Chemistry of the Hydrosphere

Learning Objectives

Classify the different types of water.

Classification according to:

Physical State

Salt Content

Dissolved Mineral Content

DENR Standard

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•Greek: hydros (water), sphaira (ball/ globe)
•Modern Latin: hydrosphaera
•Aqueous envelope of the Earth including bodies
of water and aqueous vapor in the atmosphere
•Physical States of Water
➢ Solid: glaciers, iceberg
➢ Liquid: freshwater (streams, rivers, lakes)
: saltwater (seas, oceans)
: brackish water
•Gas: water vapor

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Glacier vs. Iceberg
• Glacier – made up of fallen snow that, over
many years, compressed into large,
thickened ice masses. They usually cover the
valley floor of a mountain range. At present,
they occupy ~10% of the world’s total land
area
• Iceberg – a piece of a glacier that breaks off
(or calves) when temperatures warm up

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Saltwater and freshwater
• Saltwater – found in the earth’s oceans and seas
• Freshwater – contained in lakes, rivers and streams
• Brackish water – results when freshwater from a river or stream drains
into a saltwater body and lowers the saltwater’s salinity

Mekong River delta in Vietnam – brackish water; flows into the West Philippine Sea/ South China Sea

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Saltwater vs freshwater
Criteria SALTWATER FRESHWATER
higher- average salinity of
1 Salinity lower than 3.5%
3.5%

2 Density denser due to dissolved NaCl less dense

0 0
3 Freezing Point lower (-2 C) higher (0 C)

hypertonic with respect to hypotonic with respect to

4 Tonicity
cells of organisms cells of organisms

https://sciencing.com/four-between-ocean-fresh-water-8519973.html
http://www.blue-growth.org/Oceans_Rivers_Seas/Index_Oceans_Seas_Bays_Gulfs_Of_The_World_%20A_To_Z_Lists.htm

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Hard and soft water
• Hard water – contains a significant
quantity of dissolved minerals, such as
calcium and magnesium; water usually
collects these minerals from the ground
as it flows
• Soft water – treated water in which the
only ion is sodium. As rainwater falls, it is
naturally soft

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 Hard Water Soft Water
and potassium
and iron

Hard vs Soft water https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebygQes5Wig

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Effects of Hard water

https://www.diffen.com/difference/Hard_Water_vs_Soft_Water
DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08
Water Quality Guidelines and General Effluent
Standards of 2016

https://server2.denr.gov.ph/uploads/rmdd/dao-2016-08.pdf
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https://www.eschooltoday.com/water-cycle/what-is-infiltration.html
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• Highly polar molecule; useful solvent for many substances
• Solid form is less dense than liquid form -> water expands when
it freezes
• Has high specific heat (recall: specific heat is the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1g of substance by 1 C;
water = 4.186 J/g*C, iron = 0.449 J/g*C)
• Has high heat of vaporization -> large amount of heat is needed
to vaporize a small amount of water

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Water Contaminants
Learning Objectives

Identify the different types of water contaminants.

Describe the impact of water contaminants on the environment

and human health.
Natural Contaminants

Biological Contaminants

Chemical Contaminants

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• Rainwater – picks up dust particles and
dissolves some O2, N2 and CO2 as it falls
through the atmosphere
• CO2 makes natural water acidic, forming
carbonic acid (H2CO3)
CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)
• Lightning causes nitrogen, oxygen and water
vapor to form nitric acid (HNO3), which is also
dissolved in rainwater
3NO2(g) + H2O(g) → 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)

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• Groundwater contains the naturally
occurring gas radon (Rn), which is a
product of the decay of radioactive
uranium and thorium

• Radon is only slightly soluble in water, so

the water used for showering, washing and
cooking contributes only a small
proportion (~1-2%) of total Rn exposure
indoors

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• As water moves along or beneath the earth’s surface, it dissolves minerals
from rocks and soil
• Rainwater dissolves matter from decaying plants and animals
• However, organic matter in the form of traces of lubricants, fuels,
some fertilizers and pesticides can also contaminate water

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• Microorganisms – waterborne microorganisms may or may
not be pathogenic (disease-causing)
• Cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery are common water-
borne diseases, especially in developing countries
Waterborne Diseases
Disease and Microbial Sources of Agent General
Transmission Agent in Water Supply Symptoms
Amoebiasis Protozoan Sewage, non- Abdominal
(hand-to-mouth) (Entamoeba treated drinking discomfort, fatigue,
histolytica, water, flies in weight loss,
cyst-like water supply diarrhea, bloating,
appearance) fever

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Waterborne Diseases
Disease and Microbial Sources of Agent in General
Transmission Agent Water Supply Symptoms
Cryptosporidio Protozoan Collects on water Flu-like symptoms,
sis (oral) (Cryptosporid filters and watery diarrhea, loss
ium parvum) membranes that of appetite,
cannot be substantial weight
disinfected, animal loss, bloating,
manure, seasonal increased gas, nausea
runoff of water

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Waterborne Diseases
Disease and Microbial Sources of Agent in General
Transmission Agent Water Supply Symptoms
Microsporidiosis Protozoan The species Diarrhea and
phylum Encephalitozoa wasting in
(Microsporidia), intestinalis has been immunocompromise
but closely detected in d individuals
related to fungi groundwater, the
origin of drinking
water

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Waterborne Diseases
Disease and Microbial Sources of Agent in General
Transmission Agent Water Supply Symptoms
Taeniasis Tapeworms Drinking water Intestinal
of the genus contaminated with disturbances,
Taenia eggs neurologic
manifestations, weight
loss, cysticercosis

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 Waterborne Diseases
Disease and Microbial Sources of Agent in Water General
Transmission Agent Supply Symptoms
Cholera Spread by the Drinking water In severe forms it is known to
bacterium Vibrio contaminated with the be one of the most rapidly
cholerae cholera bacterium fatal illnesses known.
Symptoms include very
watery diarrhea, nausea,
cramps, nosebleed, rapid
pulse, vomiting and
hypovolemic shock (in severe
cases), at which point death
can occur in 12-18 hours

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ACID RAIN
• Acids formed from sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx) come down from the sky in the form of
acid rain, fog and snow
• Acid rain corrodes metals, dissolves limestone and
marble, and may ruin the finishes on automobiles
• Acids also from into streams from abandoned mines
• Acidic water is detrimental to life in lakes and streams,
and is linked to declining crop & forest yields

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Acid Rain
• Acids are no threat to lakes and streams where limestone (calcium
carbonate) is plentiful, since CaCO3 can neutralize excess acid

CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O

limestone acid

• Where rock is mainly granite, however, no such neutralization occurs

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Heavy Metals
• Can be released from numerous sources, including municipal
wastewater treatment plants, manufacturing industries,
mining, rural agricultural cultivation and fertilization
• Are transported as either a dissolved compound in water or as
a part of suspended sediments
• May be volatilized to the atmosphere or stored in sediments
• Toxic heavy metals may be absorbed by a variety of organisms

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Heavy Metals
• Tungsten • Lead
• Arsenic • Barium
• Nickel • Tin
• Beryllium • Copper
• Antimony • Uranium
• Platinum • Thorium
• Cadmium • Mercury
• Cesium • Thallium
• Aluminum

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 Heavy Metals

http://experttoxicologist.com/toxicology-toxic-substances-heavy-metals.aspx
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Dying Lakes
• Due to dumping of human sewage into
waterways
→ breakdown of organic matter by bacteria
decreases the dissolved oxygen (DO) in the
water and increases the plant nutrients
• Due to fertilizer runoff from farms, golf
courses, lawns and seepage from feedlots
→ add inorganic nutrients to waterways; may
result in an algal bloom

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• Refers to enrichment of water by nutrient salts (mainly N & P) that causes
structural changes to the ecosystem such as:
▪ Increased production of algae and aquatic plants
▪ Depletion of fish species
▪ General deterioration of water quality
▪ Other effects that reduce and preclude use

*All water bodies are subject to a natural and slow eutrophication process,
which in recent decades has undergone a rapid progression due to
anthropogenic (human) activities

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Structural change in water is due to:
• Use of fertilizers
• Discharge of runoff into bodies of
water
• Reduction of self-purification
capacity
• Accumulation of sediments which
start to fill the lake basin and
increases interactions between
the water and sediment

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https://byjus.com/chemistry/eutrophication/ 46
Lake Pollution - Eutrophication

oligotrophic lake – low in eutrophic lake – well-

nutrients and its water is clear fed, high nutrient levels
Water Analysis
Learning Objectives

Demonstrate the different water quality assessment procedures.

•DO: amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in water
•Ways by which O2 can enter water
➢ direct absorption from the atmosphere
➢ By-product of photosynthesis from aquatic producers
•Water temperature and volume of moving water can affect DO
levels
http://www.limnoloan.org/waterquality/dissolved_oxygen/
http://www.landvistaaquascapes.com/blog/the-importance-of-oxygen-in-your-pond 53
D.O. probe and D.O. handheld meter
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• Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand
(COD) are two different ways to measure how much oxygen the water
will consume when it enters the recipient.
• In both cases the oxygen-consuming substances are mainly of organic
origin. These substances should be reduced to a minimum in the
wastewater treatment plant. Industries normally focus more on COD
and municipalities more on BOD removal.

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• Biological Oxygen Demand
• BOD is a measure of the amount of oxygen that require for
the bacteria to degrade the organic components present in
water/ waste water.

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• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• - is the total measurement of all chemicals (organics &
inorganics) in the water/ waste water

• COD is higher than that of BOD; maximum of up to 4 times

in medium scale industries; but it varies based on the
industrial process and nature of the raw materials used.

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 MxBauheng COD-572 Chemical
Oxygen Demand Meter Analyzer
BOD test bottles HQ40D Portable BOD meter ($2999.00 Amazon.com)
& BOD bottles https://www.amazon.com/COD-572-Chemical-Oxygen-
https://www.hach.com/hq40d-portable-biochemical-oxygen-demand-bod-meter-
Demand-Analyzer/dp/B00WFZU364
laboratory-kit-with-luminescent-do-sensor-and-bod-bottles-1-m-
cable/product?id=7640513827
http://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=C992&title=Understanding%20Laboratory%20Wastew
ater%20Tests:%20I.%20ORGANICS%20(BOD,%20COD,%20TOC,%20O&G) 60
ACRONYM MEANING DEFINITION
Organics
BOD Biological Oxygen Measurement of the amount of oxygen that is required
Demand for the bacteria to degrade the organic components
present in water
COD Chemical Oxygen Total measurement of all chemicals (organics and
Demand inorganics) in the water
TOC Total Organic Carbon Amount of carbon found in an organic compound and is
often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality

O&G Oil and Grease Can come from plant or animal sources (oils, fats,
butter, lard) as well as petroleum sources (kerosene,
lubricating oils)
Solids Nutrients
TS Total Solids NH3 Ammonia
TKN Total Kjeldahl
TSS Total Suspended
Nitrogen*
Solids
TDS Total Dissolved
Solids N/N Nitrite/Nitrate
TP Total Phosphate
TVS Total Volatile *TKN: quantitative determination of N contained in
organic substances plus N in inorganic compounds
Solids NH3 & NH4+; named after Danish chemist Johan
Kjeldahl

TFS Total Fixed Solids

➢ In a flowing stream, the breakdown of biodegradable wastes by bacteria
depletes dissolved oxygen and creates an oxygen sag curve (blue).
➢ Found in personal care products (facial scrub,
toothpaste, body was). Made of PE, PP, PET,
Polymethylmeth acrylate (PMMA).

https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-42621388

https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/03/great-pacific-garbage-
patch-plastics-environment/ https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/oc
ean_plastics/
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• Used for solutions that are
extremely dilute
• Concentration is expressed
as parts per million (ppm),
parts per billion (ppb) or
parts per trillion (ppt)

E.g. In fluoridated drinking

water, the F- ion concentration
is maintained at about 1 ppm
• What is the concentration in (a) ppm, (b) ppb and (c) ppt that is equivalent to
a maximum allowable level of water of 0.1 µg/L of the gasoline additive MBTE
(methyl tertbutyl ether)?

0.1 𝜇𝑔 1𝐿
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = = 1𝑥10−4 𝜇𝑔/𝑚𝐿
𝐿 1000 𝑚𝐿

0.1 𝜇𝑔
𝑝𝑝𝑏 =
𝐿

0.1 𝜇𝑔 1 𝑥10−6 𝑔 1 𝑛𝑔
𝑝𝑝𝑡 = −9
= 100 𝑛𝑔/𝐿
𝐿 1𝜇𝑔 1 𝑥10 𝑔

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Wastewater Treatment
Learning Objectives

Examine the different processes in a water treatment plant.

• Septic tanks – used in rural and suburban areas

• Wastewater or sewage treatment plants – urban areas

o Primary sewage treatment – physical process that uses screens and
grit tank to remove large floating objects and to allow solids such as
sand and rock to settle out; removes 40-60% of suspended solids as
sludge

o Secondary sewage treatment – a biological process in which aerobic

bacteria remove as much as 90% of dissolved and biodegradable,
oxygen-demanding organic wastes
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• Primary Treatment – oil, fat and grease from cooking float to
the top; 20% of organics and 40% of solids are removed

• Secondary Treatment – aeration tank & secondary clarifier;

removes remaining organics and solids, microbial degradation
by aerobic (O2-requiring) microorganisms; air is introduced for
microorganisms via blowers

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• Disinfection and Effluent Pumping – disinfectant similar to
bleach is added to the clear effluent; clear effluent is
discharged back to the environment

• Solid handling – via anaerobic (without O2) digester;

microorganisms break down solids into stable organic matter
known as biosolids; biosolids are used as soil amendment

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• Advanced treatment (sometimes called tertiary treatment).
• Charcoal filtration – charcoal adsorbs certain organic molecules, including
trihalomethanes such as chloroform (CHCl3)

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• Advanced treatment (sometimes called tertiary treatment).
• Reverse Osmosis – pressure forces the wastewater through a semipermeable
membrane, leaving contaminants behind

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• Advanced treatment (sometimes called tertiary treatment).
• Phytoremediation – involves passage of the effluent into large natural or constructed
lagoons for storage, allowing plants such as reeds to remove metals and other
contaminants

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• Removal of salts from ocean or brackish
(slightly salty) waters to produce usable
water
• Methods: distillation and reverse osmosis
• Distillation – involves heating saltwater
until it evaporates (leaving behind salts
in solid form) and condenses as
freshwater
• Reverse osmosis (or microfiltration) –
uses high pressure to force saltwater
through a membrane filter with pores
small enough to remove the salt
• Disadvantages:
➢High cost due to high energy requirement
➢Kills many marine organisms and requires large inputs of
energy to run the pumps
➢Produces large quantities of salty wastewater
➢ It provides for a comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent
and minimize pollution through multi-sectoral and participatory
approach involving all the stakeholders.
➢An act providing for a comprehensive water quality management
and for other purposes
➢Applies to water quality management in all water bodies
➢Primarily applies to the abatement and control of pollution from
land-based sources
➢The water quality standards and regulations and the civil liability
and penal revisions under the law shall be enforced irrespective of
sources of pollution
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Institutional Mechanisms of R.A 9275
• National Water Quality Status Report
• Water Quality Management Area Plan
• Groundwater vulnerability mapping
• Water quality guidelines
• Effluent standards
• Procedures for sampling and analysis of pollutants
• Accreditation system of laboratories
• Categories of point and non-point sources
• Classification of groundwater sources
• Classification and re-classification of water bodies
• Information and dissemination campaigns
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