PHYSICS NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

1. First Law: The Law of Motion – states that if the body is at rest, it will

FORCE remain at rest, if it is in motion, it will remain in motion with constant

speed in a straight line unless there is a net force acting upon it.
Force is defined as any influence which tends to change the motion of an
object.

The 4 Fundamental forces in the universe: Fnet = 0

1. Gravity Force
2. Electromagnetic Force
3. Nuclear Weak Force 2. Second Law: The Law of Acceleration – if a net force acting on the body

4. Strong Force of mass is not zero, the body accelerates in the direction of the force. The

1 N = 1kg m/s2 acceleration is proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the
mass of the body.

UNITS
F = ma
1N 1 kg – m/s2
1 dyne 1 g – cm/s2
3. Third Law: The Law of Action and Reaction – to every action there is
1 pdl 1 lbm – ft/s2
always an equal and opposite reaction.
1 lbf 32.2 lbm – ft/s2 1 slug– ft/s2
1 kgf 9.81 kg – m/s2 9.81 N
F2 = F1
1 gf 981 g – cm/s2 981 dynes
sthene 1000 N
kip 1000 lbf
NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION COLLISION

State that, “The force on a spherical object of mass m 1 due to the
gravitational pull of m2 is:
A collision occurs when two or more objects hit each other. When objects
collide, each objects feels a force for a short amount of time. This force imparts an
impulse or changes the momentum of each of the colliding objects. But if the
system of particles is isolated, we know that momentum is conserved. Therefore,
while the momentum of each individual particle involved in the collision changes,
the total momentum of the system remains constant.

Gm1 m2
F=
r2 TYPES OF COLLISIONS
where:
G = 6.72 x 10-11 N – m2/kg2 1. Elastic Collision – is a collision which conserves kinetic energy.
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1v1 + m2v2
2. Inelastic Collision – is a collision which does not conserve energy.
IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM m1v1 + m2v2 = (m1 + m2) vc
1. Impulse – the product of force and the time it acts.
I = Ft
TYPES OF INELASTIC COLLISION
2. Momentum – the product of the mass and the velocity of the body.
P = mv 1. Endoergic – when there is a decrease in kinetic energy with corresponding
3. Impulse – Momentum Theorem – impulse is equal to the change in increase in internal potential energy.
momentum. 2. Exoergic – when there is an increase of kinetic energy at the expense of
Ft = mv2 – mv1 internal potential energy.
4. The Law of Conservation of Momentum – when two bodies of masses m1
A perfectly inelastic collision is the collision which the object sticks together
and m2 collide, the total momentum before impact is equal to the total
afterward. In such collisions the KE loss is maximum
momentum after impact.
Pbefore impact = Pafter impact A perfectly elastic collision is the collision which the total kinetic energy of

m1v1 + m2v2 = m1v1 + m2v2 the colliding objects after collision is the same as the kinetic energy before the
collision.
 θ1 = angle with respect to the normal

COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION θ2 = angle of rebound

The negative ratio of the relative velocity after collision to the relative
velocity before collision.
WORK
relative velocity of recession v2 - v1
e= = The work done by a force is defined as the product of the force and
relative velocity of approach v1 - v2
displacement in the direction of the force.
where:
W = Fs cosθ or W = Fs (if θ = 0)
e = 0 → for perfectly inelastic collision
where:
e = 1 → for perfectly elastic collision
s = displacement (m)
Special Cases in Solving Coefficient of Restitution
θ = angle between the force and the displacement (degree)
1. If a ball is dropped from a height “ho” upon a floor and rebounds to a
height of “hr”, the coefficient of restitution between the ball and the floor
is: ENERGY

hr Energy is defined as the capability of doing work.

e=√
ho
1. Potential Energy – is the energy possessed by an object by virtue of its
where:
position or configuration.
hr = height of rebound
ho = original height Types of Potential Energy
2. If a ball is thrown at an angle θ1 with the normal to a smooth surface and
a. Gravitational Potential Energy – is the energy possessed by the object
rebounds at an angle θ2:
due to its vertical separation from the earth. The stored energy is held
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃1
e= within the gravitational field.
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃2
PEgrav. = Wh
where: PEgrav. = mgh
 where: v = velocity, m/s

W = weight of the object ω = angular velocity, rad/s

m = mass of the object

g = gravitational acceleration WORK-ENERGY THEOREM

= 9.8 m/s2; 980 cm/s2; 32.2 ft/s2 The work-energy theorem states that when work is done on an object, the
result is a change in kinetic energy.
b. Elastic Potential Energy – is the energy stored in a stretched or
compressed elastic material such as a spring. Work = ΔKE
1
PEelastic. = kx2
2

where: POWER

k = spring constant Power is equal to the work done, divided by the taken to do the work.

x = stretched or compressed distance W F.s

P= = = Fv
t t
Note: Elastic potential energy is equivalent to the work done on a spring.
Units of Power:
2. Kinetic Energy – is the energy possessed by an object because of its
motion. 1 watt = 1 J/s = 107 ergs/s
1
KEtranslation. = mv2 1 hp = 550 ft-lb/s = 746 watts
2
1
KErotation. = Iω2
2

where: THERMAL EXPANSION

m = mass 1. Coefficient of Linear Expansion – is the change in length per unit length
per degree rise in temperature.
I = mass moment of inertia
 ΔL ΔV
= 3αΔt → volume expansion
α= V
Lo Δt
where:
α = coefficient of linear expansion
Lo = original length SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
ΔL = Lf – Lo = change in length
Defined as the oscillating motion of an object about a fixed point such that
Δt = tf – to = change in temperature
the acceleration of the object is directly proportional to the displacement from the
fixed point and is always directed towards the fixed point.
2. Coefficient of Volume Expansion – is the change in volume per unit
volume per degree rise in temperature. 1. SHM of a Spring-Mass System – the spring is pulled and released causing

ΔV it to oscillate back and forth.

β=
Vo Δt m 1
T = 2π√ → f =
k T
where:
β = coefficient of volume expansion where:
Vo = original length
T = period of oscillations A
ΔV = Vf – Vo = change in volume
Δt = tf – to = change in temperature m = mass attached to the spring (kg)

k = spring constant (N/m)

3. Coefficient of Area Expansion f = frequency of oscillations (Hz)

ΔA A = amplitude or maximum displacement (m)
𝛼𝐴 =
Ao Δt
Maximum speed: Vmax = Aw → w = 2πf

Relationships among coefficients of Thermal Expansions: Maximum acceleration: amax = Aw2

ΔL By conservation of energy, the initial elastic potential energy when the spring is
= αΔt → linear expansion
L
stretched to a displacement A is equal to the final elastic potential energy when the
ΔA
= 2αΔt → area expansion
A displacement x plus the KE of the system,
 1 1 1 2. SHM of a Simple Pendulum – is formed by an object that has its entire
kA2 = mv2 + kx2
2 2 2
mass concentrated at the end of a string and allowed to swing back & forth
m only with a small angle θ.
V = √ (A2 - x2 ) → alternate formula to solve v
k
L
T = 2π√
g
From Hooke’s law, F = kx and F = ma; once displaced and released the restoring
force drives the system. L = length of pendulum
g = gravitational acceleration at
k
A= x → alternate formula to solve a the location of the pendulum
m

Example: A 100-g object is suspended from a spring whose force constant is 50 Example: At the surface of earth, a vibrating pendulum has period of 2.4 s. What
N/m. What is the frequency of oscillations? is the length of this pendulum?

m 0.1
T = 2π√ = 2π√ = 0.281 s L
k 50 T = 2π√
g
1 1
f= = = 3.56 Hz
T 0.281 gT2 9.81(2.4)2
L= = = 1.43 m
4π2 4π2
Example: A 300-g mass at the end of a spring oscillates with amplitude of 7 cm
and a frequency of 1.8 Hz. What is its speed when it is 3 cm from its equilibrium 3. Compound Pendulum – an object of any kind which is pivoted so that it

position? can oscillate freely.

I
m 1 T = 2π√
mgh
T = 2π√ ; T =
k f
where:
1 0.3
= 2π√ I = moment of inertia of the
1.8 k
object about its pivot
k = 38.37 N/m
m = mass of the object

g = gravitational acceleration

h = distance of the c to the pivot

Example: A meterstick is hung by one end and allowed to vibrate as a compound Example: A 24 kg wooden sphere whose diameter is 40 cm is suspended by a
pendulum. Find its period. wire. A torque of 0.5 N-m is found to rotate the sphere through 10°. Find the
period of oscillation of the sphere.
I
T = 2π√
mgh I
T = 2π√
K
1
mL2 2 L
T = 2π√ 3 = 2π√ ( ) τ = Kθ
L 3 g
mg ( )
2
τ 0.5 N-m N-m
K= = = 2.86
θ 10° x π rad/180° rad
2 1
T = 2π√ ( )
3 9.81

WAVE MOTION
T = 1.638 s
A wave in general is a disturbance that moves through a medium.
4. Torsion Pendulum – an object suspended by a wire or thin rod which
undergoes rotational simple harmonic motion.

I
T = 2π√
K

τ = Kθ
where:

I = moment of inertia of the object Amplitude (A) - maximum displacement of the particles of the medium through
which the waves passes on either sides of its equilibrium positions.
about its pivot
Crest – highest point in the wave
K = torsion constant
τ = torque Trough – lowest point in the wave
θ = angle of twist
Frequency(f) – is the number of waves that pass a given point per second

Period (T) – a time required for one complete wave to pass a given point.
Speed of a wave (v) – is the distance it moves per unit time. The speed depends Note: Waves that travel down a stretched string when one end is shaken is an
upon the kind of wave and the properties of the medium. example of a transverse wave.

Wavelength (𝜆) – distance between adjacent wave crest

V 1
λ= →f=
f T

Note: If not specified, radio waves propagate equal to the speed of light 3 x 10 9
m/s.

Example: A radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 660 kHz. What is the V = velocity of transverse wave
wavelength of these waves?
F = tension force in the string
9
3 x 10
λ= = 454.54 m M = total mass of the string
660,000
L = length of string
Example: The time needed for the water wave to change from the equilibrium
level to the crests is 0.18 s. What is the frequency of the wave? Example: A string of linear density 2 g/m is stretched to a tension of 4.9 N. What
T is the speed of the transverse waves on the string?
= 0.18 → T = 0.72s
4

1 1 FL (4.9)(1)
f= = = 1.388 Hz V=√ = √ = 49.5 m/s
T 0.72 m 0.002

TRANSVERSE WAVE LONGITUDINAL WAVE

Transverse wave is produced when the particles of the medium move back Longitudinal wave is formed when the particles of the medium move back
and forth perpendicular to the direction of the wave. and forth in the same direction as the wave. Also sometimes called compressional
wave.
FL
V=√
m E
V=√
ρ
Note: Waves that travel down a coil spring when one end is pulled out and released where:
is an example of longitudinal wave.
Node = a point where the amplitude is zero

Antinode = a point where the amplitude is maximum.

V
fn = n ( ) → n = 1, 2, 3, ....
2L

Note: Musicians called f2, f3 and so on as overtones which helps to define the
quality of a given sound.
10 2
Example: For copper, the modulus of elasticity is 14 x 10 N/m and the density
First overtone = 2nd harmonics
is 8920 kg/m3. What is the speed of sound in copper?
Second overtone = 3rd harmonics
E 14 x 1010
V=√ =√ = 3961.7 m/s Third overtone = 4th harmonics
ρ 8920

Example: What is the speed of wave in a 90-cm long piano wire which produces a
STANDING WAVES IN A STRETCHED STRING
fundamental tone of 198 Hz when hit?
Standing wave is produced when two waves of equal magnitude and frequency
V
travel in opposite directions in a medium.Make the entire stretched string move up fn = n ( ) → n = 1 , for fundamental frequency
2L

and down as a single unit, this is the easiest frequency mode of vibration possible 𝑉
and is called, fundamental of first harmonics. 198 = 1 ( )
2(0.9)
Example: Determine the first overtone of a violin string 35 cm long if the speed of
the wave on it is 180 m/s.

V
fn = n ( ) → n = 2 , for first overtone
2L

180
f2 = 2 ( )
2(0.35)

f2 = 514.28 Hz
STANDING WAVE IN AIR COLUMNS (OPEN PIPES) V
fn = n ( ) → n = 1, 3, 5, ....
4L
Open pipes must be open from both ends. Basic examples are organ pipes
Note: For open-closed pipes, the frequency of the overtones is equal to odd
and wind instruments.
harmonics of the fundamental.
V
fn = n ( ) → n = 1, 2, 3, .... First overtone = 3rd harmonics
2L

Note: For overtones of open pipes, the concept is like stretched strings. Second overtone = 5th harmonics

Example: The lowest frequency of standing waves which can exist in a tube open Third overtone = 7th harmonics
on both ends is 250 Hz. What is the length of the tube?
Example: A tuning fork produces a resonance with closed tube 19 cm long. What
V is the lowest possible frequency of the tuning fork?
fn = n ( ) → n = 1, for fundamental frequency
2L
V
343 fn = n ( ) → n = 1, for lowest frequency
4L
250 = 1 ( )
2L
343
L = 0686 m f1 = 1 ( ) = 451.3 Hz
4(0.19)

Example: An organ pipe 30 cm long is open at both ends. If the velocity of sound Example: A closed organ pipe 2.5 ft long is sounded. If the velocity of the sound
is 344 m/s, what is the frequency of the second overtone? is 1100 ft/s, what is the frequency of the first overtone?

V V
fn = n ( ) → n = 3, for second overtone fn = n ( ) → n = 3, for first overtone
2L 4L

344 1100
f3 = 3 ( ) = 1720 Hz f3 = 3 ( ) = 330 Hz
2(0.3)
4(2.5)

STANDING WAVE IN AIR COLUMNS (OPEN-CLOSED PIPES)

SPEED OF SOUND IN A GAS (AS MEDIUM)
For air pipes, open t one end and closed at the other end, it is sometimes
Sound waves are longitudinal waves that consist of varying pressures.
called stopped pipe.
They can travel through solids, liquid, and gases.
 γP P ̅
R ̅T
γR ̅T
γR 1.4(8314)(27+273)
V=√ ρ= ;M = → then V = √ V=√ = √ = 1321.34 m/s
ρ RT R M M 2

where:

V = speed of sound in a given medium INTENSITY OF A SOUND WAVE

γ = specific heat ratio of the gas Sound intensity is defined as the sound of power per unit area.

= 1.4, for diatomic gases like H2, O2, etc P2

I=
2ρV
= 1.67 for monoatomic gases like He, etc.
where:
ρ = density of the gas
I = intensity of sound
P = absolute pressure
P = pressure amplitude
R = gas constant of the given gas
ρ = average density of medium
̅ = universal gas constant (8314 kJ/kmol-K)
R
V = velocity of sound in air
T = absolute temperature of the gas
Note:
M = molar mass of gas
1. For air at 20 °C, its average density is 1.2 or 1.3 kg/m 3 as used.
Example: Find the speed of sound in a diatomic ideal gas that has a density of 3.5
2. An intensity of 1 x 10-12 W/m2 is just audible is given the value 0 dB
3
kg/m and a pressure of 215 kPa.
(called reference intensity). Thus, the sound intensity B in dB of a sound
wave whose intensity I in W/m2 is given by,
γP 1.4(215,000)
V=√ =√ = 293.25 m/s
ρ ρ I -12
B = 10 log ( ) →Io =1 x 10 W/m2
Io
Example: Hydrogen gas consist of diatomic molecules with a molar mass of 2
g/mol, find the speed of the sound in hydrogen at 27 °C. Example: What is the sound intensity level in the air near a siren when the
pressure amplitude of the sound is 0.2 Pa? Assume velocity of the sound as 344
m/s.
 P2 (0.2)2 B2 = 68 dB
I= = = 48.45 μW/m2
2ρV 2(1.2)(344)

I 48.45 x 10-6
B = 10 log ( ) = 10 log ( ) = 76.85 dB PROPAGATION OF SOUND
Io 1 x 10-12
In free space, sound radiates like coming from the center of a sphere.
Example: What is the sound intensity in decibels of a source with sound power of
5 x 10-10 W/m2? P
I= → W/m2
4πr2
I 5 x 10-10
B = 10 log ( ) = 10 log ( ) = 27 dB where:
Io 1 x 10-12
4πr2 = surface area of a sphere
dB DIFFERENCE OF TWO SOUND INTENSITY LEVELS
P = sound power
I2
B2 - B1 = 10 log ( )
I1 r = distance from the sound source

Example: How many times more intense is a 50 dB sound than a 40 dB sound? I = intensity of the sound
I2
B2 - B1 = 10 log ( ) Example: To be effective, an alarm must be heard at a minimum level of 70 dB. If
I1
it is to be effective for a man whose nearest neighbors live 2000 ft down the street,
I2 I2 what is the minimum power required?
50 - 40 = 10 log ( ) → thus, = 10
I1 I1
I
B = 10 log ( )
Thus, 50 dB sound is 10 times more intense than a 40 dB sound. Io

Example: The intensity level of normal conversation (one person speaking) is 65 I

70 = 10 log ( )
dB. What is the intensity level if two people are speaking? 1 x 10-12

I2 I = 1 x 10-5 W/m2
B2 - B1 = 10 log ( )
I1
P
I=
2I1 4πr2
B2 - 65 = 10 log ( )
I1
 1m 2 fL fS
P= 4πr2 I = (4π) (200 ft x ) (1 x 10-5 ) =
3.281 ft V + V L V - VS

P = 0.467 W where:

Note: With sound power P constant, sound intensity I varies inversely as the square fL = frequency of the sound heard by the listener
of the radius r.
fS = frequency of the source of sound
I2 r1 2
= ( ) V = velocity of sound in air (if not given, try using 343 m/s or 344 m/s)
I1 r2

Example: At a distance of 5 m from a source the sound level is 90 dB. How far VL = velocity of the listener
away has the level dropped to 50 dB?
= positive for motion towards the source
I2
B2 - B1 = 10 log ( ) = negative for motion away from the source
I1

I2 I2 VS = velocity of the source

50 - 90 = 10 log ( ) → = 0.0001
I1 I1
= positive for motion towards the listener
I2 r1 2 5 2
= ( ) → 0.0001 = ( ) = negative for motion away from the listener
I1 r2 r2

r2 = 500 m
MACH NUMBER

Mach number is the ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of

DOPPLER EFFECT
sound in the surrounding medium.
When there is relative motion between a source of sound and a
Vbody
listener, the frequency of the sound heard by the listener is different from 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑁𝑜. =
Vsound
the frequency of sound at source. This change in frequency is called
Note:
Doppler Effect.
Mach 1, equal to the speed of sound
 Mach 2, equal to twice the speed of sound Example: Two open organ pipes, one 2.5 ft and one 2.4 ft in length, are sounded
simultaneously. How many beats per second will be produced between the
Example: What frequency is observed by a stationary pedestrian when a police
fundamental tones if the velocity of the sound is 1100 ft/s?
siren (1200 Hz) recedes at 66 ft/s? Assume velocity of sound as 1130 ft/s.
V
fL fS For open pipes: fn = n ( ) → n = 1, for fundamental
2L
=
V + V L V - VS
1100
f1(A) = 1 ( ) = 220 Hz
fL 1200 2(2.5)
=
1130 + 0 1130 - (-66)
1100
f1(B) = 1 ( ) = 229.16 Hz
fL = 1134 Hz 2(2.4)

Example: In a town a siren is sounded at the fire station to call volunteer firemen Beat frequency = f1(B) - f1(A) = 9.16 Hz
to duty. If the frequency of the siren is 300 Hz, what frequency would a person
hear when driving towards the siren at 20 m/s?
ILLUMINATION
fL fS
=
V + V L V - VS Illumination is the amount or quantity of light that falls on a surface.

fL 300 In the SI units, it is measured in lumens per square meter or commonly

=
343 + 20 343 - 0
called lux (symbol is lx). In the English units, it is measured in lumens per square
fL = 317.49 Hz foot or commonly called foot-candle (symbol is fc)

The quantity of luminous flux or light produced by a lamp is called lumens

(symbol is lm).
BEAT FREQUENCY
ϕ ϕ I ϕ
When two waves of equal amplitude with slightly different frequencies E= = 2 = 2 →I=
Asurface 4πr r 4π
overlap, the amplitude variation of the resulting wave is called beats and the
difference in the frequencies of the two waves is called beat frequency. where:

fbeat = f2 − f1 → 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, f2 > f1 E = illumination

ϕ = lumen output of the lamp

I = luminous intensity of the lamp, sometimes called as candle power of the lamp I
E= cos θ
r2

r2 = (1)2 + (2.5)2
Note:
r = 2.69
The unit of candle power is expressed as candle or candela. The symbol
I adjacent
used is cd. E= cos θ; cos θ =
r2 hypotenuse
Example: How much luminous flux will light a bulb produce if it is to be placed
150 2.5
3.7 m from a surface where the illumination needed is 20 lux? E= 2 ( ) = 19.265 lx
(2.69) 2.69

ϕ
E=
4πr2
LAW ON REFLECTION OF LIGHT
ϕ = 4πr2 E = 4π(3.7)2 (20) = 3440.67 lumens
When a beam of light is reflected from a smooth, plane surface, the
Example: The illumination of a tabletop is 20 lx. The lamp providing the
angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
illumination is 4 m above the table. What is the intensity of the lamp?

I
E=
r2

I = Er2 = 20(4)2 = 320 cd

Illumination on a surface a distance r away from an isotropic source of light of

intensity I is

I LAW ON REFRACTION OF LIGHT

E= cos θ
r2
Refraction is the change in direction of a light ray due to its change
θ = angle between the direction of light and the normal to the surface
in speed. When a beam of light passes obliquely from one medium to
Example: A light bulb is used to light a stage 2.5 m below. A chair sits on the another in which its velocity is different, its direction changes.
stage 1 m from a spot directly below the bulb. If the bulb has a luminous intensity
of 150 cd, what is most nearly the illumination on the floor around the chair?
Index of Refraction(n) – for a given medium, it is the ratio between velocity Example: A beam of light enters a lake at an angle of incidence of 40°. Find the
of light in free space (3 x 108 m/s) and the velocity of light (V) when angle of refraction.

passing the medium (in m/s) n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

3 x 108 n1 = 1.0, for air; θ1 = 40

n=
V
n2 = 1.333 for water; θ2 =?
Note: For air, n = 1; for water, n = 1.33
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

1(sin 40) = 1.33 (sin θ2)

θ2 = 29°
SNELL’S LAW ON REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Example: A ray of light in air is incident on a glass surface (n = 1.52) at an angle
Snell’s Law states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of
of 30° from the normal. Determine the angle between the refracted light ray and
incidence and refraction is equivalent to the ratio of phase velocities in the
horizontal surface of the glass?
two media, or equivalent to the reciprocal of the ratio of the indices of
refraction. n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 n1 = 1.0, for air; θ1 = 30

where: n2 = 1.52 for glass; θ2 =?

θ1 = angle of incidence n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

θ2 = angle of refraction 1(sin 30) = 1.52 (sin θ2)

n1 = index of refraction for medium 1 θ2 = 19.2°

n2 = index of refraction for medium 2 Solving for angle α,

α = 90 – 19.2 = 70.8°
CRITICAL ANGLE n2 = 1.33 for water; θ2 = 90°

Critical angle is the maximum angle of incidence in which no light n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
will pass through the object. The light is internally reflected.
1.52(sin θ1) = 1.33 (sin 90)

θ1 = 61°

APPARENT DEPTH

An object in water or other transparent liquids appears closer to the

Example: The refractive index of diamond is 2.42. What is the critical angle for surface that it actually is. The depth as seen by the eye is inversely
light passing from diamond to air? proportional to its index of refraction of the liquid.

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 True depth

Apparent depth =
n
n1 = 2.42, for diamond; θ1 = ?
n = index of refraction of the given liquid
n2 = 1.33 for air; θ2 = 90°
Example: A flat bottom swimming pool is 8 ft deep. How deep does it appear to
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 be when filled with water?

2.42(sin θ1) = 1 (sin 90) True depth 8

Apparent depth = = = 6 𝑓𝑡
n 1.33
θ1 = 24.4°

Example: A ray of light is incident from a layer of crown glass (n = 1.52) upon a
REFRACTION OF LIGHT IN A GLASS PRISM
layer of water (n = 1.33). What is the critical angle of incidence for this situation?
Light is deflected as it enters a material with refractive index greater than
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
1. A ray of light is deflected twice in a glass prism. The sum of these deflections is
n1 = 1.52, for glass; θ1 = ? called deviation angle.
 n2 sin θ1 ' = n1 sin θ2 ′

1.5(sin 35.53) = 1(sin θ2’)

θ2’ = 60.65°

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 A = θ2 + θ1 ’ D = θ1 + θ2 ’ – A

n2 sin θ1 ' = n1 sin θ2 ′ D = θ1 + θ2 ’ – A D = 30 + 60.65 – 55 = 35.65°

A = apex angle of the glass prism, sometimes called internal angle Example: A prism with a 60° vertex angle has a 45° minimum deviation angle.
What is the refractive index of the prism?
D = deviation angle
A+D 60 + 45
sin (
n2 = index of refraction of the glass prism 2 ) ∙ n = sin ( 2 ) ∙ 1 = 1.5867
n2 = 1
A 60
sin sin
n1 = index of refraction outside medium (equal to 1 if outside medium is 2 2
air)

For minimum deviation angle, θ1 = θ2’ QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT

𝐴 + 𝐷
sin ( Light consists of tiny packets of electromagnetic energy which are called
2 )∙ n
n2 = 1
𝐴 photons. Hot objects emit radiant energy in discrete units called quanta.
sin
2
c hc
D = minimum deviation angle E = hf; λ = →E=
f λ

Example: A ray of light is incident at 30° on a prism with apex angle of 55° and where:
index of refraction 1.5. Calculate the angle of deviation.
E = energy
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 F = frequency

1(sin 30) = 1.5(sin θ2) θ1 ’ = A - θ2 H = Planck’ç constant (6.63 x 10-34 J-s)

θ2 = 19.47° θ1 ’ = 55 - 19.47 = 35.53° λ = wavelength

c = velocity of light (3 x 108 m/s) Convex Mirror – the reflecting surface has the shape of the outside of a sphere. It
diverges parallel beam of lights so that the reflected rays appear to come from a
Example: What is the energy of a photon of wavelength 0.1 m?
virtual focal point.
-34 8
hc (6.63 x 10 )(3 x 10 )
E= = ≅ 2 x 10-15 J
λ 0.1 x 10-9
R
Example: What is the energy (in eV) of a violet photon if the wavelength of the f=-
2
light is 470 nm?

hc (6.63 x 10-34 )(3 x 108 )

E= = -9 ≅ 4.232 x 10-19 J When an object is at distance do from a mirror of focal length f, the image is
λ 470 x 10
located at distance di from the mirror.
1 eV
E = 4.232 x 10-19 x = 2.645 eV
1.6 x 10-19 1 1 1
+ = → called the mirror equation
do di f

The linear magnification (m) of any optical system is the ratio between the size
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
(height or width or other transverse linear dimension) of the image and the size of
Concave Mirror – the reflecting surface has the shape of the inside of a sphere. It the object.
converges parallel beam of lights to a real focal point F in front of the mirror
image height image distance
m= = −
R object height object distance
f=+
2
POSITIVE VALUE NEGATIVE VALUE
where: Focal length, f Concave mirror Convex mirror

R = radius of curvature Object distance, do Real object Virtual object

Image distance, di Real image Virtual image
F = focal length
Magnification, Erect image Inverted image
Height, h Erect image Inverted image
Note: Diverging (concave) lens – are thinner at the center than at the rim and will diverge
a beam of parallel light from a virtual focus.
1. A real object is located in front of a mirror.
2. A virtual object seems to be located behind the mirror and must itself be an
image produced by another mirror.
3. Real image is located in front of a mirror.
4. Virtual image seems to be located behind the mirror.

Example: An object 3 mm high is 10 cm in front of a concave mirror having a 6 The object distance, image distance and the focal length of the lens are the same

cm focal length. Find the location of the image and its height. concept for spherical mirrors.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = → + = + =
do di f 10 di 6 do di f

di = 15 cm POSITIVE VALUE NEGATIVE VALUE

Focal length, f Converging lens Diverging lens
image height image distance
m= = − Object distance, do Real object Virtual object
object height object distance
Image distance, di Real image Virtual image
image height 15
=- Magnification, Erect image Inverted image
3 10
Height, h Erect image Inverted image
Image height = -4.5 mm

Note:

THIN LENSES The linear magnification produced by the lens is given by the same formula that

Converging (convex) lens - are thicker at the middle than at the rim and will applies for spherical mirrors.

converge parallel beam of lights to a real focus. Example: Determine the location of an object 30 cm to the left of a convex lens
with a 10 cm focal length.

1 1 1
+ =
do di f
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = = (n - 1) ( + )
30 di 10 f R1 R2

di = 15 cm 1 1 1
= (1.54 - 1) ( + )
f 20 40
image distance 15
m = − = - = -0.75 F = 74 cm
object distance 20

Example: A plano-convex lens has a focal length of 30 cm and an index of

refraction of 1.5. Find the radius of the convex surface.
THE LENSEMAKER EQUATION
1 1 1
1 1 1 = (n - 1) ( + )
= (n - 1) ( + ) f R1 R2
f R1 R2
1 1 1
n = index of refraction of the lens material = (1.5 - 1) ( + )
30 R ∝

R1 and R2 = radii of the curvature of the two surfaces of the lens R = 15 cm

+R = for convex surface (curved outward)

-R = for concave surface (curved inward) POWER OF A LENS

+f = for converging lens Lens power is expressed in SI called diopters

-f = for diverging lens 1

P=
f
Note:
where:
If a lens with refractive index n1 is immersed in a material with index n2,
then n is the lensmaker’s equation is to be replaced by n1/ n2 P = lens power (diopter)

Example: A lens has a convex surface of radius 20 cm and a concave surface of f = focal length of the lens (meter)
radius 40 cm and is made of glass of refractive index 1.54. Compute the focal
Note:
length of the lens.
 For lenses in closed contact, the focal length of the combination is 5. When viewed vertically a fish appears to be 4 meters below the surface of
given by, the lake. Determine the true depth of the fish of the refractive index of
water is 1.33.
1 1 1
= + 6. A ray of light is incident on a glass plate at an angle of 60°. Calculate the
f f1 f2
refractive index of glass if the reflected and refracted rays are
Example: An achromatic lens is formed from two thin lenses in contact, having perpendicular to each other.
powers of +10 diopters and -6 diopters. Determine the focal length of the 7. At her highest point, a girl on a swing is 7 ft above the ground and at her
combination. lowest point, she is 3 ft above the ground. What is her maximum velocity?

P = P1 + P2 = 10 – 6 = 4 diopters 8. A spring with a normal length of 30 cm is attached to a block of 2 kg mass.

Of the spring is stretched 15 cm, determine the initial acceleration of the
1 1 1
= = = 0.25 m = 25 cm block when released. Assume a spring constant of 200 N/m.
f P 4
9. When a long spring is stretched by 2 cm, its potential energy is V. If the
spring is stretched by 10 cm, what would be its potential energy?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 10. If clouds are 1 km above the earth and rain fell sufficient to cover 1 km2 at
sea level, 1 cm deep. Calculate the work done in raising water to the
1. The horsepower required to raise a 150 kg drum to a height of 20 m over a
clouds.
period of one minute is.
2. Two lead balls whose masses are 5 kg and 0.50 kg are placed with their
centers 50 m apart. What with that force do they attract each other?
3. When an object is placed 24 cm in front of a concave mirror, the mirror
focuses a parallel beam light at a distance of 12 cm from its surface. The
image will be formed
4. Compute the acceleration of gravity in cm/s2 on the surface of the moon if
the mass of the moon is one eighty – first of the earth, and its radius is one
– fourth that of the earth. Given mearth = 6.27 x 1027 g, Rearth = 3.68 x 108
cm.
REFERENCES

General Engineering & Applied Sciences, 2 nd Edition, Quiseo, 2012

Engineering Sciences and Allied Subjects Pocket Reviewer, 1 st Edition, Rojas,

2016

https://byjus.com/question-answer/write-the-mathematical-formula-of-newton-s-
law-of-gravitation/

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/oscillations-and-waves-
essentials/x9db3ed27fc69f96d:how-are-tall-buildings-protected-from-
earthquakes/x9db3ed27fc69f96d:time-period-of-shm/a/simple-harmonic-motion-
of-spring-mass-systems-ap

https://www.britannica.com/science/mechanics/Motion-of-a-particle-in-two-or-
more-dimensions#ref612099
https://mammothmemory.net/physics/mirrors/flat-mirrors/normal-line-flat-
mirrors.html

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refrn/Lesson-3/The-Critical-Angle