How wireless LANs communicate / Authentication and association / The

radio wave and microwave spectrums

How wireless LANs communicate

3.3.3 This page explains the communication process of a WLAN.
After establishing connectivity to the WLAN, a node will pass frames in the same
manner as on any other 802.x network. WLANs do not use a standard 802.3 frame.
Therefore, using the term wireless Ethernet is misleading. There are three types of
frames: control, management, and data. Only the data frame type is similar to 802.3
frames. The payload of wireless and 802.3 frames is 1500 bytes; however, an Ethernet
frame may not exceed 1518 bytes whereas a wireless frame could be as large as 2346
bytes. Usually the WLAN frame size will be limited to 1518 bytes as it is most commonly
connected to a wired Ethernet network.
Since radio frequency (RF) is a shared medium, collisions can occur just as they do on
wired shared medium. The major difference is that there is no method by which the
source node is able to detect that a collision occurred. For that reason WLANs use
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA). This is somewhat like
Ethernet CSMA/CD.
When a source node sends a frame, the receiving node returns a positive
acknowledgment (ACK). This can cause consumption of 50% of the available
bandwidth. This overhead when combined with the collision avoidance protocol
overhead reduces the actual data throughput to a maximum of 5.0 to 5.5 Mbps on an
802.11b wireless LAN rated at 11 Mbps.
Performance of the network will also be affected by signal strength and degradation in
signal quality due to distance or interference. As the signal becomes weaker, Adaptive
Rate Selection (ARS) may be invoked. The transmitting unit will drop the data rate from
11 Mbps to 5.5 Mbps, from 5.5 Mbps to 2 Mbps or 2 Mbps to 1 Mbps.
The next page explains authentication and association.

Authentication and association

3.3.4 This page describes WLAN authentication and association.
WLAN authentication occurs at Layer 2. It is the process of authenticating the device
not the user. This is a critical point to remember when considering WLAN security,
troubleshooting and overall management.
Authentication may be a null process, as in the case of a new AP and NIC with default
configurations in place. The client will send an authentication request frame to the AP
and the frame will be accepted or rejected by the AP. The client is notified of the
response via an authentication response frame. The AP may also be configured to hand
off the authentication task to an authentication server, which would perform a more
thorough credentialing process.
Association, performed after authentication, is the state that permits a client to use the
services of the AP to transfer data.
Authentication and Association types
• Unauthenticated and unassociated
• The node is disconnected from the network and not associated to an access point.
• Authenticated and unassociated
• The node has been authenticated on the network but has not yet associated with the
access point.
• Authenticated and associated
• The node is connected to the network and able to transmit and receive data through
the access point.
Methods of authentication
IEEE 802.11 lists two types of authentication processes.
The first authentication process is the open system. This is an open connectivity
standard in which only the SSID must match. This may be used in a secure or non-
secure environment although the ability of low level network ‘sniffers’ to discover the
SSID of the WLAN is high.
The second process is the shared key. This process requires the use of Wireless
Equivalency Protocol (WEP) encryption. WEP is a fairly simple algorithm using 64 and
128 bit keys. The AP is configured with an encrypted key and nodes attempting to
access the network through the AP must have a matching key. Statically assigned WEP
keys provide a higher level of security than the open system but are definitely not hack
proof.
The problem of unauthorized entry into WLANs is being addressed by a number of new
security solution technologies.
The next page explains radio waves and modulation.

The radio wave and microwave spectrums

3.3.5 This page describes radio waves and modulation.
Computers send data signals electronically. Radio transmitters convert these electrical
signals to radio waves. Changing electric currents in the antenna of a transmitter
generates the radio waves. These radio waves radiate out in straight lines from the
antenna. However, radio waves attenuate as they move out from the transmitting
antenna. In a WLAN, a radio signal measured at a distance of just 10 meters (30 feet)
from the transmitting antenna would be only 1/100th of its original strength. Like light,
radio waves can be absorbed by some materials and reflected by others. When passing
from one material, like air, into another material, like a plaster wall, radio waves are
refracted. Radio waves are also scattered and absorbed by water droplets in the air.
These qualities of radio waves are important to remember when a WLAN is being
planned for a building or for a campus. The process of evaluating a location for the
installation of a WLAN is called making a Site Survey.
Because radio signals weaken as they travel away from the transmitter, the receiver
must also be equipped with an antenna. When radio waves hit the antenna of a
receiver, weak electric currents are generated in that antenna. These electric currents,
caused by the received radio waves, are equal to the currents that originally generated
the radio waves in the antenna of the transmitter. The receiver amplifies the strength of
these weak electrical signals.
In a transmitter, the electrical (data) signals from a computer or a LAN are not sent
directly into the antenna of the transmitter. Rather, these data signals are used to alter a
second, strong signal called the carrier signal.
The process of altering the carrier signal that will enter the antenna of the transmitter is
called modulation. There are three basic ways in which a radio carrier signal can be
modulated. For example, Amplitude Modulated (AM) radio stations modulate the height
(amplitude) of the carrier signal. Frequency Modulated (FM) radio stations modulate the
frequency of the carrier signal as determined by the electrical signal from the
microphone. In WLANs, a third type of modulation called phase modulation is used to
superimpose the data signal onto the carrier signal that is broadcast by the transmitter.
In this type of modulation, the data bits in the electrical signal change the phase of the
carrier signal.
A receiver demodulates the carrier signal that arrives from its antenna. The receiver
interprets the phase changes of the carrier signal and reconstructs from it the original
electrical data signal.
The first Interactive Media Activity explains electromagnetic fields and polarization.
The second Interactive Media Activity shows the names, devices, frequencies, and
wavelengths of the EM spectrum.
The next page describes problems caused by signals and noise.
Signals and noise on a WLAN / Wireless security

Signals and noise on a WLAN

3.3.6 This page discusses how signals and noise can affect a WLAN.
On a wired Ethernet network, it is usually a simple process to diagnose the cause of
interference. When using RF technology many kinds of interference must be taken into
consideration.
Narrowband is the opposite of spread spectrum technology. As the name implies
narrowband does not affect the entire frequency spectrum of the wireless signal. One
solution to a narrowband interference problem could be simply changing the channel
that the AP is using. Actually diagnosing the cause of narrowband interference can be a
costly and time-consuming experience. To identify the source requires a spectrum
analyzer and even a low cost model is relatively expensive.
All band interference affects the entire spectrum range. Bluetooth™ technologies hops
across the entire 2.4 GHz many times per second and can cause significant
interference on an 802.11b network. It is not uncommon to see signs in facilities that
use wireless networks requesting that all Bluetooth™ devices be shut down before
entering. In homes and offices, a device that is often overlooked as causing interference
is the standard microwave oven. Leakage from a microwave of as little as one watt into
the RF spectrum can cause major network disruption. Wireless phones operating in the
2.4GHZ spectrum can also cause network disorder.
Generally the RF signal will not be affected by even the most extreme weather
conditions. However, fog or very high moisture conditions can and do affect wireless
networks. Lightning can also charge the atmosphere and alter the path of a transmitted
signal.
The first and most obvious source of a signal problem is the transmitting station and
antenna type. A higher output station will transmit the signal further and a parabolic dish
antenna that concentrates the signal will increase the transmission range.
In a SOHO environment most access points will utilize twin omnidirectional antennae
that transmit the signal in all directions thereby reducing the range of communication.
The next page describes WLANs security.

Wireless security
3.3.7 This page will explain how wireless security can be achieved.
Where wireless networks exist there is little security. This has been a problem from the
earliest days of WLANs. Currently, many administrators are weak in implementing
effective security practices.
A number of new security solutions and protocols, such as Virtual Private Networking
(VPN) and Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) are emerging. With EAP, the
access point does not provide authentication to the client, but passes the duties to a
more sophisticated device, possibly a dedicated server, designed for that purpose.
Using an integrated server VPN technology creates a tunnel on top of an existing
protocol such as IP. This is a Layer 3 connection as opposed to the Layer 2 connection
between the AP and the sending node.
• EAP-MD5 Challenge – Extensible Authentication Protocol is the earliest authentication
type, which is very similar to CHAP password protection on a wired network.
• LEAP (Cisco) – Lightweight Extensible Authentication Protocol is the type primarily
used on Cisco WLAN access points. LEAP provides security during credential
exchange, encrypts using dynamic WEP keys, and supports mutual authentication.
• User authentication – Allows only authorized users to connect, send and receive data
over the wireless network.
• Encryption – Provides encryption services further protecting the data from intruders.
• Data authentication – Ensures the integrity of the data, authenticating source and
destination devices.
VPN technology effectively closes the wireless network since an unrestricted WLAN will
automatically forward traffic between nodes that appear to be on the same wireless
network. WLANs often extend outside the perimeter of the home or office in which they
are installed and without security intruders may infiltrate the network with little effort.
Conversely it takes minimal effort on the part of the network administrator to provide
low-level security to the WLAN.
This page concludes the lesson. The next page will summarize the main points from the
module.
Module 3 Summary
Summary
This page summarizes the topics discussed in this module.
Copper cable carries information using electrical current. The electrical specifications of
a cable determines the kind of signal a particular cable can transmit, the speed at which
the signal is transmitted and the distance the signal will travel.
An understanding of the following electrical concepts is helpful when working with
computer networks:
• Voltage – the pressure that moves electrons through a circuit from one place to
another
• Resistance – opposition to the flow of electrons and why a signal becomes degraded
as it travels along the conduit
• Current – flow of charges created when electrons move
• Circuits – a closed loop through which an electrical current flows
Circuits must be composed of conducting materials, and must have sources of voltage.
Voltage causes current to flow, while resistance and impedance oppose it. A multimeter
is used to measure voltage, current, resistance, and other electrical quantities
expressed in numeric form.
Coaxial cable, unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP) are types
of copper cables that can be used in a network to provide different capabilities. Twisted-
pair cable can be configured for straight through, crossover, or rollover signaling. These
terms refer to the individual wire connections, or pinouts, from one end to the other end
of the cable. A straight-through cable is used to connect unlike devices such as a switch
and a PC. A crossover cable is used to connect similar devices such as two switches. A
rollover cable is used to connect a PC to the console port of a router. Different pinouts
are required because the transmit and receive pins are in different locations on each of
these devices.
Optical fiber is the most frequently used medium for the longer, high-bandwidth, point-
to-point transmissions required on LAN backbones and on WANs. Light energy is used
to transmit large amounts of data securely over relatively long distances The light signal
carried by a fiber is produced by a transmitter that converts an electrical signal into a
light signal. The receiver converts the light that arrives at the far end of the cable back
to the original electrical signal.
Every fiber-optic cable used for networking consists of two glass fibers encased in
separate sheaths. Just as copper twisted-pair uses separate wire pairs to transmit and
receive, fiber-optic circuits use one fiber strand to transmit and one to receive.
The part of an optical fiber through which light rays travel is called the core of the fiber.
Surrounding the core is the cladding. Its function is to reflect the signal back towards the
core. Surrounding the cladding is a buffer material that helps shield the core and
cladding from damage. A strength material surrounds the buffer, preventing the fiber
cable from being stretched when installers pull it. The material used is often Kevlar. The
final element is the outer jacket that surrounds the cable to protect the fiber against
abrasion, solvents, and other contaminants.
The laws of reflection and refraction are used to design fiber media that guides the light
waves through the fiber with minimum energy and signal loss. Once the rays have
entered the core of the fiber, there are a limited number of optical paths that a light ray
can follow through the fiber. These optical paths are called modes. If the diameter of the
core of the fiber is large enough so that there are many paths that light can take through
the fiber, the fiber is called multimode fiber. Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core
that only allows light rays to travel along one mode inside the fiber. Because of its
design, single-mode fiber is capable of higher rates of data transmission and greater
cable run distances than multimode fiber.
Fiber is described as immune to noise because it is not affected by external noise or
noise from other cables. Light confined in one fiber has no way of inducing light in
another fiber. Attenuation of a light signal becomes a problem over long cables
especially if sections of cable are connected at patch panels or spliced.
Both copper and fiber media require that devices remains stationary permitting moves
only within the limits of the media. Wireless technology removes these restraints.
Understanding the regulations and standards that apply to wireless technology will
ensure that deployed networks will be interoperable and in compliance with IEEE
802.11 standards for WLANs.
A wireless network may consist of as few as two devices. The wireless equivalent of a
peer-to-peer network where end-user devices connect directly is referred to as an ad-
hoc wireless topology. To solve compatibility problems among devices, an infrastructure
mode topology can be set up using an access point (AP) to act as a central hub for the
WLAN. Wireless communication uses three types of frames: control, management, and
data frames. To avoid collisions on the shared radio frequency media WLANs use
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA).
WLAN authentication is a Layer 2 process that authenticates the device, not the user.
Association, performed after authentication, permits a client to use the services of the
access point to transfer data.