Introduction to Networking

Requirements for Internet connection

1.1.1 The Internet is the largest data network on earth. The Internet consists of many
large and small networks that are interconnected. Individual computers are the sources
and destinations of information through the Internet. Connection to the Internet can be
broken down into the physical connection, the logical connection, and applications.
A physical connection is made by connecting an adapter card, such as a modem or a
NIC, from a PC to a network. The physical connection is used to transfer signals
between PCs within the local-area network (LAN) and to remote devices on the Internet.
The logical connection uses standards called protocols. A protocol is a formal
description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a network
communicate. Connections to the Internet may use multiple protocols. The
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is the primary set of
protocols used on the Internet. The TCP/IP suite works together to transmit and receive
data, or information.
The last part of the connection are the applications, or software programs, that interpret
and display data in an understandable form. Applications work with protocols to send
and receive data across the Internet. A Web browser displays HTML as a Web page.
Examples of Web browsers include Internet Explorer and Netscape. File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) is used to download files and programs from the Internet. Web browsers
also use proprietary plug-in applications to display special data types such as movies or
flash animations.
This is an introductory view of the Internet, and it may seem to be a simplistic process.
As the topic is explored in greater depth, students will learn that data transmission
across the Internet is a complicated task.
PC basics
1.1.2 Computers are important building blocks in a network. Therefore, students must
be able to identify the major components of a PC. Many networking devices are special
purpose computers, with many of the same components as general purpose PCs.
A computer must work properly before it can be used to access information such as
Web-based content. This will require students to troubleshoot basic hardware and
software problems. Therefore, students must be familiar with the following small,
discreet PC components:
Students should also be familiar with the following PC subsystems:
• Transistor – Device that amplifies a signal or opens and closes a circuit.
• Integrated circuit – Device made of semiconductor material that contains many
transistors and performs a specific task.
• Resistor – An electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current
in an electronic circuit.
• Capacitor – Electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic
field that consists of two conducting metal plates separated by an insulating material.
• Connector – The part of a cable that plugs into a port or interface.
• Light emitting diode (LED) – Semiconductor device that emits light when a current
passes through it.
• Printed circuit board (PCB) – A circuit board which has conducting tracks
superimposed, or printed, on one or both sides. It may also contain internal signal layers
and power and ground planes. Microprocessors, chips and integrated circuits and other
electronic components are mounted on the PCB.
• CD-ROM drive – A device that can read information from a CD-ROM.
• Central processing unit (CPU) – The part of a computer that controls the operation of
all the other parts. It gets instructions from memory and decodes them. It performs math
and logic operations, and translates and executes instructions.
• Floppy disk drive – A computer drive that reads and writes data to a 3.5-inch, circular
piece of metal-coated plastic disk. A standard floppy disk can store approximately 1 MB
of information.
• Hard disk drive – A computer storage device that uses a set of rotating, magnetically
coated disks called platters to store data or programs. Hard drives come in different
storage capacity sizes.
• Microprocessor – A microprocessor is a processor which consists of a purpose-
designed silicon chip and is physically very small. The microprocessor utilizes Very
Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) circuit technology to integrate computer memory, logic,
and control on a single chip. A microprocessor contains a CPU.
• Motherboard – The main printed circuit board in a computer. The motherboard
contains the bus, the microprocessor, and integrated circuits used for controlling any
built-in peripherals such as the keyboard, text and graphics display, serial ports and
parallel ports, joystick, and mouse interfaces.
• Bus – A collection of wires on the motherboard through which data and timing signals
are transmitted from one part of a computer to another.
• Random-access memory (RAM) – Also known as read-write memory because new
data can be written to it and stored data can be read from it. RAM requires electrical
power to maintain data storage. If a computer is turned off or loses power all data stored
in RAM is lost.
• Read-only memory (ROM) – Computer memory on which data has been prerecorded.
Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be
read.
• System unit – The main part of a PC, which includes the chassis, microprocessor,
main memory, bus, and ports. The system unit does not include the keyboard, monitor,
or any external devices connected to the computer.
• Expansion slot – A socket on the motherboard where a circuit board can be inserted to
add new capabilities to the computer. Figure shows Peripheral Component Interconnect
(PCI) and Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) expansion slots. PCI is a fast connection for
boards such as NICs, internal modems, and video cards. The AGP port provides a high
bandwidth connection between the graphics device and the system memory. AGP
provides a fast connection for 3-D graphics on computer systems.
• Power supply – The component that supplies power to a computer.
Network interface card
1.1.3 A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides network communication capabilities to and from
a PC. On desktop computer systems, it is a printed circuit board that resides in a slot on
the motherboard and provides an interface connection to the network media. On laptop
computer systems, it is commonly integrated into the laptop or available on a small,
credit card-sized PCMCIA card. PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory Card
International Association. PCMCIA cards are also known as PC cards. The type of NIC
must match the media and protocol used on the local network.
The NIC uses an interrupt request (IRQ), an input/output (I/O) address, and upper
memory space to work with the operating system. An IRQ value is an assigned location
where the computer can expect a particular device to interrupt it when the device sends
the computer signals about its operation. For example, when a printer has finished
printing, it sends an interrupt signal to the computer. The signal momentarily interrupts
the computer so that it can decide what processing to do next. Since multiple signals to
the computer on the same interrupt line might not be understood by the computer, a
unique value must be specified for each device and its path to the computer. Prior to
Plug-and Play (PnP) devices, users often had to set IRQ values manually, or be aware
of them, when adding a new device to a computer.
These considerations are important in the selection of a NIC:
• Protocols – Ethernet, Token Ring, or FDDI
• Types of media – Twisted-pair, coaxial, wireless, or fiber-optic
• Type of system bus – PCI or ISA
NIC and modem installation
1.1.4 A modem, or modulator-demodulator, is a device that provides the computer with
connectivity to a telephone line. A modem converts data from a digital signal to an
analog signal that is compatible with a standard phone line. The modem at the receiving
end demodulates the signal, which converts it back to digital. Modems may be installed
internally or attached externally to the computer using a phone line.
A NIC must be installed for each device on a network. A NIC provides a network
interface for each host. Different types of NICs are used for various device
configurations. Notebook computers may have a built-in interface or use a PCMCIA
card. Figure shows PCMCIA wired, wireless network cards, and a Universal Serial Bus
(USB) Ethernet adapter. Desktop systems may use an internal network adapter , called
a NIC, or an external network adapter that connects to the network through a USB port.
Situations that require NIC installation include the following:
• Installation of a NIC on a PC that does not already have one
• Replacement of a malfunctioning or damaged NIC
• Upgrade from a 10-Mbps NIC to a 10/100/1000-Mbps NIC
• Change to a different type of NIC, such as wireless
• Installation of a secondary, or backup, NIC for network security reasons
To perform the installation of a NIC or modem the following resources may be required:
• Knowledge of how the adapter, jumpers, and plug-and-play software are configured
• Availability of diagnostic tools
• Ability to resolve hardware resource conflicts

Overview of high-speed and dial-up connectivity

1.1.5 In the early 1960s, modems were introduced to connect dumb terminals to a
central computer. Many
companies used to rent computer time since it was too expensive to own an on-site
system. The connection rate was very slow. It was 300 bits per second (bps), which is
about 30 characters per second.
As PCs became more affordable in the 1970s, bulletin board systems (BBSs) appeared.
These BBSs allowed users to connect and post or read messages on a discussion
board. The 300-bps speed was acceptable since it was faster than the speed at which
most people could read or type. In the early 1980s, use of bulletin boards increased
exponentially and the 300 bps speed quickly became too slow for the transfer of large
files and graphics. In the 1990s, modems could operate at 9600 bps. By 1998, they
reached the current standard of 56,000 bps, or 56 kbps.
Soon the high-speed services used in the corporate environment such as Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable modem access moved to the consumer market. These
services no longer required expensive equipment or a second phone line. These are
"always on" services that provide instant access and do not require a connection to be
established for each session. This provides more reliability and flexibility and has
simplified Internet connection sharing in small office and home networks.
TCP/IP description and configuration
1.1.6 TCP/IP is a set of protocols or rules that have been developed to allow computers
to share resources across a network. The operating system tools must be used to
configure TCP/IP on a workstation. The process is very similar for Windows or Mac
operating systems.

Testing connectivity with ping

1.1.7 Ping is a basic program that verifies a particular IP address exists and can accept
requests. The computer acronym ping stands for Packet Internet or Inter-Network
Groper. The name was contrived to match the submariners' term for the sound of a
returned sonar pulse from an underwater object.
The ping command works by sending special Internet Protocol (IP) packets, called
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo Request datagrams, to a specified
destination. Each packet sent is a request for a reply. The output response for a ping
contains the success ratio and round-trip time to the destination. From this information,
it is possible to determine if there is connectivity to a destination. The ping command is
used to test the NIC transmit and receive function, the TCP/IP configuration, and
network connectivity. The following types of ping commands can be issued:
• ping 127.0.0.1 – This is a unique ping and is called an internal loopback test. It is used
to verify the TCP/IP network configuration.
• ping IP address of host computer – A ping to a host PC verifies the TCP/IP address
configuration for the local host and connectivity to the host.
• ping default-gateway IP address – A ping to the default gateway indicates if the router
that connects the local network to other networks can be reached.
• ping remote destination IP address – A ping to a remote destination verifies
connectivity to a remote host.

Web browser and plug-Ins

1.1.8 Web browser is and how it performs the following functions:
• Contacts a Web server
• Requests information
• Receives information
• Displays the results on the screen
A Web browser is software that interprets HTML, which is one of the languages used to
code Web page content. Some new technologies use other markup languages with
more advanced features. HTML, which is the most common markup language, can
display graphics or play sound, movies, and other multimedia files. Hyperlinks that are
embedded in a Web page provide a quick link to another location on the same page or
a different Internet address.
Two of the most popular Web browsers are Internet Explorer (IE) and Netscape
Communicator. These browsers perform the same tasks. However, there are
differences between them. Some websites may not support the use of one of these
browsers. It is a good idea to have both programs installed.
Here are some features of Netscape Navigator:
• Was the first popular browser
• Uses less disk space
• Displays HTML files
• Performs e-mail and file transfers
Here are some features of IE:
• Is powerfully integrated with other Microsoft products
• Uses more disk space
• Displays HTML files
• Performs e-mail and file transfers
There are also many special, or proprietary, file types that standard Web browsers are
not able to display. To view these files the browser must be configured to use the plug-
in applications. These applications work with the browser to launch the programs
required to view special files:
• Flash – Plays multimedia files created by Macromedia Flash
• Quicktime – Plays video files created by Apple
• Real Player – Plays audio files
Use the following procedure to install the Flash plug-in:
1. Go to the Macromedia website.
2. Download the flash32.exe file.
3. Run and install the plug-in in Netscape or IE.
4. Access the Cisco Academy website to verify the installation and proper operation.
Computers also perform many other useful tasks. Many employees use a set of
applications in the form of an office suite such as Microsoft Office. Office applications
typically include the following:
• Spreadsheet software contains tables that consist of columns and rows and it is often
used with formulas to process and analyze data.
• Modern word processors allow users to create documents that include graphics and
richly formatted text.
• Database management software is used to store, maintain, organize, sort, and filter
records. A record is a collection of information identified by some common theme such
as customer name.
• Presentation software is used to design and develop presentations to deliver at
meetings, classes, or sales presentations.
• A personal information manager includes an e-mail utility, contact lists, a calendar,
and a to-do list.

Troubleshooting Internet connection problems

1.1.9 This page will show students how to troubleshoot hardware, software, and
network configuration problems. The goal is to locate and repair the problems in a set
amount of time to gain access to the curriculum. This lab will demonstrate how complex
it is to configure Internet access. This includes the processes and procedures used to
troubleshoot computer hardware, software, and network systems.
This page concludes this lesson. The next lesson will discuss computer number
systems. The first page will describe the binary system.
Network Math (Bits and Bytes)

Binary presentation of data

1.2.1 Computers work with and store data using electronic switches that are either ON
or OFF. Computers can only understand and use data that is in this two-state or binary
format. The 1s and 0s are used to represent the two possible states of an electronic
component in a computer. 1 is represented by an ON state, and 0 is represented by an
OFF state. They are referred to as binary digits or bits.
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is the code that is most
commonly used to represent alpha-numeric data in a computer. ASCII uses binary digits
to represent the symbols typed on the keyboard. When computers send ON or OFF
states over a network, electrical, light, or radio waves are used to represent the 1s and
0s. Notice that each character is represented by a unique pattern of eight binary digits.
Because computers are designed to work with ON/OFF switches, binary digits and
binary numbers are natural to them. Humans use the decimal number system, which is
relatively simple when compared to the long series of 1s and 0s used by computers. So
the computer binary numbers need to be converted to decimal numbers.
Sometimes binary numbers are converted to hexadecimal numbers. This reduces a
long string of binary digits to a few hexadecimal characters. It is easier to remember and
to work with hexadecimal numbers.

Bits and Bytes

1.2.2. This will explain what bits and bytes are.
A binary 0 might be represented by 0 volts of electricity.
A binary 1 might be represented by +5 volts of electricity.
Computers are designed to use groupings of eight bits. This grouping of eight bits is
referred to as a byte. In a computer, one byte represents a single addressable storage
location. These storage locations represent a value or single character of data, such as
an ASCII code. The total number of combinations of the eight switches being turned on
and off is 256. The value range of a byte is from 0 to 255. So a byte is an important
concept to understand when working with computers and networks.
The next will describe the Base 10 number system.
Base 10 number system
1.2.3 Numbering systems consist of symbols and rules for their use. This page will
discuss the most commonly used number system, which is decimal, or Base 10.
Base 10 uses the ten symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. These symbols, can be
combined to represent all possible numeric values.
The decimal number system is based on powers of 10. Each column position of a value,
from right to left, is multiplied by the base number 10 raised to a power, which is the
exponent. The power that 10 is raised to depends on its position to the left of the
decimal point. When a decimal number is read from right to left, the first or rightmost
position represents 100, which equals 1. The second position represents 101, which
equals 10. The third position represents 102, which equals 100. The seventh position to
the left represents 106, which equals 1,000,000. This is true no matter how many
columns the number has.
Here is an example:
2134 = (2x103) + (1x102) + (3x101) + (4x100)
This review of the decimal system will help students understand the Base 2 and Base
16 number systems. These systems use the same methods as the decimal system.
The next will describe the Base 2 number system.
Base 2 number system
1.2.4 The binary system uses only two symbols, which are 0 and 1. The position of each
digit from right to left in a binary number represents the base number 2 raised to a
power or exponent. These place values are, from right to left, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
and 27, or 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 respectively.
Here is an example:
101102 = (1 x 24 = 16) + (0 x 23 = 0) + (1 x 22 = 4) + (1 x 21 = 2) + (0 x 20 = 0) = 22
(16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0)
This example shows that the binary number 10110 is equal to the decimal number 22.
The next will explain the conversion of decimal numbers to binary numbers.

Converting decimal numbers to 8-bit binary numbers

1.2.5 There are several ways to convert decimal numbers to binary numbers. The
flowchart in Figure describes one method. This method is one of several methods that
can be used. It is best to select one method and practice with it until it always produces
the correct answer.
Conversion exercise:
Use the example below to convert the decimal number 168 to a binary number:
• 128 is less than 168 so the left most bit in the binary number is a 1. 168 - 128 = 40.
• 64 is not less than or equal to 40 so the second bit from the left is a 0.
• 32 is less than 40 so the third bit from the left is a 1. 40 - 32 = 8.
• 16 is not less than or equal to 8 so the fourth bit from the left is a 0.
• 8 is equal to 8 so the fifth bit from the left is a 1. 8 - 8 = 0. Therefore, the bits to the
right are all 0.
This example shows that the decimal number 168 is equal to the binary number
10101000.
The number converter activity in Figure will allow students to practice decimal to binary
conversions.
In the Lab Activity, students will practice the conversion of decimal numbers to binary
numbers.
The next page will discuss the conversion of binary numbers to decimal numbers.

Converting 8-bit binary numbers to decimal numbers

1.2.6 How to convert binary numbers to decimal numbers. There are two basic ways to
convert binary numbers to decimal numbers. The flowchart in Figure shows one
example. Students can also multiply each binary digit by the base number of 2 raised to
the exponent of its position.
Here is an example:
Convert the binary number 01110000 to a decimal number.
Note:
Work from right to left. Remember that anything raised to the 0 power is 1.
0 x 20 = 0
0 x 21 = 0
0 x 22 = 0
0 x 23 = 0
1 x 24 = 16
1 x 25 = 32
1 x 26 = 64
0 x 27 = 0
= 112
Four-octet dotted decimal representation of 32-bit binary numbers /
Hexadecial / Boolean or binary logic
Four-octet dotted decimal representation of 32-bit
binary numbers
1.2.7 This will explain how binary numbers are represented in dotted decimal notation.
Currently, addresses assigned to computers on the Internet are 32-bit binary numbers.
To make it easier to work with these addresses, the 32-bit binary number is broken into
a series of decimal numbers. First the binary number is split into four groups of eight
binary digits. Then each group of eight bits, or octet, is converted into its decimal
equivalent. This conversion can be performed as shown on the previous page.
When written, the complete binary number is represented as four groups of decimal
digits separated by periods. This is called dotted decimal notation and provides a
compact and easy way to refer to 32-bit addresses. This representation is used
frequently later in this course, so it is necessary to understand it. For dotted decimal to
binary conversions, remember that each group of one to three decimal digits represents
a group of eight binary digits. If the decimal number that is being converted is less than
128, zeros will be needed to be added to the left of the equivalent binary number until
there are a total of eight bits.
Try the following conversions for practice:
Convert 200.114.6.51 to its 32-bit binary equivalent.
Convert 10000000 01011101 00001111 10101010 to its dotted decimal equivalent.
The next will introduce the hexadecimal number system.

Hexadecimal
1.2.8 This page will teach about the hexadecimal number system. Students will also
learn how hexadecimal is used to represent binary and decimal numbers.
The hexadecimal or Base 16 number system is commonly used to represent binary
numbers in a more readable form. Computers perform computations in binary.
However, there are several instances when the binary output of a computer is
expressed in hexadecimal to make it easier to read.
The configuration register in Cisco routers often requires hexadecimal to binary and
binary to hexadecimal conversions. Cisco routers have a configuration register that is
16 bits long. The 16-bit binary number can be represented as a four-digit hexadecimal
number. For example, 0010000100000010 in binary equals 2102 in hexadecimal. A
hexadecimal number is often indicated with a 0x. For example, the hexadecimal number
2102 would be written as 0x2102.
Like the binary and decimal systems, the hexadecimal system is based on the use of
symbols, powers, and positions. The symbols that hexadecimal uses are the digits 0
through 9 and the letters A through F.
All combinations of four binary digits can be represented with one hexadecimal symbol.
These values require one or two decimal symbols. Two hexadecimal digits can
efficiently represent any combination of eight binary digits. This would require up to four
decimal digits. The use of two decimal digits to represent four bits could cause
confusion. For example, the eight bit binary number 01110011 would be 115 if
converted to decimal digits. It is unclear if this is 11 and 5 or 1 and 15. If 11-5 is used,
the binary number would be 1011 0101, which is not the number originally converted.
The hexadecimal conversion is 1F, which always converts back to 00011111.
An eight-bit binary number can be converted to two hexadecimal digits. This reduces
the confusion of reading long strings of binary numbers and the amount of space it
takes to write binary numbers. Remember that 0x may be used to indicate a
hexadecimal value. The hexadecimal number 5D might be written as 0x5D.
To convert to binary, simply expand each hexadecimal digit into its four-bit binary
equivalent.
The next page will discuss Boolean logic.

Boolean or binary logic

1.2.9 This page will introduce Boolean logic and explain how it is used.
Boolean logic is based on digital circuitry that accepts one or two incoming voltages.
Based on the input voltages, output voltage is generated. For computers the voltage
difference is represented as an ON or OFF state. These two states are associated with
a binary 1 or 0.
Boolean logic is a binary logic that allows two numbers to be compared and makes a
choice based on the numbers. These choices are the logical AND, OR, and NOT. With
the exception of the NOT, Boolean operations have the same function. They accept two
numbers, which are 1 and 0, and generate a result based on the logic rule.
The NOT operation takes the value that is presented and inverts it. A 1 becomes a 0
and a 0 becomes a 1. Remember that the logic gates are electronic devices built
specifically for this purpose. The logic rule that they follow is whatever the input is, the
output is the opposite.
The AND operation compares two input values. If both values are 1, the logic gate
generates a 1 as the output. Otherwise it outputs a 0. There are four combinations of
input values. Three of these combinations generate a 0, and one combination generates
a 1.
The OR operation also takes two input values. If at least one of the input values is 1, the
output value is 1. Again there are four combinations of input values. Three combinations
generate a 1 and the fourth generates a 0.
The two networking operations that use Boolean logic are subnetwork and wildcard
masking. The masking operations are used to filter addresses. The addresses identify
the devices on the network and can be grouped together or controlled by other network
operations. These functions will be explained in depth later in the curriculum.
The next page will explain how network masks are used.
IP addresses and network masks

IP addresses and network masks

1.2.10 This page will explain the relationship between IP addresses and network masks.
When IP addresses are assigned to computers, some of the bits on the left side of the
32-bit IP number represent a network. The number of bits designated depends on the
address class. The bits left over in the 32-bit IP address identify a particular computer
on the network. A computer is referred to as a host. The IP address of a computer
consists of a network and a host part.
To inform a computer how the 32-bit IP address has been split, a second 32-bit number
called a subnetwork mask is used. This mask is a guide that determines how the IP
address is interpreted. It indicates how many of the bits are used to identify the network
of the computer. The subnetwork mask sequentially fills in the 1s from the left side of
the mask. A subnet mask will always be all 1s until the network address is identified and
then it will be all 0s to the end of the mask. The bits in the subnet mask that are 0
identify the computer or host.
Some examples of subnet masks are as follows:
11111111000000000000000000000000 written in dotted decimal as 255.0.0.0
11111111111111110000000000000000 written in dotted decimal as 255.255.0.0
In the first example, the first eight bits from the left represent the network portion of the
address, and the last 24 bits represent the host portion of the address. In the second
example the first 16 bits represent the network portion of the address, and the last 16
bits represent the host portion of the address.
The IP address 10.34.23.134 in binary form is
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110.
A Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and the subnet mask 255.0.0.0
produces the network address of this host:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000
The dotted decimal conversion is 10.0.0.0 which is the network portion of the IP address
when the 255.0.0.0 mask is used.
A Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and the subnet mask 255.255.0.0
produces the network address of this host:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
00001010.00100010.00000000.00000000
The dotted decimal conversion is 10.34.0.0 which is the network portion of the IP
address when the 255.255.0.0 mask is used.
This is a brief illustration of the effect that a network mask has on an IP address. The
importance of masking will become much clearer as more work with IP addresses is
done. For right now it is only important that the concept of the mask is understood.
This page concludes this lesson. The next page will summarize the main points from the
module.
Summary of First chapter
Summary
A connection to a computer network can be broken down into the physical connection,
the logical connection, and the applications that interpret the data and display the
information. Establishment and maintenance of the physical connection requires
knowledge of PC components and peripherals. Connectivity to the Internet requires an
adapter card, which may be a modem or a network interface card (NIC).
In the early 1960s modems were introduced to provide connectivity to a central
computer. Today, access methods have progressed to services that provide constant,
high-speed access.
The logical connection uses standards called protocols. The Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is the primary group of protocols used on the
Internet. TCP/IP can be configured on a workstation using operating system tools. The
ping utility can be used to test connectivity.
A web browser is software that is installed on the PC to gain access to the Internet and
local web pages. Occasionally a browser may require plug-in applications. These
applications work in conjunction with the browser to launch the program required to view
special or proprietary files.
Computers recognize and process data using the binary, or Base 2, numbering system.
Often the binary output of a computer is expressed in hexadecimal to make it easier to
read. The ability to convert decimal numbers to binary numbers is valuable when
converting dotted decimal IP addresses to machine-readable binary format. Conversion
of hexadecimal numbers to binary, and binary numbers to hexadecimal, is a common
task when dealing with the configuration register in Cisco routers.
Boolean logic is a binary logic that allows two numbers to be compared and a choice
generated based on the two numbers. Two networking operations that use Boolean
logic are subnetting and wildcard masking.
The 32-bit binary addresses used on the Internet are referred to as Internet Protocol
(IP) addresses.