IGCSE Geography CIE: 3. Economic Development

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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Geography CIE 
3. Economic Development
CONTENTS
3.1 Development
3.1.1 Levels of Development
3.1.2 Inequalities in Development
3.1.3 Economic Sectors
3.1.4 Employment Sectors
3.1.5 Globalisation
3.2 Food Production
3.2.1 Agricultural Systems
3.2.2 Food Shortages
3.3 Industry
3.3.1 Industrial Systems
3.3.2 Distribution of Industrial Zones
3.4 Tourism
3.4.1 Growth of Tourism
3.4.2 Impacts of Tourism
3.4.3 Management of Tourism
3.5 Energy
3.5.1 Non-Renewble Fossil Fuels
3.5.2 Renewable Energy
3.5.3 Nuclear Energy & Fuelwood
3.6 Water
3.6.1 Water Supply and Use
3.6.2 Water Shortages
3.7 Environmental Risks of Economic Activity
3.7.1 Soil Erosion & Desertification
3.7.2 Global Warming
3.7.4 Resource Conservation
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3.1 Development YOUR NOTES


3.1.1 Levels of Development
Levels of Development
Development is the progress that a country makes to improve the quality of life
for its population and make the country more independent
The quality of life includes subjective evaluations of life such as happiness
These different components are not independent of each other but linked - for
example health and environment are dependent on income and they in turn may
impact happiness:
Physical - Water supply, housing, power and heat, climate, diet and nutrition
etc
Social - Family and friends, education, health etc.
Psychological - Happiness, security, freedom etc.
Economic - Income, job security, standard of living, mobility etc
Development is not a smooth, continuous process
Development can occur for a number of reasons:
Investment in agriculture (tractors, fertilisers etc.) improves food supplies,
which improves the health of people
Improvements in supplies of power to rural areas
Improvements in access to education for females and overall literacy rates
It can be slowed, halted and even reversed by:
War/conflict
Disease
Disasters
Economic recession
Cycle of wealth
One of the key indicators of development is the cycle of wealth
Economic development creates wealth and if a country has a stable and effective
government this leads to the development
As the economy grows, more people work and are earning more money:
The government can then collect more taxes and people have more disposable
income to spend which increases business profits
The taxes collected and profits made by companies can then be invested in
future growth as well as infrastructure, education, healthcare etc...
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YOUR NOTES

The Cycle of Wealth
Measures of national income

The traditional method of measuring wealth is through the country's GNP (gross
national product), GDP (gross domestic product) and GNI (gross national income)
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita is the total value of goods and services
produced within a country in a year divided by the population of the country
There can be huge differences in GDP depending on the size and population of
a country
Dividing it by the population means that more meaningful comparisons can be
made between countries
GDP per capita is an average this means that the variation in wealth is hidden
It is possible that two countries can have the same average GDP per capita but
that one has a few very wealthy people and lots of people living in poverty
whereas the other has a more equal distribution of the wealth
There is no way of knowing what the GDP is spent on - for example, GDP increases
after an earthquake due to the rebuilding which is needed this does not mean that
the country is more developed or that everyone's quality of life has improved
As countries have different numbers of people (population), then GNP per capita
(per person) is used
This allows comparison between countries where total population figures are
different
GNP of the UK is lower than India, but the GNP per capita of the UK is higher
than India (India has a higher population compared to the UK)
However, GNP per capita does not take into account the cost-of-living in the
country - $1 will go further in Bangladesh than in the USA
To even this discrepancy, the GNP per capita at Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) is
calculated
Comparison between countries level of development is easy to see, but it fails to
identify:
How wealth is distributed around a country - the wealth gap
Government investment in the country - Cuba has higher literacy rates, a
lower infant mortality rate, and similar life expectancy than America, despite
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Cuba's low GNP per capita but Cuba's government has long prioritised social YOUR NOTES
investment 
Levels of development vary on a local, national and international scale
There are differences between areas of the same city, the same country and
between countries
These include:
Literacy
Life expectancy
Infant mortality
Doctors per 1000 people
Energy consumption per capita
Internet access
Car ownership
 Exam Tip
Remember increasing wealth is not equally distributed. In all countries some
people will benefit more from the cycle of wealth and economic
development. Often as a country develops the gap between the rich and
poor increases.
Human development index

The Human Development Index (HDI) was developed by the UN in 1990 and is a
measure of the disparities between countries
The index takes into account four indicators of development:
Life expectancy at birth
Mean years of schooling for adults aged 25 years
Expected years of schooling for children at school entering the age
Gross National Income (GNI) per capita (PPP$)
Countries can be divided into four groups using HDI
Very High Human Development (VHHD)
High Human Development (HHD)
Medium Human Development (MHD)
Low Human Development (LHD)
HDI is scored from 0 to 1
The higher the HDI the higher the level of development and quality of life
Norway has the highest HDI at 0.957
Niger has the lowest HDI at 0.394
Gini coefficient index
GNP and HDI are unable to identify inequalities between countries
The wealth gap in some countries is more significant than in others
The Gini coefficient index is used to analyse the distribution of wealth and identify
countries where wealth distribution is the most unequal:
Measured on a scale of 0 - 1.0 or as a percentage
A low value means that the distribution of wealth is more equal - a
measurement of 0 would mean that wealth is distributed completely equally
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A high value means the distribution of wealth is unequal - a measurement of YOUR NOTES
1 would indicate maximum inequality 
The Gini coefficient index is usually between 0.24 and 0.63 or 24%-63%
The highest inequality is currently in South Africa, Central Africa, Namibia, Zambia
and Suriname
The lowest inequality is in the Czech Republic and Croatia
 Worked Example
Identify the meaning of the term quality of life
[1]
A person's well-being in terms of
A
environment, security and health
B A person's level of deprivation
C A person's level of income
D A person's type of job
Answer:
A - The other answers are subjective and do not relate to the
quality of life
Indices of political corruption

Political corruption can have a devastating impact on both development and
human welfare
It means money is often not invested in infrastructure, development and
human welfare but goes to wealthy individuals
It leads to a lack of trust between local/national governments and the
population
Transparency International scores 180 countries around the world out of 100
based on the levels of public sector corruption
The higher the score the less corruption has been found
Denmark, New Zealand, Finland and Singapore have the lowest levels of public
sector corruption scoring 85/100 or more
Somalia, Syria and South Sudan have the highest levels of public sector
corruption scoring less than 15/100
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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 Suggest why GDP per capita is not necessarily a good indicator

of the quality of life.

[2]
Answer - any two of the following
GDP measures only economic production [1]
Quality of life is not only about income [1]
GDP is an average measure so many people may have incomes
below this [1]
The wealth is not shared equally across the population [1]
It depends on what the GDP is spent on - weapons do not improve
quality of life [1]
It does not consider health or education [1]
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3.1.2 Inequalities in Development YOUR NOTES


Inequalities in Development
Stages of development
All countries move through the different stages of development
The UN identifies four main stages of development
Stages of Development
The development gap

The development gap is the difference in levels of development between the least
developed and most developed countries in the world
There are many factors which lead to the differences in development
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Factors Affecting Development and Human Welfare YOUR NOTES

Physical geography 
Landlocked countries find trade more difficult and so often develop more
slowly
Small countries develop more slowly due to have fewer human and natural
resources
Those countries with extreme climates develop more slowly
The physical geography also impacts on the natural resources available
The natural resources are those things provided by the physical environment
Natural
Uses
resource
Water Domestic use, energy
Forests
Timber, habitat, rubber, recreation, food,
medicines
Fossil Fuels Fuel, energy
Soil Growing crops
Rocks Construction
Minerals Glass, jewellery, money
Animals Food, skins
Some countries are able to meet all their needs from the natural resources they
have
Many countries have to import some natural resources that are not available within
their borders
When countries have to import natural resources, this means they do not have
security of supply as imports could be affected by war or political issues
Water, food and energy security are particularly important to support a country's
development
Demography
The population structure of a country
The birth and death rates, as well as immigration, affect the available
workforce
Those countries where birth rates have fallen the most, show the highest rates
of growth
Technology
Can help to increase water, food and energy security
Mechanisation of farming increases yields and improved land surveying may
reveal more energy sources
Technology can also mean that existing resources are used more efficiently
Social
Levels of education affect the skills people have. The more educated a
population is the more a country will develop
Healthcare affects how well people are which affects their ability to work
Lack of equality can mean that the overall productivity of a country is affected
Government policies
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The stability and effectiveness of government can have a significant impact on YOUR NOTES
development and human welfare 
Development and human welfare are greatest where there is a democratically
elected government
Corrupt governments do not invest in the country's development or in
improving the quality of life for the population
A government's economic policy affect development and human welfare
through:
Open economy - where foreign investment is encouraged, which
generates faster development
Higher rates of saving and lower spending compared to GDP, results in
further development
Differences within countries
As well as differences between countries there are also differences in development
within countries:
This can be seen in all countries whether they are developed, emerging or
developing
Often development is focused on particular regions
Inequalities within countries are due to several factors
Cumulative causation theory is one explanation for regional differences:
Growth in the core region attracts skilled labour and capital
Areas in the periphery suffer as skilled labour leaves and investment is
focussed on the core
The gap between the core and the periphery grows
Eventually the growth of the core region may stimulate growth in the periphery
due to the demand for raw materials
Cumulative Causation
There are three stages of regional inequality:

Pre-industrial stage - regional differences are at their lowest
Period of rapid economic growth - increasing regional differences
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Regional economic convergence - where wealth from the core spreads to other YOUR NOTES
parts of the country 
Causes of regional inequalities
Residence - Urban areas generally attract greater levels of investment leading to
increased business and incomes:
There may also be inequality within the urban area
Ethnicity - Discrimination can result in ethnic groups having income levels
significantly below the dominant groups within a country. This reduces the
opportunities open to these groups
Employment - The split between formal and informal employment impacts
incomes. Formal jobs usually have higher incomes and greater benefits, such as
holidays and sick pay
Education - Those with higher levels of education usually gain higher paying
employment
Land ownership -Inequalities in land ownership are strongly linked to inequalities
in income
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 Study the figure below which shows GDP per capita in South

America along with the percentage change in GDP
State one piece of evidence that there is a development gap in

South America
[2]
As this is for two marks, it is important that you use evidence from the
source for the second mark
There is a difference in GDP per capita between countries [1]
French Guiana has a GDP per capita of less than US$4000 whereas
Suriname has a GDP per capita of over US$13,000 [1]
OR
There is a difference in the percentage increase of GDP per capita

[1] Guyana's increase in GDP per capita is only 1.4% whereas Chile's
is 3.7% [1]
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YOUR NOTES
 ExamRemember
Tip
where an exam question asks for one piece of evidence do 
not give more than that.
In the case of the worked example, the one piece of evidence is the
comparison between two countries.
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3.1.3 Economic Sectors YOUR NOTES


Economic Sectors
An economic activity is the production, purchase or selling of goods and services
Economic activities can be grouped into four sectors:
Primary - mining, fishing, farming etc.
Secondary - factory workers, clothing, steel production etc.
Tertiary - nurses, lawyers, teachers, shop assistants, chefs
Quaternary - hi-tech scientists, research and development
 Worked Example
Identify what is meant by an economic sector
[1]
A. The chain of production in
manufacturing
B. An economic shift in employment
C. A classification of types of
employment
D. A classification of employment
structures
Answer:
C [1] - a classification system for types of employment
The other answers are not related to employment sectors which are
the four groups - primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
 Exam Tip
Remember the economic sectors can also be used to group employment
types. For example, a farmer is employed in the primary sector whereas a
teacher is employed in the tertiary sector.
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3.1.4 Employment Sectors YOUR NOTES


Employment in Economic Sectors
Economic sectors are an indicator of a country's economic development using
either:
The amount each sector contributes to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
The percentage of the population they employ
The proportions of each economic sector GDP and employment changes over time:
In the pre-industrial period, the primary sector dominates with steady
increases in the secondary and tertiary sectors
As countries develop the reliance on the primary sector for GDP and
employment rapidly decreases
During the industrial period the amount of GDP and employment in the
secondary sector increases to become dominant and then decreases. The
primary sector continues to decrease and tertiary sector increases
In the post-industrial phase, the tertiary and quaternary sectors increase
whilst the secondary and primary sectors decrease.
The tertiary sector dominates employment and GDP in the post-industrial
period
Clark-Fisher Sector Model
As countries develop the numbers of people employed in each economic sector

changes
This can be seen in the Clark Fisher Sector Model above and in the examples
below:
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
You should be able to look at a pie chart or graph of the economic sectors
and work out the stage of development of a country. A developing country
will be dominated by primary economic activities, a newly industrialised
country is likely to have fairly equal amounts of each type of economic
sector employment and finally a developed country will be dominated by
tertiary economic activities.
Causes of changes over time

There are a number of reasons for the change in percentages employed in each
sector:
Increasing mechanisation in agriculture led to a decrease in the jobs available
People moved to urban areas to find jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors
Increasing mechanisation and global changes led to a decrease in secondary
employment in some countries
Technological improvements have led to an increase in tertiary and quaternary
employment
There is a clear link between employment structure and indicators of development
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3.1.5 Globalisation YOUR NOTES


Globalisation
Globalisation is where the world has become more interconnected through the
processes of economics, culture, politics, trade and tourism
Environmental globalisation can also be considered part of the interconnection as
can be seen with the impacts of global warming
Globalisation is nothing new; trade between people, business and countries has
always existed
Whereas trade would have taken weeks, month or even years in the past, modern
transport and communications has made trading and interaction almost
instantaneous - time-space compression
Globalisation has effectively removed the political borders of countries which
makes countries more interdependent on each other, with the more powerful
countries and business empires affecting decisions in other parts of the world
This has seen the rise in global inequality
These improvements and developments in communication and transport have
made globalisation what it is today - a shrinking world
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YOUR NOTES

Time-Space Compression
Overall, connections around the globe are:

Faster - faster speeds for talking, travel, money exchange etc
Deeper - connecting lives with faraway places
Longer - connecting links between places are further apart
These connections are considered as network flows to places and populations
through four significant developments:
Appearance of large transnational corporations (TNCs)
Growth of regional economics and trading blocs
Development of modern transport networks
Advances in IT and communications, particularly the WWW and the internet
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YOUR NOTES

Production chain
These developments have led to the global economy
Almost every country in the world has 'networked' in one way or another
There are five different network flows:
Trade - import and export of raw materials, food goods and services through
the reduction of trade barriers
Aid - most aid is economic either through receiving or donating, allowing
developing countries to invest in education, health, infrastructure and trade
Foreign investment - either directly or indirectly through business
opportunities e.g. Shell oil investing in Niger
Labour - important to the working of the global economy and labour
migration fuels this market either with a specialist or cheap labour
Information - fast data transfer and communication are vital to the global
economy
The global production, supply or commodity chain pulls these flows together to
produce goods or commodity
At each stage of the flow, value is added to the emerging product
Despite the miles involved and the number of countries involved; the product is
still cheaper to produce in various stages
This is known as the Economies of Scale - the cost per item reduces when
operated on a large scale
Transport improvements through large container ships mean that costs are
reduced and moved further quicker
Labour costs are cheaper in emerging and developing countries and there are
usually reduced legal restrictions
Global investment
Investment is not just monetary (economic), although this is a large part of it
Investment can be in people, research or products
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Foreign investment is where individuals or firms from abroad invest in another YOUR NOTES
country: 
Call centres can be located anywhere e.g. India
Investment is made in the country through building the call centre, paying
taxes etc.
Local people are employed and trained
Service is provided to the donor country - the UK
Moving manufacturing from developed to developing or emerging countries
China is the main area for manufacturing goods from around the world
Investment is made in China to produce goods
Completed goods are shipped back to the original country e.g. Germany
Investment in people either for cheap labour or for their expertise
Specialist surgeon from the USA to Australia
Investment in developments that attracts cheap labour - construction of Dubai
attracts many Indian migrants
Research and development investment - motor car industry to build more
fuel-efficient motoring - Elon Musk's Tesla electric cars
Investment can be from aid for rebuilding after a disaster - Ukraine will need aid
after the war with Russia ends
Aid can be funds sent to the government to use as necessary, although this
can often lead to corruption and funds not going where they should
Aid can be in form of goods and services directed to the affected area -
refugee camps or after a natural hazard such as a tropical storm or earthquake
Transnational corporations (TNCs)
Transnational Corporations (TNCs) operate in foreign countries individually and
not through a centralised management system
TNCs and countries are the two main elements of the global economy
Governments and global institutions set the rules for the global economy, but the
main investment is through TNCs
TNCs involve themselves in all economic sectors and impact the global economy
with the largest TNCs representing the biggest percentage of total global
production
TNCs directly invest in one country and later expand to other nations (usually
developing countries) to take advantage of lower labour costs and incentives
They may not be loyal to the operating country's values and will only look to the
expansion of their business as they have no connection to the country they
operate in
It is the process of moving manufacturing around the globe that has resulted in the
development of emerging countries such as China, India and Brazil
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YOUR NOTES
 ExamRemember
Tip
that Transnational Corporations (TNCs) are not the same as 
Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
The biggest difference is that an MNC has a home country that makes
decisions and passes them around the global companies, whereas TNCs
operate independently
An example of an MNC is Apple, where R&D and major decisions are
made in California and passed along the operating chain
Cadbury's chocolate is a TNC as they have to make decisions to vary the
recipe to local tastes and conditions - e.g. the chocolate is sweeter in
China
 Worked Example
Identify the meaning of the term TNC
[1]
A Translocal Corporation
B Transnational Corporation
C Transnational Country
D
Transporting National
Corporation
Answer:
B [1] - as none of the other terms exist.
Impacts of globalisation on people

Globalisation has generated benefits and costs for many people but at different
levels
Some have benefitted more than others with the poorest tending to be the losers
However, it can be argued that without globalisation the poorest would be worse
off than they are now, as they job opportunities and income from inward
investment from TNCs
Countries such as China, Brazil and India have transformed themselves from
developing to emerging economies which has directly benefitted their population
Gender gap within individual countries is generally lower in more globalised
countries
Skilled workers are in demand and benefit from globalisation more than unskilled
workers
Benefits and Cost of Globalisation to People at a Variety of Levels
Benefit Cost
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Cheaper products available for people Small local businesses cannot YOUR NOTES
compete with global companies
Greater choice of goods 
Labour drain - skilled workers
Bigger export market for domestic migrate elsewhere leaving
manufacturers unskilled or no workers behind
Integration of cultures - multi-culture Dependence on single TNC
Education and skills are improved employment
More freedom of movement Worker exploitation/cheap labour
Local Level Spread of technology and innovation Closure of TNC leaves high
unemployment rates
A higher standard of living
Cultural dilution or loss of cultural
Availability of housing, sanitation, identity
food and water is better
Environmental cost of increased
Gender equality and gender pay gap production, trade and growth
closing in developed countries
Pollution impacts the health of
people
Daily living costs increased
Increased levels of disparity
between places - some towns and
cities will benefit more from
Higher levels of incoming revenue government policies
from tourism, exports and imports Social mobility is limited to urban
Growth of improved health care, areas, people in rural areas need
infrastructure, social care and to migrate
education TNCs control a large labour force
National
Level Social mobility is greater - access to and can 'black list' workers,
higher education and senior effectively preventing people from
leadership roles working elsewhere
TNC offer apprenticeships and Industrial growth impacts the
incentives for progression environment - burning fossil fuels
adds to global warming and
pollution
Growth of urban slums
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Movement of people, transport YOUR NOTES

ownership and loss of biodiversity 
increases globally
Skilled workers are in demand and The impact is greater on
can move relatively easily between developing countries, particularly
countries remote rural areas, increasing the
development gap
Higher levels of income and quality of
International life
Decisions made elsewhere do not
Level
consider local or national
Access to wide levels of skills and identities
research
The movement of skilled workers
International trade routes and foreign and researchers leaves an
investment improves opportunities imbalance in developing and
emerging countries, reducing the
potential for further development
unless they pay higher wages,
leading to higher global costs
Impacts of globalisation on countries
TNCs are key in globalisation
They link raw materials with manufacturers, research and development
opportunities and products with global markets
Global marketing establishes TNCs as 'the brand' to have
However, TNCs answer to shareholders and need to maximise their profits, usually
at the cost of their workers
TNCs therefore, can impact positively or negatively on countries
Benefits and Cost of Globalisation to Countries at a Variety of Levels
Benefits Costs
TNCs bring skills, opportunities, TNCs pay low wages and expect long
money and technology to developing hours and are generally exploitive,
and emerging countries particularly of female workers
TNCs are powerful and are not loyal to
Inward investment to host countries a host country's government -
increase the level development investment can disappear as quickly
as it came
Host country's infrastructure is TNCs can leave a country if global or
improved by TNC or for TNC - access, local economies change or
communications, energy supplies etc. somewhere else becomes more
profitable
Profits 'leak' out of the host country
TNCs create jobs, allowing people to either to open up new business
buy more and pay more tax elsewhere or are paid in bonuses and
dividends to share holders
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Foreign currency is earned through TNCs often ignore the environmental YOUR NOTES
exports and social costs of their investment 
TNCs have a multiplier effect through TNC jobs are often boring, repetitive
encouraging other industries to grow and don't develop skills - effectively
up around them trapping their workers in the company
Case Study - Nike

Make sure you know your case study of the global operation of a TNC
You need to be able to identify the costs and benefits to the host country as well as
to the TNCs own country of origin
For example, you could produce something along these lines on the USA based
company Nike
Country Cost Benefit
Exploitation of workers Substantial employment

Poor working conditions Pays higher wages than local firms
Vietnam Child labour
Status of brand encourages other
TNCs to invest
Indirect loss of jobs as Bigger profits made as
manufacturing is outsourced manufacturing costs are lower
Balance of profit to cost isn't High level skills in design, R&D in
USA passed onto the customer demand
Company image damaged due to
outsourcing
Remember to keep it simple and use facts and figures to keep it 'real' and not a
generic case study
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3.2 Food Production YOUR NOTES


3.2.1 Agricultural Systems
Agricultural Systems
To obtain food humans use and modify the ecosystems through farming
There are four groupings commonly used to categorise farming:
Arable and pastoral
Commercial and subsistence
Extensive and intensive
Nomadic and sedentary
A farm that has both livestock and grows crops is a mixed farm
Factors influencing the type of agriculture
Physical Factors Human Factors
Temperature - all crops have a Tradition - many farms simply
minimum temperature below grow the crops or raise the
which they will not grow or will livestock that have been on the
not produce a good yield - wheat farm for generations
grows best between 21-24oC
Growing season - the length of
the growing season affects the Subsidies - farmers may change
type of crop grown - barley needs crop or livestock dependent on the
about 90 days from sowing to money available from the
harvest whereas rice takes about government
120 days
Precipitation - both the average Transport - the cost of
annual rainfall and the distribution transporting the product may
over the year affect the types of affect what is produced. Livestock
crops grown transport is more expensive than
grain transport
Relief and slope aspect - the
altitude of land affects Farm size - due to economies of
temperature and the steepness scale larger farms are able to
affects the suitability for crops. in afford more in terms of feed,
local areas different crops may be fertiliser and machinery, this may
grown on south facing slopes affect what is produced
which get more sunshine and are
warmer
Market demand - the changing
Soil type and fertility - in areas demand for produce. There has
with thin, infertile soils grazing is been an increase in demand for
likely to dominate as crops need meat such as buffalo and ostrich
deeper, more fertile soil which may affect the choice of
what is produced
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Drainage - for most crops to grow Capital - the amount of money a YOUR NOTES
the land needs to be well drained farmer has to invest will affect the 
so that roots do not get machines and artificial inputs
waterlogged (irrigation, pesticides, fertilisers)
they can afford
Farming systems
All farms are systems, they have inputs, processes and outputs
A Farming System
Impacts of farming systems

All farming systems impact the ecosystem in which they are located
Some have more impact than others, such as:
Monocultures which reduce diversity because the animals have no access to a
wide range of foods
When nutrient cycling is often dependent on fertilisers added to the soil, this
may be natural (manure) or artificial fertilisers
When the ecosystem is modified with inputs of seed, fertiliser, pesticides,
herbicides and the use of machines
Where food webs are reduced
Reducing the amount of biomass
 Exam Tip
Remember farms do fit into more than one category. For example, a sheep
farm in Cumbria. UK would be categorised as arable, commercial, extensive
and sedentary.
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 Insert the following words into the table below to show

examples of inputs, processes and outputs of a mixed farm.

[3]
Choose from the words below
milk wheat harvesting
ploughing water pesticides
Inputs Processes Outputs
Answer:
Inputs Processes Outputs

water harvesting wheat
pesticides ploughing milk
Page 26 of 91
Case Study: Sheep Farming YOUR NOTES

The relief of the land in Cumbria limits the type of farming 
Lowland areas are used for cattle grazing and limited amounts of crops
Sheep farming dominates, with approximately 3 million sheep farmed in the area
An example of extensive, commercial, pastoral and sedentary farming
Characteristics
Sheep farms usually have three land use zones:
The fell - these are the hills over 300m and is used for grazing
The intake - the lower slopes which are divided into fields
The inbye - land close to the farm buildings used to bring the sheep in for
lambing and shearing. Some crops may also be grown here for animal feed
(turnips/hay)
Inputs
Inputs can be divided into physical and human
Physical Human
Climate - Short growing season

means the area is unsuitable for Machinery, fuel and buildings -
most crops as well as high quad bikes and sheds for lambing
rainfall. In many areas over
1500mm
Labour - low labour
Soils - in the upland areas' soils requirements. Farms often
are thin and acidic worked by one person with
additional help when needed
Relief - many steep slopes with Subsidies - without subsidies
large areas of upland many farmers would make a loss
Feed - needed for winter months
when uplands are snow covered
and grass doesn't provide the
nutrients needed
Processes
There are not large numbers of processes on a hill sheep farm, but they do
include:
Monitoring the sheep
Lambing
Dipping - to reduce parasites and maggots
Shearing
Outputs
Lambs are bred for meat and sent for slaughter before they are 1 year (usually 6-8
months)
Wool from shearing (this often costs more than the farmer gets for the fleece)
Page 27 of 91
Mutton - this is meat from sheep over 1 year YOUR NOTES

Challenges 
Hill sheep farming is often not profitable, and farmers rely upon subsidies or
diversification
Disease - foot and mouth outbreaks. In 2001 nearly 500,000 sheep had to be
killed to prevent further spread of the disease
Fuel, machinery and feed costs have all increased
Lamb prices fluctuate depending on the market and this affects income
Wool prices average about 32p for a kilo this is less than the cost of shearing the
sheep so shearing costs the farmer money
Fewer people want to become sheep farmers
Since leaving the EU, the UK is intending to phase out subsidies and replace them
with payments for environmental work
Impacts
Many sheep farmers are diversifying into areas such as campsites and holiday
cottages
Conversion to organic such as Low Sizergh Farm in South Cumbria can increase
profits as people pay more for organic meat and wool
Farmers taking on additional jobs and farming part time
Changing of breeds to those that shed their fleece and don't require shearing
though this may not be suitable for the upland areas
Page 28 of 91
3.2.2 Food Shortages YOUR NOTES


Causes & Effects of Food Shortages
In 2015 world leaders committed to ending world hunger by 2030
The UN estimates that the number of people in 'hunger emergencies' has increased
from 135 million in 2019 to 345 million in 2022
Global food prices are rising - 23% higher than in 2021
World grain reserves are lower than they have been for 14 years
Women and girls account for 70% of the people suffering hunger
Causes of food shortages
The causes of food shortages can be divided into natural and human factors
It is important to remember that natural causes can often be made worse by
human activity
An example would be floods which result from heavy and prolonged rainfall
but may be made worse by:
Urbanisation
Deforestation
Climate change leading to increased snow and ice melt, sea level rise and
changing weather patterns
Natural Human
Flooding - crops cannot cope with - people are unable

War and conflict
being waterlogged also causes the to farm due to the conflict. War also
death of livestock disrupts supply and movement of
food supplies
Drought and unreliable rainfall - this Rising food prices - people cannot
can reduce crop yields significantly afford the food that they need
Disease - these reduce yields and can Human induced global warming -
result in livestock deaths/culling e.g. leads to changing weather patterns,
swine flu increased temperatures and rising
sea levels
Lack of investment - many LEDCs
Pests - locusts can wipe out entire

have poor transport systems which
fields of crops in a matter of hours means that transporting food and
livestock is difficult. They also do not
have the funds to invest in agriculture
Corruption - investment in rural
Tropical cyclones - bring heavy
rainfall and strong winds which can areas and agriculture does not
destroy large areas of crops happen as a result of corrupt
politicians taking the money
Rapid population increase - the food
available has to be shared between
more people, decreasing the amount
that people have
Page 29 of 91
Soil erosion and desertification - YOUR NOTES

overgrazing and overcultivation lead 
to a loss of soil fertility so plants
won't grow, or yields decrease
Effects of food shortages
The impact of food shortages ranges from undernutrition to wasting
Undernutrition - people do not consume enough calories, this is linked to 45%
of all child deaths
Malnutrition - people's diet lacks the correct nutrients to keep them healthy
Wasting - when people have low weight in relation to their height - affects 45
million children under the age of 5
Rising food prices
When there is increased demand and reduced supply the prices increase
Underdevelopment - loss of productivity
If a country's workforce is suffering from food shortages, they will be less
productive, and development will slow or even reverse
Soil erosion and desertification
Farmers may over cultivate and overgraze the land in an attempt to increase
the amount of food available
Social unrest
Food shortage may lead people to riot and loot
Migration
People migrate to other countries or to urban areas where the food supply is
better. This can impact those areas with the development of illegal settlements
 Worked Example
Describe the natural problems which cause food shortages.
[3]
Answer:
Drought causes crop failure [1]
Floods destroy crops [1]
Tropical storms destroy crops/cause flooding [1]
Pests eat crops [1]
Disease destroys the crop [1]
Page 30 of 91
Possible Solutions to the Problem of Food Shortages YOUR NOTES

There are a number of solutions to food shortages including: 
Possible
How it works Advantages Disadvantages
solution
This can be short

(after a disaster or in
a crisis) or long term
(often given to the
LEDC government to Can increase
distribute). dependence of
The aid is given by LEDCs on food aid
MEDCs often through Saves lives Reduces the sales of
Food aid
organisations such as during in a crisis crops grown by
the World Food local farmers
Programme (WFP) as Expensive to
well as by Non- transport
Governmental
Organisations (NGOs)
such as Oxfam and
Save The Children.
The artificial watering Loss of water

of crops - the success through evaporation
of this is dependent Increases crop
production/yields Increased salinity of
on the type of the soil affects crop
Irrigation
irrigation. in areas with low
rainfall growth
Surface irrigation or Increases pressure
drip irrigation on water resources
When the genetic
Genetically material of a crop is Increases the
altered to make them yield of crops as Concerns about the
Modified disease/pest they are not as impacts on the
resistant, have higher susceptible to environment
(GM) crops
yield or be drought pests/disease
resistant
Needed high inputs
Involved in the Increased yields of
Green
development of high Larger farm fertilisers/pesticides
Revolution
yield varieties of main incomes Increased
and High Yield
food crops including increased mechanisation leads
Varieties
wheat, maize and rice to fewer jobs
Page 31 of 91
Low cost YOUR NOTES

Education for farmers Increases farming
Education of 
about sustainable knowledge
farmers
farming methods Increases yields
Increases yields
as more land can Reduces jobs in
Use of tractors and be cultivated agriculture
other machines to More time Machines can be
Mechanisation
complete farming efficient expensive to buy
tasks Less labour and maintain
needed
Fertilisers are added
to increase yields Damage to the
through adding Increases the environment e.g.
Fertilisers/
nitrogen yield eutrophication
Pesticides Reduces losses Concerns about the
Pesticides are used to from pests impact on human
kill or deter pests health
from eating crops
Includes methods Increases yield as

such as Contour water infiltration
Appropriate
ploughing improves and soil
technology
or intercropping erosion
decreases
Page 32 of 91
Case Study: Yemen YOUR NOTES

Located on the south-east of the Arabian Peninsula 
Location of Yemen
Yemen has a mainly hot desert climate with a temperate climate in the western
mountains
In summer months temperatures reach 40oC and there is little rainfall
Winter months are cooler between 25-35oC but with little rainfall
Agriculture
There is increasing agricultural activity in Yemen with crops including:
Millet
Corn
Wheat
Barley
Sorghum
Other crops include coffee, cotton and fruit which were grown for export
Over 73% of the population relies on agriculture as their main source of income
Causes of food shortages
Conflict
In 2015 after years of internal conflict, civil war broke out
Continued conflicts have led over 4 million Yemenis to be displaced
Food aid supplies have been affected by blockades at the ports intended to
stop weapons entering the country
Internal infrastructure (roads, airports and communication) has also been
affected by the conflict which stops the movement of food around the country
Drought
Page 33 of 91
In recent years drought has further affected supplies YOUR NOTES

The main crop growing areas have received only one third to a half of the 
usual precipitation
Pests
In 2019 swarms of locust hit Yemen destroying many of the crops
The conflict had affected the control and monitoring program
Lack of pesticides meant that the Yemeni struggled to control the insects
Corruption
Food aid is taken by those involved in the fighting and those in power
It often does not reach those who need it most
Population increase
The population has increased to almost 30 million from 26.5 million in 2015
This increases the demand for food
Effects of food shortages
The Yemeni economy has declined
These issues have mostly happened in the crop growing areas in the south-west
In 2016 it is estimated that farm produce losses totalled $964.5million
Yemen became dependent on imports for 90% of its grain supplies - much of this
was from Ukraine, the supply of which has been affected by the Russian invasion
More than 80% of the population live below the poverty line
50% of the population working in agriculture have lost their jobs
Food prices have increased between 30-70% meaning people cannot afford a
healthy diet
Food basket price in Yemen
The UN estimates more than 226,000 Yemeni have died due to food shortages and
lack of health services
Acute malnutrition now threatens over 50% of children under 5
Page 34 of 91
The total number of food insecure population is expected to reach 19 million by YOUR NOTES
the end of 2022 
Solutions
Since the start of the conflict billions in aid has been sent to Yemen through
organisations such as:
UNICEF
Red Cross
World Food Program
Oxfam
Getting aid to the people who need it is challenging for the reasons outlined in
'causes' above
The World Food Program provides 13 million people with food assistance through:
Rations
Vouchers
Cash transfers
Until the end of the conflict the food shortages are likely to continue and may even
get worse
Page 35 of 91
3.3 Industry YOUR NOTES


3.3.1 Industrial Systems
Industrial Systems
Industrial systems have inputs, processes and outputs
Inputs - basic items needed to begin the process
Raw materials, labour, energy, capital, land and buildings etc.
Processes - activities that take place to make a finished product (goods)
Cutting, sewing, welding, brewing, painting, steel moulding etc.
Outputs - finished products, by-products, products for continued
manufacturing elsewhere and waste
Finished products such as cars, clothing, beer, shoes etc.
By-product such as Marmite from beer brewing
Continued manufacturing (part manufacturing) such as cleaning wool or
cotton, weaving wool or cotton for material, material made into clothes for
a finished product etc.
Waste is produced with all manufacturing; it has no value but creates a
cost for disposal
Manufacturing can be classified as:
Heavy - iron and steel manufacturing is heavy industry as it uses large, bulky
raw materials on a huge scale producing big items
Light - computer manufacturing, smart phone assembly, clothing, micro-
brewing etc.
Some industries need a lot of processes or processing, and this can lead to heavy
pollution
Industry Input Processes Output Impact
Page 36 of 91
electric arc YOUR NOTES

Specialised alloys such as furnace, steel slabs, noise, dust, air 
steel chromium, oxygen ingots, sheets, pollution,
production cobalt furnace, waste, slag, smell, water
rolling, gases pollution
cutting
large building,
cast iron, pig noise, air
iron ore, coke, blast furnace iron, slag, pollution,
limestone to to melt iron sulphur smell, water
Iron
separate iron ore, coke dioxide, pollution,
production
from oven, rolling carbon contaminated
impurities, into sheets, dioxide, cooling water,
water, recycled cutting into hydrogen scrubber
scrap iron, lengths sulphide, waste, risk of
water, heat fire and
explosions
The sectors of industry are interrelated, and an individual industry will often use
more than one sector to produce products
High-tech industry
Fastest growing industry in the world
Most MEDCs and NICs have at least one hub of high-tech industry
Page 37 of 91
The industry has a high degree of research and development to maintain a YOUR NOTES
competitive edge 
Manufacturing is mostly computer automated
Outputs include precision instrumentation, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology,
mobile phones, vaccines etc.
 Worked Example
In which sector would the following people who are employed in
a factory, work?
[3]
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary
a. Workers who carry out research and use it to design new machines
b. Drivers of lorries transporting products from a factory
c. People operating machines in a factory
Answers:
a. Quaternary
b. Tertiary
c. Secondary
Page 38 of 91
3.3.2 Distribution of Industrial Zones YOUR NOTES


Distribution & Location of Factories & Industrial Zones
Every day companies make decisions about where to locate their industries
Different industries require different inputs,
But they also require them to be readily and cheaply available
Most companies look for the least cost but highest profit location
Manufacturers need to find the optimum location that will produce maximum
profit
This depends on a number of factors - physical, human and economic
Physical factors
Raw materials - industries that need heavy or bulky materials, will locate as near
as possible to these materials
Site - availability and cost of land is important. Large factories need flat, well-
drained land with or without the potential for expansion later on
Climate - industries such as aerospace and film benefit from sunnier climates.
Good climate also reduces energy bills and a better quality of life
Energy - energy demanding industries may relocate to countries/areas with
readily available or cheaper energy
Natural routeways - harbours, motorways, airports and railways provide good
locations for ports and industrial complexes, which create good access points for
inputs but also outputs
Water supplies - some industries (paper and cotton processing etc.) require a lot
of water in their manufacturing and so need to be near a reliable water supply
such as lakes, rivers etc.
Human and economic factors
Capital - some areas naturally attract inward investment as the returns will be
higher
Markets - location and size of the potential market is a major influence for some
industries
Page 39 of 91
Government influence - incentives, grants and policies can make areas attractive YOUR NOTES
for industries to invest in 
Transport - cost of transport is expensive and accessibility for easy access helps
to reduce those costs. Central to motorways, railways, ports and airports can
influence where industry locates
Communications - being able to communicate effectively and quickly with
customers and suppliers is vital to successful manufacturing
Labour force - quality and cost of labour is central to effective manufacturing,
having a reliable workforce is necessary, but also mobility, turnover and reputation
is also a factor
Quality of life - highly skilled workers will prefer areas where the work/life
balance is good
 Exam Tip
Remember there is no one factor decides the location of an industry but a
combination of them and most companies look for the least cost with the
highest profit location.
High-tech industry
High-tech companies are involved in research and development, aerospace
technology, weapons guidance systems, medical robotics, software, computer
hardware, and other technically advanced products
High-tech industries are usually group together in science parks
Usually close to the university or a research centre with good security systems
Purpose built to encourage research and development (R&D), high-tech industries
and other quaternary activities
Close to transport networks (including airports) to allow for knowledge transfer
Further away from housing estates and retail parks to reduce sound, air and visual
pollution
 Worked Example
Give an example of a science park and its location
Example Southampton Science Park
In a prime location close to the London M3 motorway, the 17-hectare
park provides high-quality office and laboratory space in attractive
landscaped surroundings. Over 60 companies, dealing in high tech
research fields, sit side by side resulting is a thriving community of
young and old sharing ideas and knowledge. All are attracted by the
park’s strategic location, quality of the environment and access to
some of the UK’s leading scientific expertise at the University of
Southampton.
Changes to manufacturing and location over time

Raw Materials = sources of raw materials often run out
Page 40 of 91
Manufactures will move in response YOUR NOTES

Infrastructure means business not tied to energy centres –coalfields etc. 
Rising costs = wage levels / laws etc, means costs go up in MICs so work moves
elsewhere (e.g. manufacturing)
Transport = commuting & migrating easier because there are now fewer barriers
to travel
Competition = fewer people are needed to complete work now, e.g. banking uses
ICT
Technology = advances in ICT means more work from home, air travel, etc.
Outsourcing = saves money, work sent elsewhere to save costs (e.g. call centres)
As an economy advances, the proportion of people employed in each sector

changes
Places like the UK and the USA are ‘post-industrial societies’, where most work in
the tertiary or quaternary sectors
Places such as China and India are ‘industrial societies’, where many people work
in the secondary sector
Bolivia and Mozambique are ‘pre-industrial societies’, where most people work in
the primary sector
 Worked Example
Study the photograph and suggest three reasons why the
location was chosen for the retail park.
[3]
A Retail Park
Answer:
Any three of the following:
Close to a main road for accessibility [1]
Flat land [1]
Houses nearby for workers/customers [1]
Space for car parking [1]
Room for expansion [1]
Page 41 of 91
Case Study - Manufacturing Industry: Pakistan’s Iron & Steel YOUR NOTES
Industry 
Pipri, near Gharo Creek, Flat, cheap land near Port Qasim, which has a
natural harbour to import raw materials and export steel
Location
Close to market: steel-using industries in Karachi, such as tool making
Along a railway: Karachi-Pipri-Kotri and metalled road
Iron ore
Coke
Limestone
Scrap iron
Input Water required for making steel brought from Lake Haleji
Economic assistance from Russia: technical expertise and capital
Availability of cheap labour from Karachi
Energy source from Pipri thermal power station and Karachi nuclear power
station
Heating of ore to separate iron
Processes Burning coke
Rolling into sheets and cutting into lengths
Cast iron and pig iron
Output Slag
Gases: sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulphide
Noise pollution from machinery
Visual pollution due to large, ugly factory buildings
Air pollution from burning iron ore
Impact Water pollution from contaminated cooling water, scrubber effluent and
ships supplying raw materials
Depleted fresh water supplies
Risk of fire and explosions
Page 42 of 91
3.4 Tourism YOUR NOTES


3.4.1 Growth of Tourism
Growth of Tourism
A leisure activity is something done for enjoyment in your free time
Tourism is when a person travels to another destination for more than 24 hrs but
less than one year
Tourism can be split into:
Domestic - own country
International - another country
Tourism can be considered a form of circular migration, as there is no intention of
a permanent move, but can be for work, medical, educational or pleasure reasons
Seasonal workers are circular migrants who work in one place and return
home after a short contract
Students at university return at the end of the term to their normal place of
residence
Medical treatment encourages people to move to countries temporarily
Sport - many sports have gone global, through international competitions
either as players or spectators
Over the last 50 years mass tourism has expanded into a major global industry,
which is still growing
An estimated 900 million people become international tourists every year (pre
pandemic)
Europe remains the regions with the greatest number of tourist arrivals, with
France being the No.1 destination
53% of inbound tourism is for leisure (holiday), the second reason is for visiting
friends and relatives
The main reasons for the rise in tourism can be linked to:
Improved pay and leave allowances - most workers now work less than 40
hours a week and have paid annual leave
Improved disposable incomes - normally both partners work and this
increases incoming money to the household
It is easier than ever to cross borders with agreements between countries
Transport is faster and cheaper than in the past
Communication - internet, social media etc. bring awareness of foreign
destinations, booking of last-minute holidays etc.
Increase in 'built attractions' such as theme and water parks
Attractions such as music festivals, sporting events etc
Many governments have invested heavily to encourage tourism or backed
international events - Olympics
Travel and tourism is the largest employer across the globe and represents 7% of
the world's exports in goods and services
It is the growing awareness of the attraction of the physical and human
landscapes, along with rising living standards, have allowed greater numbers of
people to experience more places domestically and abroad
Page 43 of 91

 Study Fig. 6.2, which is an advert for a tourist resort in the

Silvassa Forest region in India (an LEDC).
Fig 6.2
(i) State three different types of job which are likely to have been created by
tourism in the Silvassa Forest region.
1
........................................................................................................................................
2
........................................................................................................................................
3
..................................................................................................................................
[3]
Answers such as:
Working in a hotel as chambermaid/receptionist/porter etc.
Working in a restaurant as a cook/waitress etc.
Taxi/bus driver
Working in a water park/spa or other tourist attraction e.g.
lifeguard, masseur
Airport worker
Shop worker
Builder Etc.
Page 44 of 91
3.4.2 Impacts of Tourism YOUR NOTES


Impacts of Tourism
Social impacts
Tourism can be classified into positive and negative impacts on people, the
economy and the environment
Social Impacts of Global Tourism
Positive Impacts Negative Impacts
Can help revive local skills and handicrafts Loss of locally owned land
Cultural tourism values people's heritage Tourist's behaviour can offend local people
(drinking etc.)
Brings people together from all over the Tourist centres encourage crime,
world prostitution etc.
Can spread the range of social facilities for Displacement of people
local people
Major international events (Olympics) can
have a positive effect locally and nationally Abuse of human rights
- improved infrastructure etc.
Develops foreign language skills Can erode local language and traditional
values
Ancient sites are brought to global Loss of access to local sites - beaches,
attention helping to appreciate historical forests etc
legacies
Might encourage migration to major Visitor congestion at key locations
tourist-generating countries
Tourism has a large economic impact on a country - multiplier effect
Tourism is a service industry which indirectly impacts all other industries
Primary - agriculture and providing food or mining of materials to build hotels
Secondary - for manufacturing of goods - chairs, beds, towels, gifts etc.
Quaternary - research and development to improve facilities for tourists or
management etc.
Tertiary - staff for hotels, planes, buses, restaurants, lifeguards etc.
Economic Impacts of Tourism
Positive Negative
Brings money into the country's economy Money often goes to big businesses and
not locally
Creates jobs for local people Often low paid, menial, seasonal work
Brings new infrastructure to the region Mass tourism causes congestion, pollution
affecting local businesses
Page 45 of 91
Provides tax revenues Economic leakages are high YOUR NOTES


Provides employment to poorer rural areas Money borrowed to invest in tourism can
increase national debt
Large holiday resorts encourage tourists to
Can create openings for small business spend most of their money in the hotel
and support jobs in the informal sector complexes, excluding the wider
community
 ExamMakeTipsure you don't just focus on the negative aspects of tourism,

particularly on the environmental or cultural aspects
You need to balance your discussion, or you won't gain full marks
Environmental Impacts of Tourism
Positive Negative
Can increase awareness of nature Local environment can be bulldozed and

conservation areas concreted over
Money from tourism can be used to protect Tourism creates local pollution issues -
and repair the environment - better water waste, littering
supplies
Tourism may help preserve key areas or Tourist activity can disturb or damage
species - prevention of illegal trade and habitats and wildlife- water skiing
exploitation of nature damaging coral reefs, ivory poaching
Tourism helps fund conservation activities
therefore, improving sustainable practices Increased greenhouse gas emissions from
and environmental legislation - national flying
parks
Page 46 of 91

 Study Fig. 6.2, which is an advert for a tourist resort in the

Silvassa Forest region in India (an LEDC).
Explain how the local natural environment may be at risk from tourist
resorts such as the one shown in Fig. 6.2.
[5]
Ideas such as:
Deforestation
Loss of habitat
Animals scared by noise
Water pollution
Death of marine life
Disruption to food chains
Lowering of water table
Air pollution from vehicle exhausts/flights etc.
Page 47 of 91
3.4.3 Management of Tourism YOUR NOTES


Management of Tourism
Tourism has become so large-scale in so many parts of the world that it needs to
be managed
Key tourist destinations are looking to sustainability to protect their incomes but
also their environments
Some areas of sustainable tourism have been more successful than others, and it's
important to remember that not all schemes work
Sustainable tourism
Organised so that environmental, social and economic levels can be maintained in
the future without compromising the present areas
Tourism operates in a world of finite resources where its impact is becoming an
issue
People and environmental groups are becoming more aware of the destination
footprint and urge people to:
Fly less and stay longer
Consider slow travel
Stay locally
Avoid international chain hotels and inclusive holidays
Carbon-offset their flight
Ecotourism
The most easily recognised of sustainable tourism
This is a specialised form of tourism in which small numbers of people experience
unusual or niche environments such as coral reefs, tropical rainforests, remote
mountain areas, Antarctica, and other conservation areas
Community based tourism are becoming more popular in fragile environments of
LEDCs, bringing larger benefits to the local community and employment
Ecotourism in Bhutan
Ecotourism is all about visitors leaving as small a carbon footprint as possible to
the benefit of the community and environment
As one of the poorest developing nations, Bhutan can claim to have one of the
most sustainable tourist industries in the world
Bhutan's tourist sector is one of the most exclusive travel destinations in the world
with a reputation for a spectacular natural environment, authenticity, remoteness
and a well-protected cultural heritage
Ecotourism is usually run by private enterprises; however, Bhutan's government
has adopted a different approach of 'high value but low volume' tourism creating a
sense of exclusivity
After 300 years of self-isolation, Bhutan opened its borders to tourists in 1974
Due in part to the realisation that hotels built for the King's coronation could be
used to accommodate paying guests so boosting foreign exchange and providing
much-needed revenue for the country's development
Page 48 of 91
Initially only 2500 foreign visits were allowed, today that number has doubled YOUR NOTES
reinforcing the exclusivity 
All tourists are escorted in groups to specific locations and must travel on officially
approved tour operators
All are expected to pay a 'Sustainable Development Fee' or surcharge of $200
(£167) per day
The surcharge goes towards offsetting tourist's carbon footprint and upskilling
workers along with protecting Bhutan's unique heritage and spectacular mountain
scenery
However, some argue that all it does is attract wealthier visitors and promote
Bhutan as a niche destination
Ultimately, Bhutan's strategy does control the volume and impact of tourism
Protected areas
This involves protecting vast areas from development
National Parks - Yellowstone was the first to be established in 1872 and now there
are more than 4000 worldwide
Many countries have National Forests, Country Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural
Beauty, World Heritage Sites and other areas considered important to protect
Tourist hubs
Concentratin of tourism into one particular area of a country or region
Impacts are seen to be kept to one place
However, it is difficult to keep tourism within boundaries and overspill occurs
Any benefits are kept within that area and not spread throughout the community
Creates division within the area
Quotas
Number of tourists would not be allowed to exceed a sustainable level
Based on a lottery system of so many places being available
Can be difficult to administer and causes tension
Conservation areas have permits allowing visitors to see unique areas or animals -
coral reefs, mountain gorillas, Galapagos Islands etc
 Exam Tip
It is important that you don't confuse conservation with preservation
Preservation is about keeping something exactly as is, with no option of
development
Whereas conservation allows development to occur, providing it doesn't
detract from the character of the area
Page 49 of 91
Case Study - Importance of Tourism to Cyprus YOUR NOTES

Tourism is important to Cyprus as it provides thousands of jobs and contributes an 
average of 20% to the country's GDP
Cyprus island is partitioned into the Turkish Northern Cyprus and the Greek
Cypriot Republic of Cyprus
This case study will be focusing on the southern Greek part of the island
Cyprus has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers (average 28°C) and
rainy winters (average 10°C)
Due to a series of water shortages, annual demand now outstrips supply and
Cyprus is classified as 'water poor'
There is an increasing reliance on desalinisation plants which increases energy
consumption but only provides 45% of the increased demand and is harmful to the
environment
In 2006 the Cyprus Sustainable Tourism Initiative (CSTI) was launched to develop a
sustainable approach to tourism in Cyprus through:
Improve the quality of life in poorer communities disadvantaged by tourism
Promote the preservation, conservation and protection of Cyprus's
environment, whilst sustainably using its natural resources
Reduce its carbon footprint due to tourism
Promote research and education in sustainability
Some of the projects undertaken are:
Managing water, energy and water -
Gardens and landscaping account for up to 22% of a hotel's water consumption
Limit the use of grass and exotic vegetation which require frequent watering
Encourage hotels to use native plants as they naturally adapt to less rainfall
and are representative of Cyprus
Reduce the number of swimming pools
Increase the use of renewable energy - solar power is a major source of
energy for Cyprus
Use of energy saving devices in hotels and public spaces
Reduce the use of plastic and plastic waste
Improve conditions on beaches through organised beach cleaning events
Working with the tourism sector to reduce demand and consumption of single use
plastics in tourist hotspots such as Ayia Napa
Organise turtle watches during hatching time to ensure the hatchlings get to the
sea and not into hotel resorts
Encourage rural tourism to spread the benefits among poorer communities
through art and history projects, accommodation and local events
The reduction of Cyprus's carbon footprint in a significant manner is difficult as
most tourists arrive by air and tour the island either by car or coach
Page 50 of 91
YOUR NOTES

Page 51 of 91
3.5 Energy YOUR NOTES


3.5.1 Non-Renewble Fossil Fuels
Importance of Non-Renewable Fossil Fuels
The demand for energy across the globe is rising
Population growth and development are the two main causes of the increase in
energy demand:
The higher demand for food leads to more intensive farming which requires
more energy for machines, light and heat
Increasing industry requires energy for heating, lighting and machinery
There is more transport all of which requires energy in the form of petrol,
diesel or electricity
Urbanisation increases with development increasing domestic appliances,
heating, lighting
Increased wealth means people buy more appliances and technology which
require energy
Page 52 of 91
World Energy Demand YOUR NOTES

Over 80% of the world's energy is provided by fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) 
33% oil
27% coal
24% gas
Fossil fuels are fuels formed from the remains of living organisms (plants/animals)
These are non-renewable as they cannot be replaced at a speed which keeps up
with consumption
It is estimated that based on current use and availability, gas and oil will run out
by 2080
World Energy Mix
The use of nuclear and renewable energy is growing but non-renewables fossil
fuels still dominate energy production
It is predicted that the use of gas and oil will continue to increase over the next 30
years and these fossil fuels are expected to still provide over 75% of the world's
energy by 2040
Energy Advantages Disadvantages
Source
Page 53 of 91
Non-renewable - it will run out YOUR NOTES

Releases carbon dioxide (greenhouse 
gas) and sulphur dioxide (causes acid
World reserves estimated to be rain) when burnt
120 years Heavy and bulky to transport
Reliable and easy to produce Most accessible coal has been used
Coal energy from and so the cost of production has
Technology has enabled coal increased as coal reserves are more
to be obtained more easily difficult to access
Risk of accidents due to mine collapse
and gas release
Opencast mining damages large areas
of the environment
World reserves estimated to be
Reliable and easy to produce between 50-60 years
energy from Non-renewable - they will run out
Efficient - it has a high energy The gases released when they are
density so produces a lot of burnt are greenhouse gases
Oil and energy per kilogram Oil spills damage the environment
gas Not as harmful to the and wildlife over large areas
environment as coal (gas is the Prices fluctuate rapidly
least harmful) Supplies can be affected by conflict
Easy to transport via pipeline and political disagreements e.g. the
war in Ukraine
Energy use
MEDCs use more energy than LEDCs
Countries with the highest energy consumption per person tend to be MEDCs and
include Canada, Norway and Saudi Arabia
Countries with the lowest energy consumption per person are LEDCs which are all
in Africa and include Niger, Chad and Tanzania
The greatest growth in energy use in LEDCs and newly emerging economies such
as China and India
Development means more use of energy in
Businesses and factories
In homes as people buy more appliances and technology
Transport
Page 54 of 91
YOUR NOTES

Energy Use per Person in kwh
Energy security
An energy gap is when a country cannot meet the demand for energy using its
own resources
When countries have an energy gap, they have to import energy to meet the
demand
Having an energy gap means that a country is not energy secure
To be energy secure a country needs an:
Uninterrupted supply of energy
Affordable supply
Accessible supply
The UK has a widening energy gap and is not energy secure because:
Renewable energy is not as efficient and so cannot replace full energy from
fossil fuels
It is cheaper to import fossil fuels than it is to exploit the resources in the UK
The commitment of many countries to tackling climate change and reducing the
use of fossil fuels has increased energy insecurity in many countries
Energy security can also be affected by:
Energy sources running out
War/conflict
Natural hazards
Political disputes
Energy mix
The energy mix in countries varies dependent on the level of development
The most economically developed have a wider use of renewables and nuclear
energy
Page 55 of 91
YOUR NOTES

The newly emerging countries are more dependent on fossil fuels
The least economically developed countries are dominated by biofuels which is

mostly fuel wood used for heating and cooking particularly in rural areas
Page 56 of 91

 Table 1 shows energy consumption in the USA in 2007 and

2016
Table 1
Describe the changes in non- renewable energy consumption

shown in Table 1.
[3]
Answer:
Coal has decreased from 22.9% to 14.6% [1]
Gas has increased from 23.3% to 29.2% [1]
Oil has decreased slightly from 37.5% to 36.9% [1]
Uranium has decreased slightly by 0.1% [1]
Page 57 of 91
3.5.2 Renewable Energy YOUR NOTES


Importance of Renewable Energy Sources
Renewable energy are energy sources which are infinite and will not run out. They
include:
Hydroelectric
Wave/tidal
Wind
Solar
Geothermal
Biomass/waste
Once in place with the exception of biomass/waste they do not produce any
greenhouse gas emissions
Greenhouse gases may be emitted in the production, construction and transport of
the equipment
Increase in renewable energy
Renewable energy is increasingly important in the global energy mix
This is due to:
Non-renewable fossil fuels will at some point run out and so they need to be
replaced with another energy source
The use of non-renewable fuels is damaging to the environment.
Fossil fuels when burnt release greenhouse gases and the sulphur dioxide
released causes acid rain
Mining and drilling for fossil fuels can destroy habitats and damage the
surrounding environment
Increasing awareness of the impact of using fossil fuels has resulted in
international pressure to reduce their use
Countries wanting to reduce their reliance on imports of energy sources and
improve their energy security
Advantages and disadvantages
All renewable energy sources have advantages and disadvantages
Energy Source Advantages Disadvantages
Large areas of land are flooded
behind the dam
No greenhouse gas emissions Dam traps sediment which can
Controls flooding downstream affect ecosystems downstream
Often in sparsely populated Visual pollution
Hydroelectric areas Can prevent fish movement
May provide water storage for upstream
irrigation and domestic use People and settlements may have
to be relocated
Expensive to build and maintain
Page 58 of 91
No greenhouse gas emissions YOUR NOTES

No air pollution Expensive to build and maintain 
Wave/Tidal Has the potential to produce Can affect marine ecosystems
large amounts of energy Few suitable sites
Reliable
Not reliable only works when the
wind is strong enough but not
too strong
No greenhouse gas emissions Visual pollution
No air pollution Noise pollution
Wind Can be small or large scale Many turbines (233) are needed
Cheap to run to produce the same energy as an
Can be on land or offshore average coal fired power station
May affect bird migration
patterns or kill birds who fly into
the moving blades
No greenhouse gas emissions
No air pollution Expensive to install
Can be small or large scale Not reliable, only works when it
Can be used in most locations is sunny
Solar Can be incorporated into Large numbers needed to
building design produce energy
Technology is improving and Uses large areas of land
reducing cost
No CO2 gases Expensive
Lots of potential sites Emits sulphuric gases
Geothermal Reliable High temperatures cause
Can produce large amounts of maintenance issues
energy
Uses waste or biofuels which Air pollution

Biomass/Waste regrow Produces greenhouse gases
Available in most locations Expensive
 Exam Tip
Remember reducing fossil fuel use is not as easy as simply switching to
renewable energies. Although the costs are coming down renewable energy
is often still more expensive than using fossil fuels and they are generally
not as efficient. This means you need far more to produce the same amount
of electricity.
Page 59 of 91
3.5.3 Nuclear Energy & Fuelwood YOUR NOTES


Nuclear Energy & Fuelwood
Nuclear energy
Nuclear fuel has the potential to provide large amounts of energy
It is often used countries who do not have their own supplies of fossil fuels such as
France
Share of Electricity Production from Nuclear
In 2019 approximately 4% of the global primary energy supply was from nuclear
power
There are 439 active nuclear reactors across the world. Most of these are in just
five countries:
USA (92)
France (56)
China (54)
Russia (37)
Japan (33)
Controversy
Nuclear energy is controversial due to the issues surrounding waste disposal and
nuclear accidents
Three Mile Island in the USA in 1979
Partial meltdown of the nuclear reactor
Slight increase in cancer rates in the area affected by the release of radioactive
contamination
Page 60 of 91
Chernobyl (now in Ukraine at the time part of the USSR) was the site of a reactor YOUR NOTES
explosion in 1986 
50 direct deaths (UN estimate)
Estimated 4000 people have or will die as a result of exposure to radioactive
materials
Radioactive fallout entered the atmosphere and fell over a large area including
Scandinavia and the UK
Fukishima nuclear reactor failed in Japan in 2011
The tsunami which resulted from the 2011 earthquake flooded parts of the
power station causing loss of power which meant they lost the ability to cool
the reactor. This led to explosions, meltdown of the reactor and the release of
radioactive contamination
154,000 people evacuated
There has been an increase in thyroid cancers in the area since 2011 but this
may be that more are being detected due to the screening program
established after the event
Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy
Energy
Advantage Disadvantage
Source
No greenhouse gas emissions Nuclear waste is radioactive and
Efficient expensive to dispose of
Small amounts of uranium Power stations are expensive
needed, and large reserves Risk of nuclear accidents
are available Possible health impacts in the areas
Nuclear It is not bulky so is easy to around nuclear power stations
transport Cost of decommissioning (shutting
Reduces reliance on fossil down) is very high
fuels Risk of use of nuclear fuel by terrorists
Increases energy security or rogue states
 Worked Example
Describe the advantages of using nuclear power to generate
electricity.
[3]
Answer:
Only small amounts of uranium/fuel needed (to generate large
amounts of power) it is efficient [1]
Uranium will not run out in the foreseeable future [1]
Does not produce greenhouse gases/acid rain [1]
Improved regulation and safety record [1]
Reduces reliance on fossil fuels [1]
Increases energy security [1]
Page 61 of 91
YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Remember nuclear fuel is a non-renewable because uranium cannot be 
replaced at the speed it is being used. It is not a fossil fuel because it uses
uranium rather than a fuel formed from the remains of living organisms.
Fuelwood
It is estimated that more than between 2 and 3 billion people across the world rely
on fuelwood for heating and cooking usually because they do not have access to
other forms of energy
Approximately 13% of the world do not have access to electricity
This is mostly an issue in LEDCs within Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia
Fuelwood is often included as a biofuel but the wood is not usually grown
specifically for use in heating and cooking
The trees felled are not replaced which would make them sustainable
The reasons for this include;
It is free
Does not require technology
Can be renewable if the trees are replaced
No high technology equipment is needed to use the fuel
There are disadvantages of this reliance on fuelwood:
The use contributes to deforestation, soil erosion and desertification in many
countries
The amount of wood cut each year is greater than the rate of replanting and
regrowth
In many areas there is little wood left, and people have to walk further and
further to collect it
Indoor pollution leads to health issues from exposure to smoke. It estimated
that it is responsible for 1.5 million deaths each year in LEDCs
 Worked Example
Explain the importance of fuelwood to people in many
countries.
[3]
Answer:
Important in LEDCs [1]
Important in rural areas [1]
May be free to the user [1]
Does not require high technology equipment [1]
Fuels for heating/cooking [1]
Can be renewable/sustainable [1]
In some areas there is little wood left [1]
Can be sold by the roadside as a cash crop [1]
Page 62 of 91
Case Study: Nepal YOUR NOTES

Energy use 
Nepal is a developing country located between China and India
The landscape is mountainous and includes much of the Himalayas
The population is rural with only 16% of the population living in towns and cities
Energy demand is very low but growing as the country develops
Energy use per person in Nepal and UK
Energy mix
The main source of energy for 82% of the rural population is fuelwood
In urban areas the use of fuelwood is 36%
Nepal has no suitable coal, oil or gas reserves so these have to be imported
98% of all electricity in Nepal is generated through hydropower
Energy Mix in Nepal
Page 63 of 91
Sustainable future YOUR NOTES

Access to electricity has increased rapidly over the past 15 years: 
88% of the population now have access to electricity
Support from the World Bank has led to more investment in hydropower
There are now over 3000 micro-hydro plants in Nepal
Ruma Khola micro-hydro
Completed in 2009
Provides electricity for the town of Darbang and five neighbouring villages
It supplies energy for 22 industries including:
metal workshops, furniture manufacturers, cement block manufacturers, a
noodle factory, poultry farms and dairy farms
Built and operated by the community the micro-hydro plant was funded using
grants from the government with support from the World Bank
The loans are paid back using money that the community pay for the electricity
supply
It has improved the standard of living in the communities
Reliance on kerosene and fuelwood has reduced and emissions have fallen
Deforestation has decreased
Page 64 of 91
3.6 Water YOUR NOTES


3.6.1 Water Supply and Use
Water Supply in Developed Countries
Global water supply
Only 2.5% of the water on Earth is freshwater
68.7% of freshwater is stored in glaciers and ice sheets and 30% is groundwater
The remaining 1.3% of freshwater is in rivers, soil moisture, lakes and the
atmosphere
This is not evenly distributed across the globe - Canada contains more lakes
than the rest of the world combined
Sources of Water
Water supply
The supply of water humans use comes from three main sources:
Lakes and rivers
Aquifers
Reservoirs
Other sources of water supply include:
Desalinisation
Rainwater harvesting - collecting water that falls as precipitation
Source of water supply Information Issues
Page 65 of 91
Water stored YOUR NOTES

underground that has Overuse or over abstraction 
filtered through soil of water in some areas means
and rocks. It is that aquifers do not have time
obtained by drilling to recharge through
precipitation
Groundwater/Aquifer boreholes or digging
wells. When all the Pollution from industry,
rock is fully saturated agriculture and domestic
with water it is an waste can leach into the
aquifer. Groundwater groundwater
may also come to the
surface as a spring
Pollution from industry,
agriculture and domestic
waste can enter the water
system through surface run
off
Water which is stored
Surface water in the lakes, reservoirs Dams are used to store water
and rivers. in reservoirs, but the
construction of dams has
slowed due to lack of suitable
sites and concerns regarding
the environmental impact
The removal of salt
from sea water to
Desalinisation mean that it can be Expensive to set up and run -
used for domestic, they use a lot of energy
agricultural and
industrial purposes
Global water use by sector is:
70% agriculture - irrigation of crops and water for livestock
20% industry - producing goods and generating energy
10% domestic - toilets, cooking, cleaning, washing
The use by sector varies across countries depending on whether they are MEDCs or
LEDCs
Water demand
The global demand for water is increasing
Between 1934 and 2014 demand increased from 1 trillion m3 to 4 trillion m3
Page 66 of 91
YOUR NOTES

Water use in MEDCs
Water Use in MEDCs
Water demand in MEDCs

Water demand is higher in MEDCs than LEDCs as a result of:
Improving living standards - people have more appliances/sanitation which
use water
Increased use of water in leisure and tourism - water parks, golf courses
Increased urbanisation
Increasing industry - water is needed for the production of goods and energy
production
Increasing use in agriculture - more water is needed for livestock
The largest use of water in MEDCs tends to be industry
Water use in LEDCs
Page 67 of 91
YOUR NOTES

Water Use in LEDCs
Water demand in LEDCs

Unlike MEDCs the water use in LEDCs is mostly used for agriculture
Many people are still dependent on agriculture
There is far less industry in many LEDCs so the demand for water for industrial
processes is low
Many people in LEDCs do not have access to piped water and as a result are more
cautious with water use
 Worked Example
Study Fig 1, which is a map showing information about the
percentage of the population in each country with access to
clean drinking water
Fig 1
Describe the distribution of countries where 75% or less of the

population have access to clean drinking water
[3]
Answer:
Mainly/most in Africa [1]
Except Egypt and South Africa/except in North and South [1]
A few/some in Asia [1]
Near/on equator/mainly in tropics/between Tropics of Cancer
and Capricorn/Central Africa/sub-Saharan Africa [1]
Uneven/clustered [1]
Page 68 of 91
YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
When describing the distribution from a map ask yourself the following 
questions;
What is the general pattern?
Does the pattern relate to anything else for example the location of
LEDCs and MEDCs?
Are they near the equator or further away?
Is the pattern uneven or clustered?
Use map features to help with your description - place names (countries and
continents) compass rose, latitude and longitude, the equator and the
tropics
Page 69 of 91
3.6.2 Water Shortages YOUR NOTES


Water Shortages and Management
Water shortages (deficit)
Many areas of the world have water shortages (deficits)
Water deficit can be due to:
Low supply - lack of precipitation, high levels of evaporation, poor water
management, drought, pollution
High demand - increasing population, industry and agriculture
A combination of low supply and high demand
Areas with the greatest water deficit include:
Australia
North, East and South Africa
Middle East
South- west USA
East Brazil, parts of Argentina and Chile
India
They tend to be areas around the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn
Water Surplus and Deficit
There are different levels of water shortage - these are water stress and
water scarcity:
Water stress occurs when the supply of water is below 1700m3 a year per
person
Water scarcity is when the supply is below 1000m3 a year per person
There are two types of water scarcity:
When physical access to water is limited due to the climate conditions of the
area. This is physical water scarcity
When a population does not have the money to utilise the available water
resources. This is economic water scarcity
The UN Millennium Development Goals included goal 7 ' Halve by 2015, the
proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and
Page 70 of 91
basic sanitation' YOUR NOTES

This goal was not met but access to clean water has improved 
In 2020 74% of the world population now have access to clean water supplies
In some areas there may be water supply, but this is not potable
UNICEF estimates 2.2 billion people do not have access to potable (clean
drinking) water
Around 4.2 billion people do not have access to safely managed sanitation
services
Water scarcity is expected to increase across the world due to:
Increasing population
Development increases demand
Climate change increasing aridity
Pollution
Causes of water shortage
Many of these areas have a deficit due to low precipitation throughout the year or
drought
Demand is greater than supply in some countries due to increasing population,
industry and agriculture
In some areas rivers flow through many countries and this leads to issues with
water abstraction and other activities. The upstream country may
Take large amounts of water from the river for agriculture, industry or
domestic use leaving less for the country further downstream
Build dams or alter river flow which impacts on discharge downstream
Reduce water quality by introducing pollution to the river
Higher temperatures may lead to increased evaporation and transpiration reducing
the amount of water available
The type of land use - agriculture leads to increased water consumption
In some countries there is disparity in water supply between areas - China has
severe water shortages in the north but water is more available in the south
Conflict - many of the LEDCs who have struggled to meet the MDG are
experiencing conflict
Impacts of water shortage
There are many impacts of water shortages including:
Death and illness due to water-borne diseases such as cholera and dysentery
Potential for conflicts over water supply particularly where countries share a
river basin
Children in rural areas in LEDCs often miss out on school as they are
responsible for collecting water (may have to walk miles to the nearest water
source)
Lack of food due to:
Crops cannot be irrigated and so yields are lower
Livestock dies due to a lack of water
Damaged ecosystems and loss of habitats
Affects economic development as water is not available for industry
Page 71 of 91
Managing water supply YOUR NOTES

There are many ways in which water supply can be managed but this is easier in 
MEDCs where the money to implement these schemes is available
Water Use Management to Reduce use
Most water in MEDCs is used for industry. Some of this

Industry water could be recycled and used again within the
process to reduce consumption
Drip irrigation which delivers water to the roots of
Agriculture
plants. Irrigation leads to 40% of the water used being
lost to evaporation and poor management. Drip
irrigation reduces this loss significantly
Water efficient appliances
Rainwater collection
Use of grey water for washing cars and watering
Domestic plants
Low flush toilets and water saving shower heads
Water companies fixing leaks and improving efficiency
In LEDCs water management is more difficult due to lack of funding

The involvement of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) such as Water Aid
helps to fund projects
Appropriate technology is essential to manage water in LEDCs, they include:
Wells
Gravity fed systems where water is piped from a spring or river higher up a
valley
Boreholes use a hand pump to bring water to the surface
Rainwater collection from roofs
Drip irrigation
Drought resistant crops
 Exam Tip
Remember when interpreting maps you need to pay close attention to the
key and title.
In the above example the map shows both surplus and deficit of water
supply on a sliding scale. Areas of greatest water surplus are dark blue and
areas of greatest water deficit are dark orange.
Page 72 of 91
Case Study: Spain YOUR NOTES

The average precipitation in south-east Spain is approximately 365mm a year 
Most precipitation occurs in winter
The area is one of the driest in Europe
Agriculture uses 80% of the water available
147,000 hectares of land require irrigation
Regular droughts mean the supply of water is further reduced
There is a water deficit as demand exceeds supply
Tourism increases the problem:
Water parks and golf courses use significant quantities of water
An average tourist uses between 450-800 litres per day
An average Spaniard uses 127 litres per day
Tagus-Segura Project
Completed in 1978
60% of the water flowing into the Tagus is transferred
A 286km pipeline which connects for Spanish river basins Tagus, Jucar, Segura
and Guadiana
The aim was to supply Alicante, Murcia and Cartagena in the south-east to reduce
the water deficit
Tagus-Segura Project
Issues
Much of the water transferred went to the tourist and leisure users not to small
scale farmers
Page 73 of 91
Water consumption in the south-east increased due to an increase in supply YOUR NOTES
It is estimated that 15% of the transferred water is being illegally used by leisure 
users such as golf courses
Large commercial farms are benefitting more than small scale farmers
Ebro project
A second water transfer project was proposed in 2001 to transfer water from the
River Ebro
This project was abandoned due to:
The failure and issues with the Tagus-Segura project
The cost
The threat to the Ebro delta as the scheme would have disrupted sediment flow
to the delta
Spain has now moved to utilising desalinisation plants to meet the demand for
water
Page 74 of 91
3.7 Environmental Risks of Economic Activity YOUR NOTES


3.7.1 Soil Erosion & Desertification
Soil Erosion & Desertification
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the wearing away of the topsoil by the action of wind or water
It is a natural process which is made worse by human activities which leave the soil
exposed to wind and water
Cause How it leads to soil erosion
Removes the trees reducing interception so the soil is more
exposed to the rainfall.
Reduces the amount of roots which reduces infiltration and
Deforestation increases surface run off
The bare soil is more exposed to the wind which would have
been reduced by tree cover
Removes vegetation cover which acts to protect the soil from
both wind and water
More animals trampling the land leads to compaction and
Overgrazing increased surface run off
This happens more in LEDCs where farmers have less and less
land to graze
Land is not left to rest (fallow) between crops and so the
Overcultivation fertility of the soil is reduced
More people increase the settlement sizes reducing the areas
which can be farmed - increasing overcultivation and
Population overgrazing
Increase Increases the demand for food which leads to overcultivation
and overgrazing
Over Leads to the soil moisture content decreasing. This leads to
abstraction of drier soil which is more easily eroded by wind or water
groundwater
Human induced Changes in climate patterns, increasing floods and increasing
climate change droughts all lead to an increase in soil erosion
Salinisation is also an increasing issue in many semi-arid areas

Occurs when high rates of evaporation lead to groundwater being drawn to the
surface
When the groundwater evaporates salts are left in or on the topsoil
These salts make the land toxic to many crops and so the land can no longer
be used
Soil erosion may over time lead to desertification
Page 75 of 91
Desertification YOUR NOTES

Desertification is caused by both natural factors and human activities 
Many of the natural causes may be made worse by climate change
Natural causes Human causes
Soil erosion leads to the loss of nutrients. Overgrazing means the vegetation has all
Plants are unable to establish and grow gone due to the numbers of animals or the
land does not have chance to recover
Rainfall patterns have become less Over-cultivation leads to all the nutrients
predictable leading to drought and any being taken up by crops leaving none for
vegetation dying due to lack of water future vegetation to grow
Deforestation removes shade for the soil
Reduced vegetation means that nutrients and means there are no roots which bind
are not added to the soil through the the soil together. This increases soil
decomposition of dead organic matter erosion, whilst decreasing infiltration and
interception
Any rain that does fall is often in short, Population growth puts increased
intense bursts, leading to increased pressure on the land as people raise more
surface run off and soil erosion animals and grow more crops
Page 76 of 91
Causes of Desertification YOUR NOTES


 Worked Example
Fig 1 gives information about annual rainfall in one of the areas
at risk of desertification in Africa. It shows the years which have
been wetter than average and drier than average between 1950
and 2016.
Figure 1
Using Fig 1, explain how rainfall could be one factor which

could lead to desertification.
[2]
Although the question suggests rainfall could cause desertification -
what the examiners are looking for is an answer which explains how
lack of rainfall could cause desertification
Answer:
Droughts/rainfall below the average over a prolonged period/dry
years (this is a compulsory point and must be mentioned to gain
marks) [1]
Vegetation dies [1]
Overgrazing due to lack of vegetation [1]
Leads to soil erosion [1]
 Exam Tip
Remember desertification is not the expansion of the deserts which already
exist. It is when semi-arid ecosystems become desert like as a result of
human activity and unsustainable land use.
Sustainable Management of Soil Erosion and Desertification

Halting and reversing soil erosion and desertification means tackling the causes
There are a variety of political and social responses
Education
Education including:
Sustainable farming methods including agroforestry and crop rotation, which
help to keep the soil healthy
Family planning to reduce population growth
Agroforestry
Page 77 of 91
This combines agriculture with forestry, which means some trees remain, which: YOUR NOTES
Decreases deforestation 
Provides shade as well as increasing infiltration and interception, which
reduces soil erosion
Provides organic matter from the trees and adds nutrients to the soil
Afforestation
Tree planting, such as the Great Green Wall across the Sahel, helps to reverse
desertification in several ways:
The roots help to bind the soil together reducing soil erosion
The canopy offers shade helping to prevent the soil from drying out and also
reducing soil erosion from rainfall landing directly on the soil
Nutrients in the soil are replaced by falling leaves and branches
The trees increase animal and insect activity which helps improve soil quality
Contour Stones and Terraces
These help to reduce soil erosion by:
Preventing the soil from being blown or washed away
Increasing infiltration of water and reducing overland flow
Ensuring that dead organic matter stays in one place and can decompose
adding nutrients to the soil
Contour Stones
Page 78 of 91

 State two methods which people in rural areas of LEDCs could

use to reduce desertification.

For each of your chosen methods, explain why you think it will
be successful.
[4]
For this question you need to give two methods and then explain each
one and why it works to gain the full four marks. Just giving two
methods will only gain you two marks
You also need to ensure they are things that people can do rather than
things people should not do. For example, do not overgraze would not
gain any marks
Answer:
Limit size of herds/rotate grazing land [1] which leads to less
overgrazing [1]
Plant trees/shelter belts/afforestation [1] so the roots help to bind
the soil [1]
Contour ploughing/ploughing across slope [1] which reduces
surface run off [1]
Education about agricultural technique [1] leading to less
deforestation/overgrazing/overcultivation
Crop rotation [1] improves soil fertility [1]
Terracing [1] which reduces surface run off [1]
Maintain soil cover/plant drought resistant plants [1] which
reduces surface run off/improves soil fertility [1]
Mulching [1] which reduces surface run off/improves soil fertility
[1]
Micro HEP project/small scale cookers [1] reduces deforestation [1]
Page 79 of 91
3.7.2 Global Warming YOUR NOTES


Global Warming
Changes in the global climate
The global climate conditions of the Earth range over time leading to colder and
warmer periods
The last 2.6 million years are the Quaternary period when there have been 60 cold
periods and warmer interglacial periods
The last ice age ended approximately 25,000 years ago
The evidence for these changes comes from:
Ice cores which trap ash, air bubbles and microbes
Preserved pollen
Historical sources such as diaries and art
Tree rings
Causes of Natural Climate Change
Cause Impact
Long term changes to the Earth's orbit and position. This
changes how much solar radiation the Earth receives
The Earth's orbit changes every 100,000 years a more
circular orbit leads to cooler periods and an elliptical orbit
Milankovitch Cycles leads to warmer periods
The Earth's tilt varies every 40,000 years and the greater the
tilt the hotter summers are and colder the winters are
Every 24,000 years the Earth wobbles on its axis and this
can affect the seasonal temperatures
Large scale eruptions lead to vast quantities of ash being
ejected into the atmosphere
Volcanic eruptions Ash in the atmosphere blocks solar radiation leading to a
decrease in temperatures
Increased sunspot activity is linked to higher average
Sunspot activity temperatures
Asteroids and meteors entering the Earth's atmosphere may
Atmospheric dust increase the amount of dust which decreases temperatures
The greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is essential to the survival of life on Earth:
Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere allow short-wave radiation from the sun
through to the Earth's surface
The greenhouse gases absorb some of the long-wave radiation (heat) and
stop it radiating out into space
This maintains the Earth's average temperature
Without the greenhouse effect the average temperature would be -18oC
Page 80 of 91
Greenhouse gases from natural sources YOUR NOTES

Water vapour - evaporation from the oceans/seas and plants 
Carbon dioxide - volcanic eruptions, wildfires and respiration
Methane - emitted from oceans and soils as part of decomposition, termites also
emit methane
Nitrous oxide - soils and oceans
The enhanced greenhouse effect
Human activity is increasing the number of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere:
Carbon dioxide (CO 2) levels in the atmosphere have increased by more than
100 parts per million (ppm) to 420ppm in 2020
Increased amounts of greenhouse gases have led to the enhanced greenhouse
effect:
Less long-wave radiation (heat) can escape the atmosphere
Average global temperatures have increased over 1oC since pre-industrial
times
Average Global Temperatures
Page 81 of 91
YOUR NOTES

Human Sources of Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse Gas Sources from Human Activity

Burning of fossil fuels - power stations,
vehicles
Carbon Dioxide Burning of wood
(CO 2) Deforestation - trees utilise CO2 in
photosynthesis. The fewer trees there are the
less CO2 is removed from the atmosphere
Decay of organic matter - manure, waste in
Methane (CH4) landfill, crops
Artificial fertilisers
Nitrous Oxide (N 2O) Burning fossil fuels
Aerosols
Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigeration units
(CFCs) Air conditioning
Page 82 of 91

 Study Fig 1, which shows information about human influence on

the greenhouse effect
Using Fig 1 only, explain how humans are influencing the

natural greenhouse effect.
[3]
Remember when a question states 'Using Fig 1 only' you will only be
awarded marks for information that you have taken from the figure and
not for information you have from elsewhere.
Answer:
Greater/more/build up of greenhouse gases [1]
Named examples of greenhouse gases that have increased [1]
More heat is trapped [1]
Less heat escapes [1]
 Exam Tip
Remember not all scientists agree about the causes of climate change. There
are a few scientists who argue that global warming is the result of the
Earth's natural climate pattern and not the result of human activities.
Impacts of the enhanced greenhouse effect

Health
Increased temperatures and lack of precipitation may lead to the spread of
diseases:
Italy has experienced cases of malaria since 2017 when it was previously a
malaria free area
An additional 280 million people may be affected by malaria
Water-borne diseases are more likely to spread
Heat waves may become more frequent
Heat stroke, dehydration and sunburn increase during heat waves
Stagnant air during heat waves increases air pollution levels:
Respiratory diseases increase and those suffering from respiratory illnesses
such as asthma may be more affected
Increased temperatures negatively affect people with cardiopulmonary diseases
Diets may be restricted by food shortages leading to malnutrition and famine
Homes and settlements
Page 83 of 91
Increased flooding due to sea level rise and increased frequency and severity of YOUR NOTES
storms will lead to displacement of large numbers of people 
Settlements in low-lying areas may have to be abandoned or need additional
defences against sea level rise:
Moving settlements or improving flood defences will be costly
Agriculture
Farmers may need to change the crop they grow if climate conditions become
unsuitable
Coastal flooding may lead to salt intrusion
Reduced availability of water will mean that irrigation is limited or impossible
Food shortages will lead to malnutrition and famine
Employment
Job opportunities may change or decrease because:
Tourism may decline in some areas for example ski resorts may close due to
the lack of reliable snow
Coastal resorts may be at risk of flooding leading to the closure
Farmers may have to change the crop they grow or livestock they raise or leave
farming
In some areas agriculture may decline due to rising temperatures or changing
rainfall patterns
Sea level rise
Warmer temperatures cause the water in seas and oceans to expand, increasing
the sea level
Melting ice is adding to the increasing volume of water:
Average sea levels have risen 23cm since 1880
Sea levels are forecast to increase a further 30cm by 2050
Low-lying coastal areas and islands are at higher risk of flooding:
The Maldives may be uninhabitable by 2050
Beach erosion will increase leading to greater coastal erosion
Coastal ecosystems including coral reefs and mangrove swamps will be affected
Saltwater is contaminating freshwater supplies and affecting coastal agriculture
Ecosystem change
The location of biomes may shift to the north (Northern Hemisphere) and south
(Southern Hemisphere) as they rely on specific climate conditions:
Polar and tundra biomes are at risk of becoming extinct as they cannot shift
any further north/south
Increasing sea temperatures and ocean acidification have resulted in coral
bleaching
Migration and behaviour patterns of animals affected by changing temperatures:
Fish species are moving north and south of their usual habitats to seek cooler
water
Reduced hibernation due to warmer winters
Melting of ice caps/glaciers leading changing ocean currents
Mangrove swamps and coral reefs are threatened by rising sea levels
Page 84 of 91
Loss of habitats through flooding, drought and wildfires YOUR NOTES

Food webs breaking as species numbers are reduced and food sources are 
decreased
Loss of plants and vegetation
Natural hazards
Changes in climate patterns are likely to increase the frequency and severity of
storms:
The 2020 Atlantic hurricane seas were the first most active on record and 2021
was the third most active
The frequency and length of droughts are increasing
Dry conditions lead to the increased risk of wildfires:
In 2021 Australia, Greece, South Africa, Brazil and USA were just some of the
places to experience severe wildfires
In September 2021 the USA National Fire Centre reported 44.647 wildfires
which had burned 5.6 million acres
Rising sea levels together with increased storms lead to increased flooding risk
Responses to climate change
Global warming and climate change require an international response because it
affects the entire globe
Responses can involve either adaptation or mitigation
In 1988 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up to assess
the 'risks of human-induced climate change
This was followed by several international agreements
Earth Summit, Rio 1992
Set out aims to stabilise greenhouse gas levels
Kyoto Protocol 1997
Delegates from 150 countries agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
It stated that industrialised countries would reduce emissions to below the levels
in 1990
Developing countries including China and India were exempt from the agreement
The USA did not sign up for the treaty
Canada withdrew in 2011 stating that without China and USA the treaty would not
work
Paris Agreement 2015
Global agreement to limit global warming to 2oC (preferably 1.5oC) above pre-
industrial levels
Agreement also includes reducing CO2 emissions by at least 60% by 2050
Signed by 196 countries including the USA and China (the USA withdrew in 2020
and rejoined in 2021)
Conference of the Parties (COP)
The United Nations (UN) holds an annual (every year) meeting to discuss climate
change.
Page 85 of 91
COP26 was held in Glasgow in 2021 YOUR NOTES

All nations agreed to take actions to further reduce greenhouse gas emissions 
Reducing emissions
Emissions can be reduced in a number of ways including;
Reducing deforestation
Increasing afforestation
Improving energy efficiency in industry and domestic appliances
Reducing emissions from industry
Improving public transport
Electric vehicles
Use of renewable energy and nuclear power
 Worked Example
Explain why global warming is a threat to the natural
environment.
[4]
Remember on this question that it is asking about the natural
environment so you should not include impacts on humans
Answer:
Melting of ice caps/glaciers [1]
Loss of natural habitat [1]
Rising sea/water levels [1]
Flooding of low lying islands/countries leading to habitat loss [1]
Loss of food sources for wildlife [1]
Loss of species/extinction/animals die (or example) [1]
Breaking of food chains/threats to predators [1]
Diversion of cold ocean currents [1]
Warming of sea water can destroy/bleach coral [1]
Increasing aridity/drought/desertification [1]
Forest fires [1]
Vegetation loss/trees die etc. [1]
Page 86 of 91
3.7.4 Resource Conservation YOUR NOTES


Resource Conservation
Conservation is the protection and rational use of the environment and natural
resources to ensure they are there for future generations
This involves measures which use resources efficiently to extend their existence
for as long as possible
Conservation measures include;
Recycling and reuse of resources such as clothing or glass and plastics
Using energy efficient appliances - these use less energy to power them and
less water
Stewardship of protected areas - National Parks, Areas of Outstanding
Natural Beauty (AONB)
Greater use of, and investment in renewable energies
Quotas on resources used - rising quotas to ensure the fish population is not
overfished
Protection of particular ecosystems - Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)
and the Antarctica Treaty which includes agreements about the exploitation
of Antarctica
Reducing deforestation
Laws to protect resources and areas
Fines for people/organisatiions/companies that damage the environment
Reducing use of or rationing of resources
There are many non-governmental organisations (NGOs) which aim to conserve
and protect the environment and natural resources;
World Wildlife Fund
Greenpeace
Friends of the Earth
Woodland Trust
Government Actions Individual Actions
Congestion charges within cities Use public transport
Investment in renewable energy Walk or cycle
Grants for solar panels Reduce, reuse and recycle
Gas emission limits for vehicles Buy energy efficient appliances
Charging points for electric vehicles Invest in double glazing and insulation
Increase tax on petrol and diesel Wash clothes less often and at lower
temperatures
Invest in public transport Compost food and garden waste
Fines for businesses and industries
which pollute
Page 87 of 91

 Study Fig 1, which shows advice about conservation of natural

resources.
Explain how following the advice given in Fig 1 can help to

conserve natural resources.
[3]
Answer:
Uses fewer resources/less demand for resources or example/there
are fewer resources wasted [1]
Saves resources for the future [1]
Can use resources again/make more use [1]
Resources last longer [1]
Saves energy [1]
Waste products become useful [1]
Explain the importance of conserving natural resources and the
natural environment.
[5]
Answer:
Many are non-renewable/will run out/are finite [1]
Life in future would not be possible without clean water [1]
Life in future would not be possible without clean air [1]
Life in future would not be possible without land for cultivation [1]
To protect habitats [1]
Conserving the natural environment will ensure ecosystems remain
in balance [1]
Species do not become extinct/animals do not die [1]
To prevent global warming/acid rain/desertification etc. [1]
Creates conflict/civil rest [1]
Forests act as carbon sinks [1]
Page 88 of 91
Example Case Study: Pearl River Delta, China YOUR NOTES

Located in South-East China, the Pearl River is China's third longest river 
The Pearl River enters the South China Sea to the south-east of Guangzhou
The area surrounding where the river enters the sea is the Pearl River Delta
The area is China's largest economic hub, creating over 9% of China's total GDP
It is the largest urban area or megacity in the world
Over 60 million people live in the region
Pollution sources
Air pollution from power plants - there are both gas and coal fired power stations
in the region which emit sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides
Emissions lead to smog, acid rain and add to enhanced greenhouse effect
Toxic waste from factories and sewage from large population released into the
rivers
Impacts of pollution
The Pearl River Delta has the highest level of acid rain in China
Leads to acidified groundwater
Increases heavy metals found in crops and drinking water
Linked to increased rates of stomach cancer
Increase in heavy metals in river water and river sediments including lead, zinc,
chromium, copper, arsenic and mercury
Page 89 of 91
All harmful to humans and wildlife when in absorbed sufficient quantities YOUR NOTES
Heavy metals pass through the food chain 
Rice cultivated in the area has been shown to be contaminated with arsenic
and this poses a health risk to the people who consume it
Pesticides affect wildlife and accumulate in the food chain impacting human
health
Fertilisers lead to eutrophication
Page 90 of 91
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3.1 Development YOUR NOTES

The Cycle of Wealth

Measures of national income

Human development index

Indices of political corruption

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

of the quality of life.

3.1.2 Inequalities in Development YOUR NOTES

The development gap

Factors Affecting Development and Human Welfare YOUR NOTES

There are three stages of regional inequality:

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

America along with the percentage change in GDP

State one piece of evidence that there is a development gap in

There is a difference in the percentage increase of GDP per capita

3.1.3 Economic Sectors YOUR NOTES

3.1.4 Employment Sectors YOUR NOTES

Clark-Fisher Sector Model

As countries develop the numbers of people employed in each economic sector

Causes of changes over time

3.1.5 Globalisation YOUR NOTES

Overall, connections around the globe are:

Impacts of globalisation on people

Movement of people, transport YOUR NOTES

Case Study - Nike

Country Cost Benefit

Exploitation of workers Substantial employment

3.2 Food Production YOUR NOTES

Impacts of farming systems

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

examples of inputs, processes and outputs of a mixed farm.

Inputs Processes Outputs

Case Study: Sheep Farming YOUR NOTES

Climate - Short growing season

Mutton - this is meat from sheep over 1 year YOUR NOTES

3.2.2 Food Shortages YOUR NOTES

Flooding - crops cannot cope with - people are unable

Pests - locusts can wipe out entire

Soil erosion and desertification - YOUR NOTES

Possible Solutions to the Problem of Food Shortages YOUR NOTES

This can be short

The artificial watering Loss of water

Low cost YOUR NOTES

Includes methods Increases yield as

Case Study: Yemen YOUR NOTES

In recent years drought has further affected supplies YOUR NOTES

Food basket price in Yemen

3.3 Industry YOUR NOTES

electric arc YOUR NOTES

3.3.2 Distribution of Industrial Zones YOUR NOTES

Changes to manufacturing and location over time

Manufactures will move in response YOUR NOTES

As an economy advances, the proportion of people employed in each sector

3.4 Tourism YOUR NOTES

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

Silvassa Forest region in India (an LEDC).