1.

TCP/IP Reference Model

Internet model contain four layered architecture. OSI Model is general communication model but Internet
Model is what the internet uses for all its communication.

• Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which enables user to interact with the
network. For example, FTP, HTTP etc.

• Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow between hosts. Major protocol at this
layer is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This layer ensures data delivered between hosts is
in-order and is responsible for end-to-end delivery.

• Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer facilitates host addressing
and recognition. This layer defines routing.

• Link Layer: This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving actual data. This layer is
based on network architecture and hardware.

2. Analog-to-Digital Conversion (Sampling, Quantization and Encoding)

3. Line Encoding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Encoding. Digital data
can transmit as a form of 0 or 1.

Category of Line coding

I. Uni-polar Encoding:
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this case, to
represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is transmitted. It
is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero.
II. Polar Encoding:
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar
encodings is available in four (4) types.

A. Polar Non Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)

It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally, positive voltage
represents 1 and negative value represents 0. NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas NRZ-I changes
voltage when a 1 is encountered.

B. Return to Zero (RZ)

Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and when the next bit
is started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock are not synchronized.
 C. Manchester

This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two halves. It
transits in the middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit is encountered.

D. Differential Manchester

This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transits at the middle of the bit
but changes phase only when 1 is encountered.

III. Bipolar Encoding

Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative, and zero. Zero voltage represents
binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and negative voltages.

4. Time Division Multiplexing

In TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot. Each user can transmit
data within the provided time slot only. Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent to time slot
i.e. frame of an optimal size which can be transmitted in given time slot.
5. Transmission Media
Data is represented by computers and other telecommunication devices using signals. Signals are
transmitted in the form of electromagnetic energy from one device to another.

• Un shielded Twisted Pair Cable

It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own color plastic insulator. 2 pair uses
RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable uses RJ-45 connector for UTP. Its limit is 100m ,relatively cheap
and low bandwidth than coaxial cable.
• Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated conductors.
Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Use for LAN.

• Coaxial Cable

Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
Copper is used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one.

Coaxial Cable Standards Coaxial Cable Connectors

 • Fiber Optics

Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It transmits data in the form of light. In the center
of fiber cable is a glass stand or core. The light from the laser moves through this glass to the other device
around the internal core is a reflective material known as cladding.

• Unguided Media

Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no physical

link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless signals are spread
over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas. Antenna converts the digital
data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range.

• Radio Transmission

Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate through
walls. Radio waves can have wavelength from 1m – 100 km and have frequency ranging from 3KHz
(Extremely Low Frequency) to 1 GHz (Extremely High Frequency).

Low frequency Radio Wave

High frequency Radio Wave

• Microwave Transmission

Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 GHz to 300 GHz are called micro waves.
Micro waves are unidirectional. Microwaves travels in straight lines and travels in straight lines.
So here the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
 • Satellite Microwave (Satellite communication)

This is a microwave relay station which is placed in outer space. These are positioned 36000 Km above
the equator with an orbit speed that exactly matches the rotation speed of the earth. This is usually done to
allow ground stations to aim antenna at a fixed point in the sky.
 Data Link Layers
Data link Layer responsible to transmit the frame. A frame is nothing but some set of bit stream.

Types of Errors in Frame:

6. Error Detection

The bit stream transmitted by the physical layer is not guaranteed to be error free. The data link layer
is responsible for error detection and correction. I n this method some extra bit (s) added to the
original data word which are transmitted over the network.

Techniques for error detection:

I. Parity checks
II. Check sum methods
III. Cyclic redundancy checks
 I. Even parity checking scheme

In Even parity checking scheme if the number of 1’s in the data word is odd number then an extra
redundant bit 1 add with the data word to make code word otherwise add 0 as a redundant bit.
 II. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a different approach to detect if the received frame contains valid data. This technique
involves binary division of the data bits being sent. The divisor is generated using polynomials.
The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and calculates the remainder. If
there is n bits in divisor the redundant bit will be n-1. Before sending the actual bits, the sender
adds the remainder at the end of the actual bits. Actual data bits plus the remainder is called a
codeword. The sender transmits data bits as codeword.
Sender Side
 Receiver Side

III. Check sum method: Here K= No. of frame and N= No. of bits in each frame