Philippine Journal of Science

150 (S1): 151-163, Special Issue on Biodiversity

ISSN 0031 - 7683
Date Received: 21 Sep 2020

Richness and Distribution of Orchids (Orchidaceae)

in the Forests of Mount Busa, Sarangani,
Southern Mindanao, Philippines

Aljohn Jay L. Saavedra1,2 and Kier Mitchel E. Pitogo2

1PhilippineTaxonomic Initiative, Inc.

El Nido, Palawan 5313 Philippines
2Departmentof Environment and Natural Resources
Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office South Cotabato
Block 1, Martinez Subdivision, Koronadal City 9506 Philippines

Orchids are one of the most diverse yet threatened plant families in the world and the Philippines.
Despite the new species discoveries of orchids in the country in recent years, diversity and
distribution studies are still severely lacking. Here, we provide a list of orchid species found
among different forest types in Mount Busa and provide information on the species’ altitudinal
and vertical distributions and ornamental use. We recorded 108 species of orchids from 51
genera, of which 53 species are endemic to the Philippines and 15 species are known only to
occur on Mindanao island. Species composition differed among forest types, with the MASLEF
(mixed advanced secondary lowland evergreen forest) hosting the highest number of orchid
species recorded, followed by the UMF (upper montane forest), LMF (lower montane forest),
and MESLEF (mixed early secondary lowland evergreen forest). Our results suggest a relatively
rich and distinct orchid diversity among different forest types in Mount Busa that reinforces
the high conservation value of the mountain range.

Keywords: Mindanao biodiversity, Oberonia serrulata, orchid conservation, orchid distribution,

orchid inventory, Philippine orchids

INTRODUCTION orchids are the most threatened group of plants globally

Orchids are one of the largest and most diverse groups
among the Philippine flowering plants harboring over
1200 species, varieties, and forms (Cootes 2011), with
more new species and genera being discovered and
recorded yearly (e.g. de Leon et al. 2017; Naive and
Martyr 2018; Meneses and Cootes 2019; Naive et al.
2019; Tamayo et al. 2020; Tandang et al. 2020). This
group of plants is mostly habitat specialists owing to
their specialized reproductive strategies and mycorrhizal
specificity (Gravendeel et al. 2004). Unfortunately,
*Corresponding Authors: pitogo.kiermitchel@gmail.com
(Gale et al. 2018) and in the Philippines (Fernando et
al. 2008a). It is estimated that 56.5% of the 948 orchid
species assessed in the Global IUCN Red List in 2017
are threatened with extinction (Gale et al. 2018). In
the Philippines, 97 species are already threatened that
represents ~ 8.1% of the orchid species recorded in the
country (DENR 2017).
Habitat destruction and unsustainable harvesting are the
major global threats to orchids (Fay 2018; Gale et al. 2018).
Habitat fragmentation negatively impacts species richness
of orchids (Hundera et al. 2013; Parra Sánchez et al. 2016),

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and their highly specialized habit makes orchids more
vulnerable to global environmental changes (Fay 2018).
Orchids are also highly traded mainly for horticulture,
medicine, and food (Hinsley et al. 2017). Despite being
regulated under the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species, many of the species are still being
collected and traded undocumented negatively affecting
wild populations around the world (Fay 2015).
The increasing pressure on wild orchid populations
put orchids as a group of urgent conservation concern.
Despite the new orchid species discoveries in recent years,
diversity and distribution studies are still severely lacking
(Buenavista 2017; Betanio and Buenavista 2018). This gap
may pose conservation challenges for this highly threatened
plant family, as assemblage-level studies may serve as
baselines for future monitoring programs in Philippine
montane ecosystems, particularly for the highly collected
and traded orchids. Distribution studies also help inform
species conservation assessments (e.g. IUCN Red List
of Threatened Species and Philippine Red List), as these
provide information on the species’ extent of occurrence
and geographic range.
One of the major mountains in southern Mindanao with
relatively intact lowland and montane forests is Mount
Busa. It is a key biodiversity area (KBA) and one of the
extremely high conservation priority sites in the Philippines
(Ong et al. 2002). Portions of Mount Busa may have formed
part of the older landmass of the Zamboanga Peninsula–
Daguma Range block, which collided with the more recent
central and eastern Mindanao blocks in the Middle Miocene,
thus forming the present-day Mindanao island (Sajona et
al. 1997; Hall 2002; Yumul et al. 2004). The accreted
Mindanao island was intermittently connected directly to
Borneo and the rest of the Sundaland through land bridges
due to repeated sea-level oscillations during the Pleistocene
glacial cycle (Brown et al. 2013). These events may have
shaped the present-day patterns of diversity in southern
Mindanao, which necessitates more field-based biodiversity
studies in Mount Busa. This is relevant for orchids, as the
diversity of some orchid genera in the Philippines were
shaped by this complex geological history (Guo et al. 2015;
Tsai et al. 2015, 2020). In addition, biodiversity studies in
southern Mindanao remain scanty, especially for orchids in
the region that do not have empirical field data yet available
in published literature.
Here, we provide an inventory of orchid species found in
Mount Busa with information on altitudinal and vertical
distributions and their ornamental uses. Since orchid
distribution is influenced by elevation and species’ traits
(Jacquemyn et al. 2005; Zhang et al. 2015; Ding et al. 2016),
we also examined the pattern of orchid species richness
among different forest types in the area. This information
helps improve our understanding of orchid diversity and
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Saavedra and Pitogo: Orchids of Mt. Busa
ecology and addresses the gaps in our knowledge and
distribution of Philippine orchids. Our results would be
helpful not only in elucidating the level of biodiversity in
southern Mindanao but also in inferring patterns of plant
diversity and biogeography in the Philippines.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
We surveyed orchid species richness along the southern
slope of Mount Busa, Kiamba Municipality, Sarangani
Province between July 2019 and August 2020. Mount
Busa, known as “Bulul Tembob” among the local Tboli,
is located at N 06°06.537’ E 124°41.026’ and reaches
2046 m in elevation, which makes it the highest point in
Sarangani. It houses one of the last remaining primary
forests in southern Mindanao. On 10 Mar 2020, the
Provincial Government of Sarangani formally declared
the southern slope of Mount Busa a local conservation
area by resolution 2020-10-042.
Mount Busa was stratified into forest types based on the
classification of Fernando and colleagues (2008b). We
further classified the lowland evergreen forest into two:
the forest ranging in elevation from 400–600 m is the
MESLEF and the forest from 700–1100 m elevation is the
MASLEF. The lower elevation of Mount Busa (400–1000
m) was hardly hit during the logging concession in the
early 1990s, hence the dominance of secondary-growth
trees at this elevation (see Brown 2015).
The forest from 1200–1600 m elevation is the LMF and
from 1700–2046 m elevation is the UMF (Figure 1). Five
sampling points with more than 200-m distance in between
were randomly chosen in each forest type to maximize the
diversity of other habitat types surveyed, although we did
not limit our search to pre-defined plots. Habitats surveyed
include agricultural plots of abaca, riparian areas, moist
ravines, grasslands, shrublands, leaf litter, and forest trails.
Field Sampling
Opportunistic sampling was done in each sampling site by
four to five experienced individuals, which entailed careful
and extensive examinations of understory and midstory
layers of the forest for ground and epiphytic orchids. This
was done with the caveat that orchid species beyond 4 m
above the ground might have not been recorded due to
inaccessibility or observer bias. Encountered fallen trees
and branches, however, were thoroughly searched for
canopy-dwelling orchids.
The altitudinal range and vertical distribution were noted
for each orchid species observed in the wild. The altitude
Philippine Journal of Science
Vol. 150 No. S1, Special Issue on Biodiversity
Figure 1. A contour map of the southern slope of Mount Busa, Sarangani Province showing the sampling sites in different forest types.
MESLEF – mixed early secondary lowland evergreen forest, MASLEF – mixed advanced secondary lowland evergreen forest,
LMF – lower montane forest, UMF – upper montane forest.
was recorded using a Global Positioning System (Garmin
64sc, USA), and the height at which the orchid was
observed (vertical distribution) was visually estimated
using the height of AJS as reference. Only flowering
orchid species were included in the list. We also surveyed
houses in four villages, locally called as “sitios,” around
the vicinity of Mount Busa (Tulad, Datal Bong, Banate,
and Green Valley) to check for orchids collected by the
local people for ornamental use that we missed in the wild.
All orchid species encountered were photographed in situ
whenever possible. We did not collect voucher specimens for
conservation reasons. Only one or a few individuals of most
species of orchids recorded were observed, and many of these
species are already being collected for ornamental use. All
species were identified based on photographic guides (Cootes
2001, 2011; Pelser et al. 2011 onwards), expert consultations
(e.g. through the online plant identification platform of the
Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines; Barcelona et al. 2013),
and taxonomic papers in orchids (Clements and Cootes 2009;
Cabactulan et al. 2018).
We also checked the distribution of each identified species
using the aforementioned resources. Nomenclature
follows the World Checklist of Orchidaceae (Govaerts
Saavedra and Pitogo: Orchids of Mt. Busa
et al. 2020), and the species’ conservation status was
based on the DAO 2017-11 of the Philippine Department
of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR 2017).
The Philippine Department of Environment and Natural
Resources (DENR) issued the fieldwork and collection
permit for this study (Gratuitous Permit No. 2020-09).
Statistical Analysis
We examined sampling adequacy using sample-size-
based and coverage-based rarefaction and extrapolation
(R/E) curves and a sample completeness curve for species
richness (data type= incidence; Chao1). These were
computed and plotted with 95% confidence intervals
in the R package iNEXT (Hsieh et al. 2016). A similar
analysis was used to check for orchid species richness
among forest types in Mount Busa. The R/E curves allow
us to evaluate sampling completeness and facilitate a
conservative comparison of species richness among the
forest types despite the differences in the sampling effort.
Only those species observed in the wild were included in
the analysis. We performed the analysis in the R statistical
software Version 1.1.463 (R Core Team 2020).
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Vol. 150 No. S1, Special Issue on Biodiversity

RESULTS ornamental plants by the local people, 11 species were

We recorded 108 species of orchids from 51 genera
(Table 1), at least four of which were putatively new
and undescribed species – namely, Bulbophyllum sp. 3,
Calanthe sp., Coelogyne sp., and Dendrochilum sp. 2.
The sampling completeness curve shows that almost 50%
coverage was attained for all sites (Figure 2B), suggesting
that additional fieldwork would still increase the species
richness of orchids, as shown in extrapolated curves
(Figures 2A and 2C).
The most speciose genera were Appendicula (11.1%),
Dendrobium (9.3%), and Bulbophyllum (6.5%). Fifty-
three (53) species are endemic to the Philippines, of
which 15 species are known only to occur in mainland
Mindanao. Of the 32 orchid species that were utilized as
not observed in the wild. Only five species are threatened
under the DAO 2017-11, one of which is listed as
critically endangered (Grammatophyllum wallisii), three
as endangered (Phalaenopsis sanderiana, Phalaenopsis
reichenbachiana, Renanthera monachica), and one as
vulnerable (Phalaenopsis mariae).
We report range extensions of at least nine species which
are also new island records for Mindanao – namely,
Thrixspermum elmeri, which was previously recorded in
Negros; Cylindrolobus longissimus, Erythrodes latifolia,
Rhomboda lanceolata, Blepharoglossum grossum, and
Odontochilus marivelensis in Luzon; Dendrobium boosii in
Luzon, Mindoro, Negros, and Leyte; Agrostophyllum loheri
in Cebu, Luzon, and Samar; and Paraphaius flavus in Luzon,

Table 1. Initial list of orchid species in Mount Busa, Sarangani, Philippines.

Altitudinal distribution Vertical Local Endemism
No. Species Distributionc
(masl)a distribution useb
1 Acanthophippium mantinianum L.Linden & Cogn. 550 Ground Orn. Yes Philippines
2 Acriopsis liliifolia var. lilifolia (J.Koenig) Seidenf. 400–500 4m – No Widespread
3 Agrostophyllum elongatum (Ridl.) Schuit. 500 1.5–4 m – No Widespread
4 Agrostophyllum loheri Ormerod 600–700 2.5 m Orn. Yes Philippines
5 Anoectochilus sp. 800–900 Ground – – –
6 Appendicula crotalina (Ames) Schltr. 500–600 2–5 m Orn. Yes Mindanao
7 Appendicula elmeri (Ames) Ames 800 2m – Yes Mindanao
8 Appendicula leytensis Ames house – Orn. Yes Sam-Ley
9 Appendicula malindangensis (Ames) Schltr. 1800–2000 1.5–4 m – Yes Philippines
10 Appendicula cf. pendula Blume 800–900 1.7 m – No Widespread
11 Appendicula undulata var. longicalcarata 650-900 2m Orn. No Widespread
(Rolfe) Ames
12 Appendicula weberi Ames 1150 1.6 m – Yes Philippines
13 Appendicula sp. 1 600–700 1.5 m – – –
14 Appendicula sp. 2 600–700 1.5 m – – –
15 Appendicula sp. 3 800 3–6 m – – –
16 Appendicula sp. 4 800 2m – – –
17 Appendicula sp. 5 1500–1600 1.5 m – – –
18 Blepharoglossum condylobulbon (Rchb.f.) L.Li 800 2.5 m – No Widespread
19 Blepharoglossum grossum (Rchb.f.) L.Li 1600–1800 4m – No Luzon
20 Brachypeza unguiculata (Lindl.) Kocyan & Schuit. 800 2m Orn. No Widespread
21 Bryobium senile (Ames) Schuit. 1600 0.3 m – Yes Philippines
22 Bulbophyllum antenniferum (Lindl.) Rchb.f. 650 2.5 m Orn. No Widespread
23 Bulbophyllum colubrimodum Ames 1370 2m – Yes Philippines
24 Bulbophyllum mucronatum subsp. alagense (Ames) 1400–1600 1.5 m – Nod Philippines
J.J.Verm. & P.O’Byrne
25 Bulbophyllum odoratum (Blume) Lindl. 600–700 2m – No Widespread
26 Bulbophyllum sp. 1 1600–1700 1.7 m – – –
27 Bulbophyllum sp. 2 Sect. Stachysanthes 1300–1400 1.5–2 m – – –
28 Bulbophyllum sp. 3 Sect. Polymeres 1700–1800 5–10 m – – –
29 Calanthe davaensis Ames 1600–1800 Ground – Yes Mindanao

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Altitudinal distribution Vertical Local Endemism

No. Species Distributionc
(masl)a distribution useb
30 Calanthe cf. furcata Bateman ex. Lindl. 450 Ground Orn. Yes Philippines
31 Calanthe sp. “cf. kinabaluensis” 1500–1600 Ground – – –
32 Cephalantheropsis aff. halconensis (Ames) S.S.Ying 1700–2000 Ground – Yes Philippines
33 Cheirostylis octodactyla Ames 2040 Ground – No Widespread
34 Coelogyne rochussenii de Vriese 400–700 Lithophyte – No Widespread
2m
35 Coelogyne sp. 600–900 2–6 m Orn. – –
36 Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Blume 400 Ground – No Widespread
37 Cryptostylis acutata J.J.Sm. 1400–1500 Ground – No Widespread
38 Cryptostylis taiwaniana Masam. 700–800 Ground – No Widespread
39 Cylindrolobus longissimus (Ames & Quisumb.) House – Orn. Yes Luzon
J.J.Wood
40 Cymboglossum cymbidiifolium (Ridl.) Ormerod & 800–1000 2m – No Widespread
Cootes
41 Cystorchis sp. 550 Ground – – –
42 Dendrobium boosii Cootes & W.Suarez 700–1000 2–3 m Orn. Yes Philippines
43 Dendrobium cf. chloranthum Schuit. & Peter House – Orn. Yes Luzon
B.Adams
44 Dendrobium orbilobulatum Fessel & Lückel 1100 4–5 m Orn. Yes Philippines
45 Dendrobium planum J.J.Sm. 500–600 5m – Yes Philippines
46 Dendrobium plicatile Lindl. 1200 1.8 m – No Widespread
47 Dendrobium pterocarpum Ames 1800 7m – Yes Mindanao
48 Dendrobium rhombeum Lindl. 700–1000 10–15 m Orn. Yes Philippines
49 Dendrobium setigerum Ames ex. M.A.Clem 850 10 m – Yes Philippines
50 Dendrobium tiongii Cootes 600–800 2–10 m Orn. Yes Philippines
51 Dendrobium uniflorum Griff. 500–600 2m Orn. No Widespread
52 Dendrochilum coccineum H.A.Pedersen & Gravend. 1700–1800 1.5 m Orn. Yes Mindanao
53 Dendrochilum aff. elmeri Ames 1900–2000 1.5–3 m – Yes Mindanao
54 Dendrochilum glumaceum Lindl. 800 1.6 m – No Widespread
55 Dendrochilum migueldavidii Cootes & Cabactulan 900–1300 1.5–2 m – Yes Mindanao
56 Dendrochilum sp. 1 2000 2m – – –
57 Dendrochilum sp. 2 800 1.7 m – – –
58 Dienia carinata Rchb.f. 1950 Ground – No Widespread
59 Epiblastus merrillii L.O.Williams 1150 3.5 m – Yes Mindanao
60 Epipogium roseum (D.Don) Lindl. 600–700 Ground – Yes Philippines
61 Erythrodes latifolia Blume 700 Ground – Yes Luzon
62 Grammatophyllum wallisii Rchb.f. 400–600 15–20 m Orn. Yes Philippines
63 Lepidogyne longifolia (Blume) Blume 1100-1200 Ground Orn. No Widespread
64 Mycaranthes candoonensis (Ames) Cootes & 1800–2000 2–5 m – Yes Mindanao
W.Suarez
65 Mycaranthes mindanaensis (Ames) Cootes & 1600–1800 2–5 m – Yes Philippines
W.Suarez
66 Oberonia serrulata Schltr. 500–700 2m Orn. No Widespread
67 Octarrhena elmeri (Ames) Ames 550–650 2m – Yes Mindanao
68 Odontochilus marivelensis Ormerod & Cootes 1600–1700 Ground – Yes Philippines
69 Odontochilus yakushimensis (Yamam.) T.Yukawa 2000 2.5 m – No Widespread
70 Oxystophyllum elmeri (Ames) M.A.Clem 800–900 3m – Yes Philippines
71 Paraphaius flavus (Blume) J.W.Zhai, Z.J.Liu & 1700–1800 Ground – Yes Philippines
F.W.Xing

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Vol. 150 No. S1, Special Issue on Biodiversity

Altitudinal distribution Vertical Local Endemism

No. Species Distributionc
(masl)a distribution useb
72 Peristylus goodyeroides (D.Don.) Lindl. 700–900 Ground – No Widespread
73 Phaius tankervilleae (Bank) Blume 600 0.3 m – No Widespread
74 Phalaenopsis mariae Burb.ex R.Warner & House – Orn. Yes Philippines
H.Williams
75 Phalaenopsis reichenbachiana Rchb.f. & Sander 450 4.5 m – Yes Mindanao
76 Phalaenopsis sanderiana Rchb.f. House – Orn. Yes Mindanao
77 Pholidota imbricata Lindl. 400–600 4m Orn. No Widespread
78 Phreatia amesii Kraenzl. 1700 1.5 m – No Widespread
79 Phreatia sulcata (Blume) J.J.Sm. 1800 1.5 m Orn. No Widespread
80 Phreatia sp. 1 1700 1m – – –
81 Phreatia sp. 2 1800–1900 1.5 m – – –
82 Pinalia floribunda (Lindl.) Kuntze 700–1500 1.5–3 m – No Widespread
83 Pinalia nielsenii 1900 1.7 m – Yes Mindanao
Cootes, Cabactulan, & M.Leon
84 Podochilus lucescens Blume House – Orn. No Widespread
85 Podochilus plumosus Ames 1000–1100 2–3 m – Yes Philippines
86 Podochilus sp. 1000–1100 2–3 m – – –
87 Pteroceras longicalcareum (Ames & Rolfe) Garay House – Orn. Yes Philippines
88 Renanthera monachica Ames House – Orn. Yes Philippines
89 Rhomboda lanceolata (Lindl.) Ormerod 1800–2000 0–2 m – No Widespread
90 Robiquetia bifidus (Lindl.) Kocyan & Schuit. House – Orn. Yes Philippines
91 Robiquetia compressa (Lindl.) Schltr. 1400–1600 4m – Yes Philippines
92 Spathoglottis plicata Blume 400–1000 Ground Orn. No Widespread
93 Stichorkis cf. compressa (Blume) J.J.Wood 2000 1.5 m – No Widespread
94 Stichorkis gracilis (Ames) Naive & Ormerod 1600–1700 1.5 m – Yes Philippines
95 Stichorkis leytensis (Ames) Cootes 800–900 2.5 m – Yes Philippines
96 Stichorkis philippinensis (Ames) Naive & Ormerod 1500 1.7 m – Yes Philippines
97 Taeniophyllum philippinense Rchb.f. 2000 1.7 m – Yes Philippines
98 Taeniophyllum sp. 580 1.9 m – – –
99 Thelasis carinata Blume 500–1300 1.5 m – No Widespread
100 Thrixspermum bellamabantae Cabactulan, Cootes & 480 2.5 m – Yes Mindanao
R.B.Pimentel
101 Thrixspermum elmeri L.O.Williams 1950 2m – Yes Negros
102 Thrixspermum merguense (Hook.f.) Kuntze 500 2–2.5 m – No Widespread
103 Thrixspermum rostratum Ames 500 2.5 m Orn. Yes Philippines
104 Thrixspermum sp. 600–700 3m – No –
105 Trichotosia odorifera (Leav.) Kraenzl. House – Orn. Yes Philippines
106 Trichotosia aff. ramosii (Leav.) Kraenzl. 1500–1700 15–20 m – Yes Philippines
107 Vanda cootesii Motes House – Orn. Yes Mindanao
108 Vrydagzynea sp. 1650–1725 Ground – No –
aSpecies that were solely recorded in the villages were denoted as house
bOrn. – species used as ornamental plants
cWidespread – species that are native but not endemic in the Philippines; Philippines – Philippine endemic species that were found in two or more major islands; Luzon

– endemic species that were recorded only in Luzon island; Negros – endemic species that were recorded only in Negros island; Sam-Ley – endemic species that were
recorded only in Samar and Leyte islands; Mindanao – endemic species that are known only to occur in mainland Mindanao.
dThe subspecies is the Philippine endemic

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Mindoro, and Panay. We also recorded Oberonia serrulata,
which is a new locality record for the species and the first
record for the Philippines (previously known to be endemic in
New Guinea; confirmed by Ronny Boos and Daniel Geiger).
Most species of orchids were found in the MASLEF (700–
1100 m elevation) with 39 recorded species, followed by
the UMF (1700–2046 m elevation), LMF (1200–1600
m elevation), and MESLEF (400–600 m elevation) with
28, 20, and 17 recorded species, respectively (Figure 2).
Orchids showed distinct species composition among
forest types, as most species were narrowly distributed.
Only four species occurred in more than two forest
types – namely, Dendrochilum migueldavidii, Pinalia
floribunda, Spathoglottis plicata, and Thelasis carinata.
The lowland evergreen forest (MESLEF and MASLEF)
was mostly composed of species under the genera
Appendicula, Dendrobium, and Thrixspermum (each
genus had more than two species in this forest type);
the LMF was dominated mainly by Bulbophyllum (four
species) and Calanthe (two species but quite common
along forest trails in LMF); and the UMF by the genera
Dendrochilum, Phreatia, Mycaranthes, Stichorkis, and
Appendicula (only A. malindangensis was found in UMF
but it was the most abundant).
DISCUSSION
The biodiversity of southern Mindanao has long been
underrepresented in the scientific literature, as evinced
by the lack of published studies on biodiversity in the
region. Our study augments this gap and highlights the
substantial level of biodiversity in southern Mindanao,
particularly of the orchidaceous species which are among
the most diverse yet threatened groups of plants globally
and in the Philippines.
Mount Busa hosts ~ 9% of the country’s estimated number
of orchid species and harbors 53+ Philippine endemic
species. This estimate is higher than other surveyed
montane localities in the Philippines, with twice the
number of recorded species in previous studies (18–60
species; Panal et al. 2015; Buenavista 2017; Betanio and
Buenavista 2018). It is even at par with the well-surveyed
Samar island that has at least 90 recorded orchid species
(Meneses et al. 2018). However, we acknowledge that
differences in species richness estimates could be due to
observer bias and differences in the sampling coverage
and effort. Nevertheless, our results foreshadow the high
diversity of orchids in southern Mindanao, which is
worthy of conservation attention and further study.
We recorded the highest orchid species richness in the
MASLEF of Mount Busa between an elevation of 700
Saavedra and Pitogo: Orchids of Mt. Busa
and 1100 m, although we expect an increase in species
richness in LMF and UMF (+ 1100 m elevation) with
subsequent fieldwork. Several plants we observed in the
montane forests did not have inflorescence or were past
the flowering stage, making species identification difficult
or impossible (e.g. species in the genera Ceratostylis,
Crepidium, Cylindrolobus, Dendrobium, Trichoglottis,
Vanda). Thus, we recommend that fieldwork should cover
the flowering seasons of various genera to maximize the
species inventory. On the other hand, MESLEF had the
lowest number of orchid species recorded, but this estimate
may increase with the addition of new sampling areas.
The larger area in MASLEF, and the associated environmental
variables that are optimum for many species to survive, could
explain the high species richness estimate in this forest
type (species-area relationships in mountains; McCain
and Grytness 2010). Our results, although inconclusive at
present, suggest a mid-peak in species richness which is
commonly reported in the literature (Acharya et al. 2011;
Salas-Morales and Meave 2012; Zhang et al. 2015; Betanio
and Buenavista 2018). However, the elevation at which the
diversity peaks differs across regions. Orchid diversity in
the mountains in China peak between an elevation of 1300
and 1800 m (Acharya et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2015; Ding
et al. 2016) while mountains in tropical areas peak between
400 and 1000 m (Jacquemyn et al. 2005; Salas-Morales
and Meave 2012; this study). In the Philippines, the forest
between 400 and 1000 m elevation is mostly the tropical
lowland evergreen, which is the typical rainforest formation
in the country (Fernando et al. 2008b).
Species composition also differed among forest types,
which may be due to certain traits that allow the species to
persist at certain elevations (Jacquemyn et al. 2005). This
distribution pattern suggests the distinctiveness of each
forest type in terms of orchid composition highlighting
the importance of encompassing all forest types in
management interventions, as threats differ in kind and
degree across elevation. For instance, the low-elevation
forests are hardly hit by habitat degradation (Soh et al.
2019) and montane organisms at all elevations are affected
by climatic changes as shown in the upward migration of
mountain plants, causing range contractions of narrowly
distributed species (Pauli et al. 1996; Lenoir et al. 2008;
Bentley et al. 2019).
Habitat degradation and climatic changes are exacerbated
by the poaching and harvesting of orchid species, which
remain a global threat to orchid populations (Fay 2018;
Gale et al. 2018). Local collections have been observed in
the villages around Mount Busa for ornamental purposes,
but we found no evidence yet of trade with outside plant
hobbyists and collectors. However, steps to regulate
collection from the wild should be undertaken because all
identified threatened orchids species in Mount Busa have
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Vol. 150 No. S1, Special Issue on Biodiversity

Figure 2. (A) Sample-size-based and (C) coverage-based rarefaction (solid line) and extrapolation (dotted line)
curves for species richness with 95% confidence intervals (shaded areas) for the orchid species recorded in
Mount Busa. The solid triangle represents the reference samples. (B) Sample completeness curve linking
curves in (A) and (C). The curves denote that additional field samplings would still yield more species.

Figure 3. Sample-size-based rarefaction (solid line) and extrapolation (dotted line) curves for species richness with
95% confidence intervals (shaded areas) for the orchid species recorded among different forest types in
Mount Busa. The solid shapes represent the reference samples. LMF – lower montane forest, MASLEF –
mixed advanced secondary lowland evergreen forest, MESLEF – mixed early secondary lowland evergreen
forest, UMF – upper montane forest.

been collected for ornamental use, three of which were
solely observed in the villages (e.g. Phalaenopsis mariae,
Phalaenopsis sanderiana, and Renanthera monachica). It is
for this reason why, as a precaution, we opted not to collect
species for voucher specimens since it might contribute to
the reduction of orchid populations in the wild. Based on
our experiences, some locals have the tendency to collect
any plants that are identified as orchids, so we tried to be
discreet in documenting any orchid species. If poachers
can penetrate the area then this could threaten the many
diverse orchids in Mount Busa, particularly in the highly
diverse lowland evergreen forest where access is easier.
Species that are range-restricted, endemic, and threatened
are likewise become vulnerable to poaching.
Our findings reinforce the Busa Mountain Range as a KBA
and a high conservation priority site in the Philippines (Ong
et al. 2002). The southern slope of the Busa Mountain
Range, where our study sites are situated, has been recently
declared as a local conservation area. Our findings and those

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Vol. 150 No. S1, Special Issue on Biodiversity

Figure 4. Some of the orchid species recorded in Mount Busa: (A) Acanthophippium mantinianum; (B)
Agrostophyllum elongatum; (C) Agrostophyllum loheri; (D) Anoectochilus sp.; (E) Appendicula crotalina;
(F) Appendicula elmeri; (G) Appendicula leytensis; (H) Appendicula malindangensis; (I) Appendicula
cf. pendula; (J) Appendicula undulata var. longicalcarata; (K) Appendicula weberi; (L) Appendicula
sp. 1; (M) Appendicula sp. 2; (N) Appendicula sp. 3; (O) Appendicula sp. 4; (P) Appendicula sp. 5
(Q) Bryobium senile; (R) Bulbophyllum colubrimodum; (S) Bulbophyllum sp. 1; (T) Bulbophyllum
sp. 2; (U) Bulbophyllum sp. 3; (V) Calanthe davaensis; (W) Calanthe sp. “cf. kinabaluensis”; (X)
Cephalantheropsis aff. halconensis; (Y) Cheirostylis octodactyla.

of other studies (Brown 2015; Pitogo 2020) justify this legal
protection, but a designation as a protected area under the
NIPAS (National Integrated Protected Areas System) may
be required to instigate more conservation and scientific
attention given the high level of diversity, endemism, and
undescribed species in the area. Many of the KBAs in the
Philippines remain unprotected (Mallari et al. 2016), which
makes these areas vulnerable to illegal and unsustainable
activities. Empirical field data offer strong evidence to
justify protection and facilitate systematic conservation
planning (Margules and Pressey 2000). Field-based
biodiversity studies are particularly relevant in southern
Mindanao, where threats of land conversion, mining, and
illegal wildlife trade are becoming rampant.
This study provides a step towards strengthening the
protection of one of the last remaining intact forests in
southern Mindanao by providing an initial list of orchids
in Mount Busa, noting certain ecological traits (i.e.
altitudinal and vertical distributions) that are relevant
to their conservation and to future studies on orchid
ecology. We recommend more distribution studies
of orchids in the Philippines, particularly in montane
localities, since the data are needed in many conservation
interventions (e.g. monitoring, conservation planning,
and species conservation assessments) and help infer
phytogeographical patterns in the country. Ecological
covariates that influence orchid distribution along
environmental gradients should be also explored because
this information remains scarce for Philippine species.
The difficulty of identifying orchid species could hinder
such studies, but the availability of an online platform that
could connect early-career researchers (ECRs) and experts

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Vol. 150 No. S1, Special Issue on Biodiversity

Figure 5. Some of the orchid species recorded in Mount Busa: (A) Coelogyne rochussenii; (B) Coelogyne sp.;
(C) Cryptostylis acutata; (D) Cymboglossum cymbidiifolium; (E) Cystorchis sp.; (F) Dendrobium
boosii; (G) Dendrobium cf. chloranthum; (H) Dendrobium orbilobulatum; (I) Dendrobium plicatile; (J)
Dendrobium pterocarpum; (K) Dendrobium rhombeum; (L) Dendrobium setigerum; (M) Dendrobium
tiongii; (N) Dendrochilum coccineum; (O) Dendrochilum migueldavidii; (P) Dendrochilum sp. 1; (Q)
Dendrochilum aff. elmeri; (R) Dendrochilum sp. 2; (S) Dienia carinata; (T) Epiblastus merilii; (U)
Epipogium roseum; (V) Blepharoglossum grossum; (W) Mycaranthes candoonensis; (X) Mycaranthes
mindanaensis; (Y) Oberonia serrulata.

in the field help ameliorate this challenge (see Barcelona
et al. 2013). With enough technical support to ECRs, we
may be able to address many long-overdue questions in
Philippine orchidology.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We recorded the orchid species listed here in the course of
the Amphibians and Reptiles of Mount Busa project with
financial support from The Rufford Foundation (Project
No. 26752-1), USAID Protect Wildlife, and Idea Wild to
KMP. DENR Region XII provided the permit for fieldwork
(Gratuitous Permit No. 2020-09). We are immensely
grateful to Lorenzo Sinandon, tribal chieftain of the Tulad
village, for sheltering us and ensuring our safety while
on the field. We thank Nestor Gayan, John Timbangan,
and Dan Sulan for their significant contributions to data
collection. Tristan Luap Senarillos assisted us in the
literature review and John Carlo Redeña Santos created the
map we used in this paper. We appreciate Rene Alfred Anton
Bustamante, Wally Suarez, Ronny Boos, Daniel Geiger,
Jim Cootes, and the many people in the Co’s Digital Flora
of the Philippines Facebook page (and the platform itself)
for helping us in the identification. Lastly, we thank the two
anonymous reviewers who have helped in improving the
early version of this manuscript.
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