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Transportation Research Procedia 64 (2022) 183–190

International Scientific Conference “The Science and Development of Transport - Znanost i

International Scientific Conference “The
razvitak
Science
prometa”
and Development of Transport - Znanost i
razvitak prometa”
The Importance of Flight Recorders in the Aircraft Accident
The Importance of Flight Recorders in the Aircraft Accident
Investigation
Investigation
Andrija Vidović *, Andrea Franjić , Igor Štimac , Maja Ozmec Ban
a, a a,b a
Andrija Vidovića,*, Andrea Franjića, Igor Štimaca,b, Maja Ozmec Bana
a
Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, Vukelićeva 4, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
a b
Zagreb
Faculty Airport Ltd.,
of Transport and Rudolfa Fizira 1, Vukelićeva
Traffic Sciences, 10410 Velika
4, Gorica, CroatiaCroatia
10000 Zagreb,
b
Zagreb Airport Ltd., Rudolfa Fizira 1, 10410 Velika Gorica, Croatia

Abstract
Abstract
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this paper accidents.an overview of new technologies that will certainly
also provides
contribute to even better analysing methods and prevention of future accidents.
© 2022 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
© 2022 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
© 2022 The Authors.
This is an open accessPublished by ELSEVIER
article under B.V. This
the CC BY-NC-ND is an open
license access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility
responsibilityofofthe
thescientific
scientificcommittee
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under committee of of
thethe International
International Scientific
Scientific Conference
Conference „The”The Science
Science and
and Development
Development
Peer-review of
underTransport - Znanost
responsibility of i
the razvitak prometa
scientific
of Transport - Znanost i razvitak prometa –ZIRP2022 –ZIRP2022”
committee of the International Scientific Conference ”The Science and
Development of Transport - Znanost i razvitak prometa –ZIRP2022”
Keywords: flight recorders; aircraft; accident; investigation.
Keywords: flight recorders; aircraft; accident; investigation.

1. Introduction
1. Introduction
According to Annex 13 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation (ICAO) (2022), an aircraft accident is
According
defined to Annexcaused
as occurrence 13 to the Convention
by the operationonofInternational Civil Aviation
an aircraft between the time(ICAO)
person (2022), an aircraft
boards the aircraft accident is
till person
defined as the
disembark occurrence caused
aircraft in whichbythat
theperson
operation of an
suffers aircraft
a fatal between
injury the time
or serious person
injury boardsofthe
as a result aircraft
being in ortill person
upon the
disembark the aircraft in which that person suffers a fatal injury or serious injury as a result of being in or upon the

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +38512457724

* Corresponding avidovic@fpz.unizg.hr
E-mail address:author. Tel.: +38512457724
E-mail address: avidovic@fpz.unizg.hr
2352-1465 © 2022 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
2352-1465 © 2022 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Scientific Conference „The Science and Development of
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Transport
Peer-review - Znanost i razvitak prometa
under responsibility of the –ZIRP2022”
scientific committee of the International Scientific Conference „The Science and Development of
Transport - Znanost i razvitak prometa –ZIRP2022”

2352-1465 © 2022 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Scientific Conference „The Science and Development
of Transport - Znanost i razvitak prometa –ZIRP2022
10.1016/j.trpro.2022.09.022
184 Andrija Vidović et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 64 (2022) 183–190
2 Andrija Vidović et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000

aircraft or by direct contact with the aircraft or anything attached to the aircraft, or in which the aircraft receives
damage, or a third party’s property is damaged in any way. The number of aircraft accidents has greatly decreased
over the past years, and the aviation industry has successfully continued the ten-year trend of reducing the rate of fatal
accidents and fatality risk. According to International Air Transport Association (IATA) Safety Report (2021), 15 fatal
aircraft accidents occurred in 2012 which caused 416 fatalities, and over the past five years, there have been an average
of 7 fatal aircraft accidents per year with an annual average of 207 fatalities. This is the result of optimizing the
capabilities of aircraft and associated ground and navigation equipment. The quality of the investigation of aircraft
accidents also contributes to the continuous reduction of the frequency of accidents. According to Annex 13, the term
investigation is defined as a process conducted for the purpose of accident prevention which includes the gathering
and analysis of information, the drawing of conclusions, including the determination of causes and/or contributing
factors and, when appropriate, the making of safety recommendations. The main objective of the investigation of an
accident or incident shall be the prevention of accidents and incidents. It is not the purpose of this activity to apportion
blame or liability. The concept of aircraft accident investigation considers the collection and analysis of data,
determination of causes and the development of safety recommendations. Previous research indicates that the human
factor is one of the main causes of aviation accidents. According to an article by Panish et al. (2022), pilot errors were
present in 53% of previous aircraft accidents, mechanical failures 21% and weather conditions 11%. Flight recording
devices are defined as several types of flight recorders installed on an aircraft, and the basic classification includes
devices that are protected during an aircraft accident and devices that are not protected during an accident. According
to ICAO Annex 6 - Attachment D (2010), all aircraft with a maximum take-off mass (MTOM) of more than 5,700 kg
must be equipped with a flight data recorder regardless of the date of the certificate of airworthiness. The purpose of
the flight recorder is to collect and record data from various aircraft sensors that are stored to be available to
investigators in the event of an accident. The collected data can determine whether the cause of the accident was a
malfunction of the aircraft systems, a pilot error or a certain external influence or event. The importance of flight
recorders is the fact that according to ICAO Annex 6 it is forbidden to turn them off during the flight, and according
to the Minimum Equipment List (MEL) it is equipment without which aircraft are prohibited from taking off.
Specifically, the MEL list contains a list of those devices and parts that may be inoperative at the time of departure,
which means that the flight recording devices are not on it.
This paper provides an overview of the technical characteristics of existing flight recording devices, explains their
importance, and briefly presents the handling procedures in the aircraft accident investigation. Further development
of technology and shortcomings observed in existing devices have led to the new concepts of flight recorders, which
will have greater reliability and the ability to record more flight parameters over time. Therefore, aircraft accident
investigators will have an even better tool for conducting investigations and preventing accidents in the future.

2. Flight recorders

Flight recording device considers several types of flight recorders which are an extremely important tool for
identifying the cause of an aircraft accident. The device is usually represented by two individual recorders: a Flight
Data Recorder (FDR) and a Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR). Both FDR and CVR devices are a type of recorder that
is protected during a plane crash, and they perform the following functions: recording aircraft performance parameters,
recording sound in the cockpit and recording communication messages between aircraft and the ground operations
center. The flight recorder is known as the "Black Box", as shown on Fig. 1. a) and b), the recorders are painted in
bright orange. The paint makes it easier to find devices in the event of an accident but also enhance the importance of
the device since unprofessional handling is strictly prohibited. Since the tail of an aircraft is considered the safest part
in the event of an aircraft accident, FDR and CVR are installed in that part of the aircraft.
 Andrija Vidović et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 64 (2022) 183–190 185
Andrija Vidović et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000 3

a b

Fig. 1. (a) FDR; (b) CVR [ATSB 2014.]

2.1. Flight Data Recorder

Flight Data Recorder records aircraft flight parameters. The type of recorded parameters depends on the age and
size of the aircraft, but according to Airbus Flight data analysis (2014), the following basic parameters must be
recorded exception: heading, altitude, airspeed, vertical acceleration, and time. These requirements were prescribed
in the 1960s, when FDR devices could only record the above five parameters. Today's modern jet aircraft are equipped
with FDR devices that can record thousands of parameters, covering almost all aspects of aircraft operation. For
example, they record details such as the position of the rudder pedal or the activation of smoke alarms in the cargo
compartment. FDR records data from computers, radar and sensors, thus providing investigators with crucial
information in investigating the cause of the accident. It is important to note that the crew checks the parameters and
correctness of the instruments before each flight. This process determines possible deviations but does not exclude
crew errors and the possibility of an accident. The standard FDR weight is 4.8 kg and dimensions are 50x12.7x16 cm.

2.2. Cockpit Voice Recorder

The reason for installing a CVR device in an aircraft follows the fact that human error has been documented as a
primary factor in more than 80% of aircraft accidents. This mostly refers to errors and mistakes in the activities of the
flight crew. The CVR records the following: voice communication of the cockpit crew, communication of the crew
via intercom communication between cabin crew on cabin speakers, radio communication to/from the aircraft, and
sounds of navigation devices heard in the headphones or on the speakers. Except mutual communication in the cockpit
between the flight and/or cabin crew, the CVR records the entire sound environment of the cockpit. Recorded sounds
such as cockpit noise, audio warnings and certain actions such as steering movements and turning on/off instruments,
give investigators key information in the reconstruction of the whole event. For example, noise in the cockpit is the
result of airflow along the aeroprofile and its analysis can determine the speed of the aircraft. According to an
Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) fact sheet (2014), older types of CVRs stored only the last 30 minutes of
flight, and today’s modern types retain data for the last 2 hours of aircraft flight. The standard CVR device weight is
4.5 kg and dimensions are 32x12.7x16 cm.

2.3. Unprotected flight recorders

Prior to the development of the Flight Data Acquisition Unit (FDAU), the recorded data from FDR and CVR
devices were used only after the plane crash. FDAU receives various analogous and digital data from sensors and
directs it to the FDR via specific data frames. The FDAU also directs data to other types of recorders and enables
monitoring the flight data. This type of recorder represents another category of flight recording devices, i.e., devices
that are not protected during an accident. The recording medium for this type of device can be tape, magnetic or optical
disk and PCMCIA card, and it is designed for easy removal and quick replacement that ensures high mechanical and
electrical reliability. Access to the medium is located in the cockpit or electronics compartment. Furthermore, there
are two types of recorders that are not protected during a crash: Quick Access Recorder (QAR) and Direct Access
186 Andrija Vidović et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 64 (2022) 183–190
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Recorder (DAR). QAR devices usually record identical data as FDR devices and depend on the same data acquisition
unit. DAR devices receive data from the Data Management Unit (DMU). Due to BEAs study (2005), DAR can be
programmed to collect individual data in two different modes. Recording mode can be performed periodically or start
when a certain parameter exceeds a certain defined value.

3. Operation mode and handling

Today's flight recorders use solid-state technology and as such represent third-generation flight recorders. In the
mid-1980s, the most significant advance in flight recording was the development of the so-called Solid State Flight
Data Recorders (SSFDR). The reliability of the recorder and the possibility of preservation of data in the event of an
aircraft accident have been increased. Also, it is possible to record several hundred parameters at the same time, while
the recording time became longer than 50 hours. CVR Solid State technology has enabled two-hour digital audio
recording. Data from the cockpit voice recorder and flight recorder is stored on complex memory chips inside a
memory unit designed to "survive" a crash (Crash Survivable Memory Unit - CSMU). Both types of flight recorders
operate on the principle of infinite loop where new data is recorded over the old data of the previous flight, but FDR
devices have the option of a longer recording time. Specifically, the FDR retains the record of the last 25 hours of
flight of the aircraft, and the CVR retains the last 2 hours of flight. Solid State technology increases the duration and
capacity of the recording and the ability to preserve recorded data. Modern flight recorders are equipped with the
Underwater Locating Device (ULD), often called the Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB). This device is automatically
activated when the flight recorder comes into contact with water where it begins to emit an ultrasonic pulse every
second with a frequency of 37.5 kHz. Referring to Dub et al. (2018), the device is powered by a battery and the signal
transmission has a limited period, usually 30 days. Due to the continuous transmission of signals, the device is often
called a Pinger. Furthermore, in order to detect ULD it is necessary to place a pulse receiver below the water surface.
With the receiver it is possible to determine the position of the ULD at almost all depths of water surfaces, except at
extreme ocean depths. The maximum depth at which ULD works is 6,096 meters, and its maximum range is usually
2 to 3 kilometres but referring to ATSBs fact sheet (2014) it depends on: ULD acoustic output level, receiver
sensitivity, whether ULD is covered with aircraft debris, stones or sand, noise intensity in the environment, water
temperature and depth difference between ULD and receiver. Except of being installed in FDR and CVR devices,
ULD can also be installed on the fuselage. ULD attached to the fuselage after immersion in water emits signals of 8.8
kHz for at least 90 days and is called low frequency ULD. The low frequency allows a range of 13 to 22 km, which
is four times higher than the standard ULD. The maximum working depth of this type of ULD is 6,000 m, and the
single-cell battery provides a lifespan of 6 years. However, according to Dub et al. (2018), the installation of a low
frequency ULD in the vertical and horizontal stabilizer of the aircraft is not recommended. The renewal of the
European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) regulations resulted in the requirement to extend the broadcasting
time of the ULD signal connected to the recording devices from 30 days to 90 days by January 1st, 2020. EASA
regulation also required that by January 1st, 2019, large aircraft flying on routes longer than 333.36 km from the coast
must be equipped with additional low-frequency ULD. These requirements are justified by the fact, as state by Stone
D. L. et al. (2011) that ULD devices have a "survival" rate of 90% on 27 air accidents above water.

3.1. Manufacturing standards

Flight recorders are designed to physically withstand an impact at high aircraft speeds and a fire that almost always
accompanies an aircraft accident. Appropriate material of construction of the device must provide adequate thermal
protection for a certain period of exposure to high temperatures. According to Rana R. et al. (2014), flight recorders
are exposed to gradual heat transfer. They initially burn at high temperatures and cool rapidly when the fire is
extinguished. The temperature in the centre of device peaks during the cooling period and not during the heating
period. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a material with optimal heat conductivity in order to prolong the time to
reach the maximum temperature of the device, which can significantly damage the memory module. Also, flight
recorders are made of materials that do not react violently while immersed in salt water. The recorder in FDR and
CVR devices is in aluminium box and placed in an outer case made of stainless steel or titanium. For example, if the
components were made of magnesium, after a few days spent under water the parts of the device would completely
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Andrija Vidović et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000 5

melt. Also, it is important to note that a device made of any other type of material corrodes in the air very quickly
after being pulled out of the water. According to Grossi R. D. (2006), the design of FDR and/or CVR devices must be
designed to survive certain conditions as follows: combustion in a flame of 1,100 ° C for 30 minutes, static load of
2,268 kg for 5 minutes on each axis, durability in aviation fluids 24 hours and in seawater for 30 days, hydrostatic
pressure equivalent to a depth of 6,096 m.

3.2. Handling flight recorders in the event of an aircraft accident

In the event of an accident caused by aircraft equipped with flight recorders, the first step is to consider whether
the recorders contain relevant information and to decide whether to start a search. Referring to National Transport
Safety Bureau (NTSB) Flight Data Recorder Handbook (2002), the following data on flight recorders must be taken
into account: manufacturer, model and serial number of the flight recorder, type and range of parameters recorded by
the flight recorder, data frame and calibration of the flight recorder, data of first and/or afterward installation in the
aircraft, the contact of the person responsible for maintenance and/or data analysis, the model and the serial number
of the data acquisition unit. These features of the flight recorder and associated equipment are provided by the air
carrier and/or aircraft manufacturer and are required for easier analysis of the recorded data. When a flight recorder is
found, it is necessary to follow the prescribed procedures so that sensitive information is not destroyed or prematurely
released to the public. The flight recording device must not be opened, i.e., the recording medium must not be removed
and analysed before the device is delivered to the appropriate laboratory. The device must be adequately packed and
marked to avoid damage during transport, so wooden and cardboard boxes wrapped in appropriate foam or foil are
often used. If the device is found in water, it should be packed in plastic containers filled with water. The reason for
this is that the device must not dry out because certain metals react violently in contact with oxygen. Arriving at the
laboratory, the flight recorder analysis specialist opens the device and downloads data from the recording medium and
stores it digitally. If relevant information for the investigation process is identified, a separate research team will be
established to analyse the data from the flight recorder. It is certainly important to state that in this step of the
investigation, the discretion of the data is strictly maintained, and all communication is done through adequate channel.
In the event of an aircraft incident or minor accident, flight recorders usually remain intact and undamaged. Unless
necessary, flight recorders will not be removed from the aircraft because the MEL list usually does not allow aircraft
operations with the flight recorder removed or disabled.

4. Technological advance of flight recorders

Data recorded by flight recorders along with several analytical techniques almost always result in a successful
outcome of an aviation accident investigation. The need for safer preservation of the recorded data and improvement
of the performance of FDR and CVR devices, led to the development of different types of devices and ancillary
equipment. The production of new devices must meet the requirements detailed in ICAO Annex 6-Aircraft Operations.

4.1. Combined flight recorder

The combined flight recorder combines the functions of FDR and CVR in one device (CVFDR). When this version
is applied, it is necessary to install two combined devices. One is located in the front, near the cockpit, and the other
in the back of the aircraft. Both positions in the aircraft have their advantages, which further increases the survivability
of the device and recorded data. Specifically, according to ATSBs fact sheet (2014), a closer location to the cockpit
means a shorter cable to the device which reduces the probability of a wire breaking in the event of an accident, and
the location at the back of the aircraft is itself the safest part of the aircraft.

4.2. Automatic Deployable Flight Recorder

Automatic Deployable Flight Recorder (ADFR) is an alternative recorder that has in-flight data recorded by FDR
and CVR. As shown on Fig. 2. a) and b), the ADFR is installed below the aircraft tail plate or on the side of the
helicopter fuselage and has the ability to detect the beginning of an accident via its own sensors. More precisely,
188 Andrija Vidović et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 64 (2022) 183–190
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according to the spring system, it separates from the aircraft if it deforms or comes into contact with water. The device
is placed in a hardened container that protects the equipment and ensures buoyancy in the event of an aircraft sinking.
However, if the aircraft is damaged in the air, the movement of the aircraft itself additionally helps to separate the
device. ADFR has an Emergency Location Transmitter (ELT) that transmits an emergency signal and thus serves as
a device to guide rescue services. The signal can be detected by satellite, search planes and ships. The development
of ADFR technology stems from the fact that the search for FDR and CVR devices in the event of an accident above
water surfaces is extremely demanding and uncertain. Currently, commercial aircraft are not equipped with this type
of recorder, but the development of ADFR devices for commercial flights has begun. Referring to Dub et al. (2018),
the investigations of accidents caused by aircraft equipped with the ADFR device established the high mechanical
resistance of the device, and the percentage of successful recovery of ADFR device recordings is 100%. The
disadvantage of this type of device is the possibility that it may misjudge the beginning of an accident and thus
unnecessarily separate from the aircraft. In that case, except significant financial consequences, the flight recording
would then incomplete and unusable.

a b

Fig. 2. (a) Location on the aircraft; (b) Location on the helicopter [Dub et al. 2018]

4.3. Cockpit Image Recorder

Cockpit Image Recorder (CIR), shown on Fig. 3., supplements the data collected by the FDR and/or CVR device.
These recorders capture the entire pilot's working environment and provide insight into the instruments and the entire
control panel. They can also be installed in the passenger cabin. Because CIR technology records crew and passenger
activity, it is considered inappropriate and not applicable for commercial aircraft. Also, ICAO does not encourage the
installation of cameras in the cockpit because there is a possibility that the videos can make the investigation process
more difficult and mislead investigators.

Fig. 3. Cockpit image recorder point of view [Dubois T. 2014]

 Andrija Vidović et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 64 (2022) 183–190 189
Andrija Vidović et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000 7

4.4. Honeywell Connected Recorder 25

According to an article by the Woodrow B. (2021), the latest type of flight recorder stores data in the so-called
cloud, i.e., a virtual database with unlimited memory, thus enabling access to the recorded data at any time.
Considering that this type of data storing does not require device search, it can be of great help in situations when the
aircraft disappears from the radar or when the connection with it is lost. By monitoring data in real time, it is possible
to spot certain disturbances and errors in a timely manner and thus predict or even prevent an aviation accident. The
mentioned technology is a product of the well-known manufacturer of flight recording devices, Honeywell, and is
known under the abbreviation HCR-25. The number 25 in the abbreviation represents the ability to record voice in
the cockpit for 25 hours, which was limited to 2 hours with previous devices. The device is intended for commercial
aircraft and there are different variants of this flight recorder, individual CVR and FDR devices or their combined
version. In addition to the basic parameters of speed, altitude and direction, HCR-25 records data on engine operation
and fuel level. During the flight, the operator and the aircraft manufacturer represent the data operational centres on
the ground and have access to the recorded data. The connection with the aircraft is established via satellite
communication system. According to Honeywell AEROSPACE infographic (2022), shown as Fig. 4., the working
principle of the HCR-25 device implies functions of 6 participants as follows: 1. Controlled aircraft, 2. Current and
future global satellite network, 3. An earth station that processes the received data and forwards it to data center, 4.
The data center that stores and maintains all received data for the entire fleet, 5. Data analysis is performed by the
operator's maintenance organizations, quality assurance, alerting and emergency organizations, 6. Ground staff which
may request additional recorded data from the FDR and CVR device.

Fig. 4. HCR-25 [Honeywell AEROSPACE. 2022]

5. Conclusion

Considering the specifics of air transport, aircraft accident investigation is an extremely demanding process in
which investigators must precisely analyse all segments of the flight and reconstruct the entire event from almost
unrecognizable parts of the aircraft and often without witnesses. Each aircraft accident has its own specifics, and it is
wrong to compare it with the previous ones and conduct an investigation based on the previously made conclusions.
It is also important that the investigation is approached objectively and does not allow the influence of other
organizations on its outcome. Finding a flight recorder and successfully downloading the recorded data are key steps
in an aircraft accident investigation. By analysing the recorded parameters and audio recordings, it is possible to
determine exactly whether the crucial error was caused by a human factor or technology and whether it existed before
or occurred during the flight. Given that the recorded footage clearly indicates the circumstances of the accident and
190 Andrija Vidović et al. / Transportation Research Procedia 64 (2022) 183–190
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reduces the effort and time required for the investigation, it is necessary to further improve the technological and legal
aspects. The future of flight recorders is the transfer of real-time information to the so-called cloud. In the event of an
accident, key data could be accessed at the same time and there would be no need for a demanding and uncertain
search of the device. Furthermore, the infinite virtual database could provide access to the recorded data of previous
flights, so it is necessary to establish organizations that would continuously analyse the recordings and thus identify
certain irregularities on time. The widespread use of cockpit and passenger cabin image recorders should also be
encouraged or even conditioned regardless of staff and passenger complaints. This type of technology would eliminate
the problem of untimely reporting of certain irregularities. In some situations, pilots may doubt their own ability to
spot a certain event, or they may make a certain mistake and thus feel uncomfortable reporting it. Also, they can
sometimes expect another colleague to report the same irregularity. Having the insight in the cockpit and passenger
cabin in real time, potential dangers can be identified in a timely manner. In order to improve the safety of air transport,
the installation of flight recorders in all types of aircraft could be expected. Those recorders will monitor the state of
aircraft construction and record aircraft performance. The use of cockpit and passenger cabin recorders should also be
encouraged or even conditioned regardless of staff and passenger complaints. This requires the adjustment of existing
laws and the strong support of influential aviation organizations. In addition to the development of new technology
and regulations, in order to reduce the frequency of aircraft accidents, it is necessary to optimize the capabilities of
human resources. Namely, research indicates that human error is the main cause of aircraft accidents and incidents.
Identification and analysis of the circumstances of the accident enable the development of additional safety systems
and procedures that should reduce the occurrence of human errors. The correlation between the human factor and
safety is influenced by the ability and condition of each individual. Continuous training of staff in accordance with
the development of technology and regular checks of physical and mental abilities are necessary so that air transport
participants can safely perform their duties.

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