, and data
distribution of devices consumption.
3) The proposed system is highly successful in identifying
the status of home appliances, using low complexity features
and relatively fast machine learning algorithms. The
proposed method achieves an improvement of 2.149% in
terms of F1-score, compared to the top performer in the
state-of-the-art. (c)
4) The simulation experiments, conducted on a real dataset, Fig. 1. (a) overview on NILM, (b) aggregated power signal, (c)
demonstrate the feasibility of this method to be applied in individual device consumption signal.
conventional homes, without the need of installing new
sensors or smart meters. Fig. 2 demonstrates the overall flow of the proposed approach.
It consists of four main steps as follows:

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 1) Appliance status labelling. This step is crucial before the
identification process as devices do not consume their rated
power, the maximum power that is consumed by the device,
during operation and some of them operate in different
states, as described in the following subsection.
2) The aggregated power signal is segmented into
overlapping windows.
3) For each signal window, temporal and spectral feature
extraction is applied on the aggregated power profile.
4) Following the previous steps, identification of on the ON
status of appliances is performed using a variety of ML
methods, including bagged trees [22], boosted trees [22], and
K-nearest Neighbors (KNN) [23].
determining a sufficiently general procedure to deal with the
variety of devices with the REDD dataset.
Generally, home appliances operation styles are classified
into single state, continuously varying, and multistate
appliances [5]. Examples of single state appliances are the
lights and the oven. TV is considered as a continuously varying
load, whereas the dish washer is a multistate appliance.
In an earlier work [5], we investigated the histograms of the
original power signal as well as its gradient, in order to identify
appliance status transitions from ON to OFF and vice versa. An
example of the application of this labelling procedure on the
active power consumption of the oven and dishwasher with their
ON/OFF transitions is presented in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively.
The details of this method can be found in [5].

Dishwasher
Original Signal
1000

500

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Dishwasher
1
Signal Transitions

Fig. 2. Proposed non-intrusive load identification architecture.

0.5

The aggregated power profile used in this study is taken from

the Reference Energy Disaggregation Dataset (REDD). It
contains real power consumptions at device-level as well as the 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
whole-home aggregated power signal, collected from U.S.
households over a period of more than four months. Load Fig. 4. Dish washer consumption and its ON/OFF transitions.
identification for all appliances (a total of 18 appliances) in
house 1 was considered, yielding 218-1 possible classes, i.e., all C. Window Segmentation
possible combinations of appliance statuses were considered. It
is evident that the complexity of the problem increases as the As mentioned Section II.A, a necessary step for the
number of appliances increases. extraction of statistical features is considering a window,
centered around the current point of measurement. This
window slides along the measurements of the aggregated power
oven
2000 signal, and thus, the method pursued in this research is
Original Signal
1500
overlapping windows.
The sliding windows are adjusted by taking a set of
1000
aggregated power measurements, which forms a vector with n
500 samples. The windowing was done with a sliding interval of
0
one sample to capture the time varying characteristics of device
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
operation, thus support the accuracy of the identification
1
oven process. Next, for each window, a set of temporal and spectral
Signal Transitions domain features were extracted, as explained in Section II-D.
Eq (2) presents the matrix of the aggregated power signal
following windowing:

…
0.5

…
= ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0

…
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
(2)

Fig. 3. Oven power consumption and its ON/OFF transitions.

B. Appliance Status Labelling
The first issue which needed to be addressed was the
consistent labelling of the ON/OFF status of the appliances.
This requires the handling of transient states, as well as the
presence of multiple modes of operation, which translates to
where is the window length and is the length of aggregated
power signal.
Determining the optimal window length is critical to the
extraction of sufficiently discriminative features, supporting
device status classification. When a small window length is
chosen, given the sampling rate of 1/3 Hz, there is no sufficient

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 variation in the values of the corresponding vector, and thus, C. Feature Extraction
the extracted features are not sufficiently discriminative. In the
Feature extraction is a necessary step in classification. In the
case of large window lengths, information from more than one
NILM context, it captures useful, linear and non-linear, patterns
states of the appliances will be present. This mixing of states
from the window data, centered on a single measurement of the
leads to an increase in the nonlinearity of the underlying
aggregated power signal. A number of time and frequency
patterns, subsequently, affecting the identification process. In
domains features were considered in [23] to recognize animal
this study, a detailed investigation on the effect of different
activity from raw accelerometer measurements. Table I shows
window lengths on the classification performance was
the features used in this study. The definitions of these features
conducted. In the case of time-domain features, several values
are given in [23].
of window lengths were studied as follows 11, 21, 31, 51, 71,
It can be observed that the temporal features mostly focus on
101, 121, 171, 201 were studied. For frequency-domain
the central tendency, variability, and distribution of data.
features, the same investigation was performed, and it was
Central tendency means the estimate of the characteristics, a
observed that when the window length increases, the impact of
typical element of a sample or population, and includes
the spectral features on the classification results increases,
descriptive statistics such as mean, median, and mode.
however, there is no discernible improvement for window
Variability refers to a set of statistics that show how much
lengths over 201 measurements. As revealed from Figs. 5 and
difference there is among the elements of a sample across the
6, the best F1-score using time domain features with a value of
characteristics measured, and includes metrics such as range,
97.015% is obtained with a window length of 101, while for
variance, and standard deviation.
frequency domain features the highest F1-score with a value of
The Fourier transform was used to transform the aggregated
94.735% is observed for a window length of 201. Thus, window
power signal to the frequency domain [24]. The sampling
lengths of 101 and 201 samples were considered the optimal
frequency was set to 1/3 Hz, which is the sampling rate of
values for the extraction of time domain and frequency domain
REDD dataset.
features, respectively.
Table I
Feature Extraction
Effect of Window Length when using Time Domain Features
100 Category Features
Mean, Standard Deviation, Variance,
Minimum, Maximum, Root Mean Square
(RMS), Inverse coefficient, Median, Moving
Classification Performance (%)

Temporal
Variance, Skewness, Kurtosis, Interquartile
95 Features
Range, Zero Crossings (ZC), Crest Factor,
Peak to Peak, Sum of Changes, Area, Squared
accuracy
Integrals, Entropy
specificity Energy in 1 Hz bins, Spectral Entropy, Signal
precision
90
recall Spectral Area, Peak Frequency, Frequency Magnitude,
fscore
gmean
Features Spectral Area, Harmonic Frequency (2nd and
3rd), Harmonic Ratio

85
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 III. EVALUATION METRICS
window length
Fig. 5. Effect of window length on classification performance using
In this research, five evaluation metrics were used, namely,
time-domain features. accuracy, specificity, precision, recall, and F1-score. Accuracy
measures the ratio between the total number of correctly
identified predictions and the total number of predictions.
Effect of Window Length when using Frequency Domain Features
100 Specificity is a measure of ratio between the number of correct
negative predictions (OFF status), divided by the total number
of actual negatives. Precision is the ratio of the correctly
95
identified positive instances (ON status) over the total number
Classification Performance (%)

of positive predictions. Recall measures the ratio between

accuracy
90 specificity correctly identified turned-on appliances and the actual number
precision
recall
of turned-on appliances. F1-score is a measure of the harmonic
fscore mean of the precision and recall.
gmean
85 It is expected to have high values of accuracy and specificity
values for the NILM problem, since power consumption data is
imbalanced. Thus, the best metric to evaluate the performance
80
of the classification models is the F1-score. This balances the
tradeoff between the precision and recall metrics.
75
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
window length
Simulation experiments have been carried out in MATLAB
Fig. 6. Effect of window length on classification performance using to evaluate the effect of temporal and spectral features in
frequency-domain features.
enhancing the classification accuracy. Three well known

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 machine learning algorithms for the NILM problem have been that both accuracy and specificity increase, however precision
used in this study, i.e., the K-nearest Neighbors (KNN), bagged and recall are slightly lower. The highest F1-score of 94.735%
trees, and boosted trees. The proportion of data between the is observed in the case of bagged trees. However, this value is
training and testing was 80% and 20%, respectively. A variety slightly lower compared to results with temporal feature
of experiments were conducted to optimize the parameters of extraction.
algorithms. As a point of reference, we first applied the ML
classifiers on the aggregated signal. Next, we evaluated and Table V
optimized ML performance when using temporal features, Results with Spectral Features (Window Length=201)
followed by ML performance evaluation when using only Model accuracy specificity precision recall f_score
spectral features. The last experiment involved the combined use Bagged
99.967 99.958 94.312 95.197 94.735
Trees
of temporal and spectral features. The optimum parameter Boosted
99.919 99.917 82.499 77.804 79.382
values for the ML classifiers are shown in Table II. Trees
KNN 99.952 99.95 90.668 91.119 90.624

Table II
Machine Learning Parameters D. Temporal and Spectral Feature Extraction
ML Algorithm Parameters In this experiment, we further investigated the system
Bagged Trees 80 trees performance using obtained temporal and spectral features. The
Boosted Trees 60 trees concept behind this is to attempt to improve on performance by
KNN 4 neighbors capitalizing upon the excellent performance of temporal features
in terms of precision and recall, when fused with the strong
performance of spectral features in terms of accuracy and
A. Without Feature Extraction specificity. We observe that the performance of all classifiers is
The system performance was evaluated before the use of improved across various evaluation metrics, with the exception
feature extraction. The results are shown in Table III. Here, it of recall in the case of the boosted trees. The fusion of temporal
can be seen that all models demonstrate very high values in and spectral features results in an improvement of 0.644%,
terms of accuracy and specificity, however, they perform poorly raising the F1-score to 97.659%, obtained using bagged trees.
in terms of precision and recall. This provides further
justification for our use of the F1-score metric. It is observed that Table VI
the best performance in terms of F1-score is a value of 62.888%, Results with Temporal & Spectral Features
obtained using bagged trees. Model accuracy specificity precision recall f_score
Bagged
99.991 100 100 95.425 97.659
Trees
Table III Boosted
99.995 99.999 85.714 66.667 75
Results without Feature Extraction Trees
Model accuracy specificity precision recall F1-score KNN 99.98 99.973 94.327 94.796 94.433
Bagged
99.6659 99.4428 64.7709 63.794 62.888
Trees Table VII
Boosted
96.951 99.093 52.669 31.056 39.073 Comparison with state-of-the art
Trees
KNN 95.407 96.292 39.502 69.866 50.469
No. of
Feature Extraction Method F1- Score
Appliances
Proposed Method All 97.659%
B. Temporal Feature Extraction PCA [19] All 95.51%
After extracting the temporal features of Table I, a significant DBSCAN [25] 5 95%
improvement in terms of F1-score is achieved as shown in Table NN [26] 5 83.2%
IV. It is interesting that both accuracy and specificity drop
compared to the case of applying the ML methods directly on PCA [21] All 94.68%
the aggregated signal. However, there is a substantial Euclidean distance [20] All 83.02%
improvement in terms of precision and recall, particularly for the
bagged trees and KNN methods. Overall, the bagged trees model
outperforms the other models with an F1-score of 97.01%. V. DISCUSSION
The major advantages of using temporal features are that
Table IV they are easy to extract from any time-series signal, and are
Results with Temporal Features (Window Length=101) computationally efficient. Spectral features, on the other hand,
Model accuracy specificity precision recall f_score are robust to noise, but tend to require more computational
Bagged
Trees
99.981 99.974 96.63 97.457 97.015 resources, due to the use of the Fourier Transform. If
Boosted
84.6825 94.0255 69.2705 84.682 74.8690
availability of resources is a concern, the preferred solution will
Trees be the use of temporal features, as they result in very high
KNN 89.514 99.444 89.514 100 94.467
performance.
C. Spectral Feature Extraction As for the computational time, decision trees perform much
Similarly, we extracted the spectral features of Table I, with faster than KNN, and the bagged trees were found to be the best
the results reported in Table V. When comparing the learning model.
performance of spectral and temporal features, we can observe

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 To verify the effectiveness of the proposed approach, Table
VII shows a comparison of F1-score results among recent state-
of the art methods on the REDD dataset. We observe that the
system proposed in this research outperforms the best performer
in the state-of-the-art by 2.149%.
VI. CONCLUSION
Appliances identification in conventional homes is a very
challenging task. In this work, the NILM problem was first
described. A detailed description of the proposed approach was
provided, which includes extracting temporal and spectral
features. Such features show great promise in improving the
classification accuracy. Bagged trees was found to be the best
performing machine learning model across all experiments.
Among the major advantages of the proposed method is its
contribution in raising the awareness about energy
consumption, identifying user power profiles, and its
contribution in demand response applications which in turns
used to maintain the balance between the supply and demand in
smart grids. Future work may include the ranking of features to
identify the more important ones for NILM.
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