Solar Energy 207 (2020) 1–9

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Solar Energy
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T
Parametric strategy on passive design affordances in cool-humid climate
zones of North-East India
Khuplianlam Tungnung
National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, 769008, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Buildings often have fixed function spaces that are complimentary or incompatible with thermal comfort
Passive design affordance (18–28 °C). Synergetic relationships ameliorates energy shortage and affords comfort. Galvanized iron roof two-
Climate storey houses of North-East India were studied to develop a theory-and-strategy to optimize design process and
Architectural space energy conservation. Methods include affordance theory criticism, surveys, simulations, synergy analysis.
Lifestyle function
Parametric strategy on passive design affordances examines human comfort and temperature on diurnal time
Parametric strategy
Synergy
scales: Daytime (08–17 h), Evening (17–22 h), Night (22–08 h) in various seasons. Under flexible ventilation,
living-dining space (S1) shows optimum temperature ranges: 20–28 °C in autumn (M1), 17–22 °C in winter (M2),
and 20–31 °C in summer (M3) due to the complementary combination of passive design elements and can
function as bedroom, living-room, kitchen, and social space in most seasons. In the attic-space flexible venti-
lation shows peak temperatures of 42 °C (autumn) and 48 °C (summer) due to low thermal mass but high thermal
conductivity envelopes, and low air-changes rate (0.5 ACR) above 28 °C. Normal ventilations with 30 ACR in
autumn, and a combination of 30 ACR (night) and 0.5 ACR (day) in summer reduced maximum temperature to
≤35 °C in autumn, and ≤41 °C in summer. Attic-space (S2) shows ≤29 °C in winter daytime and ≥20 °C in
summer nights due to the envelope’s high heat emissivity (0.8) and function as day space in winter and summer
bedroom. Shaded veranda (S3) shows low temperature (18–28 °C) in summer evening and afternoon and can
function as shaded space for light work and enjoying fresh air. Passive design connotes responsiveness of spaces
to the climate, and affordance theory’s complementarity lifestyle adds novelty, and it is critical to energy and
space efficiency. Climate analysis affords perceptions of space and climate relationship. Parametric strategy
straddles differences between space, climate, and functions to ameliorate energy needs and optimize design
process.

1. Introduction humid climate zones of North-East India incorporated passive design

As a response to pragmatic issues and challenges of a specific cli-
mate zone and modern architecture contexts of a region, the research
attempts to find solutions through appropriate passive strategies. It is
expected to add novel and prescient approach to building design,
construction, and operation benign to our common environment and
supplement households’ energy and economic needs. “Passive design
takes advantage of the natural changes of the sun, wind, and tem-
perature through architectural ingenuity for natural benefits, wellness
and sense of enjoyment, and reduce energy use.” (Tungnung, 2016,
2017). “Fundamentally, no terrestrial civilization can be anything else
but a solar society dependent on the Sun’s radiation. Preindustrial so-
cieties used this solar energy flux both directly, as incoming radiation
(insolation)—every house has always been a solar house, passively
heated—and indirectly.“ (Smil, 2017). Traditionally, houses in cool-
strategies. “In cool-humid highlands of North-East India, traditional
passive techniques afford thermal comfort due to the materials thatched
roof and bamboo walls low thermal conductivity but high emissivity,
roof eaves shade, porosity of bamboo walls or floors with crawl spaces,
and attics for hot air egress.” (Tungnung and Kodama, 2015; Tungnung,
2016). In many parts of the world including India, durable housing
often entails the use of modern industrial materials, such as corrugated
galvanized iron sheets, bricks, concrete, steel, etc. While being afford-
able, versatile, and durable the use of metal roofing increases tem-
perature of the top floors even in cool-humid climate zones. Further,
rapid urbanization increases the price of land in urban areas and two
storey houses with metal roof are becoming the new archetype house
even in small towns. Given such practices in building design and con-
struction, the paper highlights thermal environment conditions of ar-
chetype two storey houses in cool-humid climate zones of North-East

E-mail addresses: tungnung.khuplianlam@yahoo.com, tungnunga@gmail.com.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.06.024

0038-092X/ © 2020 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Received 1 November 2019; Received in revised form 3 June 2020; Accepted 5 June 2020
K. Tungnung
India.
“Passive design consists of a number of architectural elements or
spaces, and there are cases with mutually complementary effects, and
there are elements that can lead to offset effects.” (Tungnung, 2016,
2019). Buildings consist of spaces that are complementary or in-
compatible with thermal comfort needs depending on diurnal or sea-
sonal climate. Often, spaces have fixed functions in modern homes. So,
the paper aims to optimize the design process of systematic search for
appropriate space functions with logical certainty base on the time of
use. Compact two storey detached houses with optimum ground cov-
erage could conform to the floor area and building setback require-
ments even on small plot sites. New lifestyle comfort notions, in-
appropriate space layouts and poor selection of building elements and
materials often necessitate the use of active heating and cooling
equipment. In response to the primal needs of affordable and durable
housing, comfort and energy needs of modern life the paper proposes a
prescient design theory, method and strategy, and application to
straddle incompatibilities between space, time and lifestyle functions.
Passive design affordances base on parametric strategy of space and
time, in an archetype house, is developed as a theory-and-strategy to
highlight its applicability in designing appropriate architectural space
functions. As a theoretical base, the perceptual psychology concept of
affordances (Gibson, 1979) is reinterpreted to denote action possibi-
lities offer by the architectural environment to users through com-
plementary relationships. “Affordance implies the complementarity of
the animal and the environment. The natural environment offers many
ways of life, and different animals have different ways of life. The niche
implies a kind of animal, and the animal implies a kind of
niche.”(Gibson, 1979).“Passive design in architecture connotes re-
sponsiveness to the environmental conditions of the natural climate:
wind, heat or cold, light, radiation, humidity, etc., to use the natural
flow of energy as readily afforded by the site through architectural
ingenuity.” (Tungnung, 2016, 2019). Affordance theory adds a novel
lifestyle responsiveness that can be applied to the domain of passive
solar architecture to highlight how spaces can be use with comfort in
two storey buildings with galvanized iron roof in North-East India.
Gibson also highlights how a way of lifestyle is pertinent to spaces. “A
species of animal is said to utilize or occupy a certain niche in the en-
vironment. This is not quite the same as the habitat of the species; a
niche refers more to how an animal lives than to where it lives. I suggest
that a niche is a set of affordances.” (Gibson, 1979). In similar vein
regionally appropriate architecture can be research through the critical
analysis of passive design affordances: complementarity of spatial
niche, climate of the hour, day or season, lifestyle functions and com-
fort in a room space. Gibsonian affordances are immediate, direct, and
exist independent of the actors' perception, wants or needs and he de-
scribed what the environment affords animals, mentioning the terrain,
shelters, water, fire, objects, tools, other animals, and humans. (Gibson,
1979). The concept has been borrowed in varied but cognate fields of
design. The original Gibsonian affordance (1979) is a descriptive theory
on the complementary relation of animals' and the environment and
action possibilities base on the actors' capabilities. Norman's (1988)
prescriptive affordance theory is primarily concerned with the dis-
coverability and understandability of 'the design of everyday things'
base on perception of signifiers by human users. Maier and Fadel
(2008), Maier et al. (2009) asserts that the concept of affordance is
more fundamental to architecture than form and function and introduce
Affordance Structure Matrix (2008) and other design tools and theories.
Koutamanis (2006) reasserted Norman’s application of the concept of
affordance to architectural elements and spaces and proposed the
technique of ‘affordance mapping.’ Rietveld and Kiverstein (2014)
primarily attempts to straddle varied socio-cultural practices of the
human ecological niche with affordance concept. Gibson’s theory of
affordances clarifies the affordances the environment offers to a parti-
cular kind of animal depend on this animal’s way of life. The concept of
a way of life is ambiguous in humans due to the different socio-cultural
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Solar Energy 207 (2020) 1–9
practices and Rietveld and Kiverstein (2014) argues that the concept of
affordances should be able to straddle differences in the rich variety of
sociocultural practices in the human ecological niche. Use centered
design is a philosophy and approach that integrates human and en-
vironment design, in which the relation between the user and en-
vironment (i.e., affordances and information) are the distinct objects of
study while control is the coordination between information and af-
fordances. (Flach and Dominguez, 1995). This paper attempts to es-
tablish affordance theory with passive design as a novel theory-and-
strategy to straddle differences between architectural space, time
(diurnal and seasonal) and lifestyle function base on an innovative
parametric strategy as a control system to highlight predicted thermal
temperature ranges in the room spaces. It is expected to respond to
people’s needs of economical low-energy and improve design process.
The paper is structure in sections: (1) Introduction, (2) Aims and ob-
jectives, (3) Methodology and strategies, (4) Parametric simulation
strategies, results and discussions, (5) Conclusions.
2. Aims and objectives
The existing descriptive and prescriptive design theories and stra-
tegies base on the theory of affordance: Gibson (1979), Norman (1988),
Maier and Fadel (2008), Maier et al. (2008, 2009), Koutamanis (2006),
Rietveld and Kiverstein (2014), etc., afforded valuable insights into
varied and distinct but cognate fields of design. But the relationship of
affordance and passive design in architecture has not been rigorously
researched. The search for low-energy solution is expected to be pos-
sible through these relationships. Passive design base on the theory of
affordances entails complementarity of climate, lifestyle and ingenuity
of architectural design. (Tungnung, 2016, 2019, Tungnung et al.,
2017). Often, spaces are design as a fixed function, such as bedroom,
living-room, kitchen, veranda, etc., irrespective of the roofing materials
and thermal comfort is afforded with warm clothes, fans, heaters, air-
conditions, etc., depending on the season. It is beneficial to know the
thermal performance of spaces to improve design process and reduce
energy consumption. “Despite the wide diversity of available solar
technologies, solar energy systems are still not considered as main
stream technologies in building practice, maybe due to the lack of
awareness and knowledge among architects, lack of tools supporting
the design process.” (Wall et al., 2012). So, the paper's aim is to opti-
mize the design process of systematic search for appropriate space
functions or operations in new or existing building stocks and reduce
energy consumption base on predicted thermal performance in diurnal
time scales or shorter hours in various seasons. To that end, the paper
asserts a novel critical theory-and-strategy on mutual affordances of the
parameters of space forms and materials, climate, and lifestyles. “Ex-
isting buildings and their retrofitting provides by far the largest po-
tential for the incorporation of passive solar technologies and energy
efficiency measures into buildings.” (Santamouris, 2009). Parametric
strategy on passive design affordances for critical combinations of de-
sign parameters could highlight possibilities for space functions, such as
sleeping, sedentary activities or light work during various seasons or
time of the day in a new or existing house in general and particularly in
galvanized iron roof two-storey houses in North-East India.
3. Methodology and strategies
The research methodology encompasses (1) Affordance theory cri-
ticism, (2) Survey and analysis of climate, architecture, and lifestyle, (3)
Parametric simulations, (4) Synergy analysis. The paper classifies pas-
sive design affordances in architecture into three novel complementary
relationships in the environment:
(1) Climate-architecture-affordances (CAA)
(2) Lifestyle-architecture-affordances (LAA)
(3) Parametric-architecture-affordances (PAA)
K. Tungnung
Climate-architecture-affordances (CAA) is a novel cognate theory of
Gibsonian direct affordance on the relation between the environment
and the animal and follows the same rationale as artifact-artifact-af-
fordance (Maier et al., 2009). Lifestyle-architecture-affordances (LAA)
is similar in thought with Norman’s perceive affordance and artifact-
user-affordance (Maier et al., 2009). It is an extension of Gibsonian
affordance theory to account for human’s perception of building op-
erations in daily lifestyles, but unique in research content, methods, and
specific to climate application in passive design. Based on survey and
analysis of climate, architecture, and lifestyle the author proposes
parametric-architecture-affordance with simulation strategy as a con-
trol system to find the optimum combinations of design parameters.
The design thinking is unique in method and application but relates to
perceived affordances (Norman, 1988) and artifact-artifact-affordance
or artifact-user-affordance (Maier et al., 2009) for artifacts in general
and general theory of architecture.
3.1. Climate-Architecture-Affordances (CAA)
In Gibsonian theory, affordance in the environment exists with or
without the actors perception or the presence of users, for good or bad.
These affordances exist between architectural elements, climate and
understanding these characteristics could be beneficial to design pro-
cess, and selection of appropriate spaces functions. For instances, the
relationship between high thermal mass thick walls, large glazing area,
shading or insulation and the climate would differ depending on the
diurnal or seasonal climate characteristics. The opening or closing of
windows to receive or mitigate the wind and sun or the adaptive use of
veranda to enjoy cool breeze or sun depending on time and seasons are
climate and architecture relationships pertinent to cool-humid climate
zones of North-East India.
Based on many case studies in various cool-humid regions of North-
East India, an archetype was selected for simulation in Churachandpur,
near Imphal, India. It is located at an elevation of 914 m above MSL at
coordinates: 24.3427° N, 93.6978° E. 'Passive climate charts' for TMY
(typical meteorological year) of EPW (Energy Plus Weather) data were
developed with the cooperation of the developers. (Kodama et al.,
2015; Tungnung et al., 2014; Tungnung, 2016, 2019). It is based on the
sustainable design principles of integrating climate control and building
functionality to secure a managed environment within a natural setting
and combating the harsh forces of wind, water, and sun presented in the
book ‘Design with Climate’ by Olgyay (1963). The book explains the
effect of climate on shelter design in various climatic regions due to the
effect of orientation, air movement, site, and materials. The climate
charts represent climate characteristics in contour lines. (Fig. 1). Hor-
izontal X-axis shows climatic parameters fluctuation of the months in a
year, and vertical Y-axis shows fluctuation during 24 h in a day.
(Kodama et al., 2015; Tungnung, 2016, 2019; Tungnung et al., 2014,
2017, 2018). Spring and autumn are pleasant while winter can be cold.
Summer daytime is hot but gets cooler at sunset and heat dissipates to
Fig. 1. Passive climate charts showing climate parameters fluctuation in cool-humid Imphal, near Churachandpur.
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Solar Energy 207 (2020) 1–9
night-sky. The mean temperature fluctuation ranges about 16 °C in
winter and 6 °C in summer. (Fig. 1a). Diurnal temperature high is
≥20 °C through the year. In summer diurnal maximum is ≥28 °C but
drops to ≤22 °C at night, winter temperature ranges 6–22 °C. The
nights’ humidity ranges ≥80% or more through the year and diurnal
humidity is ≤70% in April-September and ≤60% during the rest of the
year. (Fig. 1b). Imphal valley has less wind speed, 1.4–3.4 m/s in the
day, and calm, 0–0.2 m/s in the night through the year. (Fig. 1c). This
climatic region can be classified as cool-humid zone. In cool-humid
climate zone, “the temperature varies from 25 to 30 °C as maximum and
20–24 °C as minimum during summer months where as in winter
months the maximum temperature varies from 20 to 25 °C and
minimum temperature varies from 10 to 15 °C. The altitude is ranging
from 501 to 1200 m from mean sea level. The humidity level is also in
the higher side (75–95%).“ (Singh et al., 2007). As a climate-archi-
tecture-affordance (CAA) concept, elements such as ventilation
window, shading awnings, eaves and louvers, and heat storage thermal
mass are appropriate design techniques in cool-humid Manipur.
(Tungnung, 2016; Tungnung et al., 2017).
3.2. Lifestyle-Architecture-Affordance (LAA) in vernacular architecture
Traditional buildings have low thermal conductivity sloping thatch
roof, porous wood or bamboo walls and attic ventilation. Lifestyle-ar-
chitecture-affordance (LAA) in vernacular habitats can inform adapta-
tion possibilities of spaces, materials and lifestyles. In traditional ha-
bitats, “the hall or living room is a big void defined by its functional
flexibility that afforded inherent versatility to fulfill multiple functions.
The front veranda is a versatile function workspace, rainwater har-
vesting from thatch roof and social space or to enjoy fresh air.”
(Tungnung and Kodama, 2015; Tungnung, 2016). The kitchen fire-
hearth is a source of winter heat to the traditional one-room typology
homes and a semi-private social space. (Fig. 2a). “As a fundamental
law, heat moves from warmer materials to cooler ones until there is no
longer a temperature difference between the two. A passive solar
building makes use of this law through three heat-movement mechan-
isms—conduction, convection, and radiation—to distribute heat
throughout the living space.” (NREL, 2001). Permeable porous en-
velope and void interiors afforded connectivity of the interior and ex-
terior with convective airflow, light, and indoor radiation of heat from
the sun or fireplace in vernacular homes. The extroverted outdoor decks
function as space for light work or social gatherings. (Fig. 2b). The
vernacular habitats fire hearth complements warm clothes in winter
while building envelopes' porosity affords ventilation and cool-air in
summer. These are vernacular passive design strategies complemented
by responsive lifestyles.
3.3. Lifestyle-Architecture-Affordance (LAA) in modern architecture
The survey and analysis of various modern houses investigates the
K. Tungnung Solar Energy 207 (2020) 1–9

Fig. 2. Traditional lifestyle and habitats in cool-humid climate zones, North-East India (a) Fire hearth in one-room type homes, (b) Outdoor veranda use as work or
social space. Courtesy: Tluanga Colney (Artwork reprint).

Fig. 3. (a), (b), (c), (d) Galvanised iron roof and brick walls of one or two storey modern houses in cool-humid climate zones, North-East India.

Fig. 4. Archetype residence, case study house, in cool-humid climate zone (a) galvanised iron roof, brick and wood walls, and verandas, (b) One-room type living-
dining and kitchen with windows and porous wooden ceiling for air-flow.

thermal performance, materials, and lifestyle function in spaces as per wood, and galvanized iron roof. (Fig. 4). It is relevant locally as a
diurnal or seasonal changes. (Fig. 3). The case study house was selected modern-day reinterpretation of architectural styles, lifestyle evolution
for detail study base on energy performance, spaces layout and forms, and implementation possibility with limited resources. The study house
and use of affordable but durable modern materials, such as bricks, spatial programme encompasses private bedrooms, semi-public living-

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K. Tungnung
dining and kitchen, and public verandas. (Fig. 4). These spaces function
as private or socio-communal spaces. The living-dining room and
kitchen are one-room type space. Operable windows with single pane
glass afford solar heat gain in winter and cross ventilation in summer.
The verandas afford social connectivity of neighbors’ while functioning
as a semi-outdoor space to enjoyed fresh air. Vertical porosity due to
split wood floor and top floor walls, and flexible void spaces allow
airflow and thermal comfort in different diurnal time or hours and
seasons. (Fig. 4).
3.4. Lifestyle-Architecture-Affordances (LAA) and thermal environment
performance
Gibson's affordance theory suggests complementary relationship
between an ecological niche and the animal in the environment. Passive
spaces and elements can favourably respond to the climate. However,
for these passive spaces to become a lifestyle-architecture-affordance it
needs a responsive actor, human, who perceive the possible functions.
The existence of perceive affordances of the environment by designers
and users is a critical determinant to sustainable design practice, energy
and space efficiency. In this study, annual energy consumption and
temperature were the two indicators of thermal performance. The case
study house is a 24 × 7 occupancy residence with low energy con-
sumption of 7.25 kWh/m2/year. On-site data-loggers of the ground
floor shows temperature ranges higher than the ambient temperature at
night (≥26 °C) but lower during the day (≤28 °C) in summer when
ambient temperature is > 30 °C and suggests possible adaptive function
as a space for sedentary activity and light works in the daytime.
(Fig. 5a). The attic-space records temperature equal to ambient tem-
perature during the night (≤25 °C) and functions as sleeping space
without using active cooling fans in summer. (Fig. 5b). Comfort was
afforded with night-ventilation by opening windows in response to
diurnal or seasonal climate changes and due to the higher heat emis-
sivity of galvanized iron roof. However, peak daytime temperature in
the attic-space is about 35 °C when ambient temperature is ≥30 °C.
(Fig. 5b). Lifestyle-architecture-affordance was possible in the study
house due to complementarity of space, climate, and responsive life-
styles and it validates passive design affordances and low-energy sys-
tems.
3.5. Parametric-Architecture-Affordance (PAA)
Passive design consists of a number of architectural spaces, and its
performances varies base on seasonal or diurnal climatic swings of the
climate zone. While this parametric method and simulation software
are a sequel to papers published by the author(s), the synergetic effect
due to the combination of space, time, and lifestyle functions are novel.
Further, as a novel biometeorological approach the paper examines the
relationship between human comfort (biosphere) and atmospheric
Fig. 5. Temperature and relative humidity fluctuation for 3 typical summer days in Churachandpur, North-East India in case study house (a) ground living-dining
space, S1; (b) top floor attic-space, S2.
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Solar Energy 207 (2020) 1–9
temperature on diurnal time scales or shorter hours in various seasons.
The simulations were validated with thermal performance data from
the physical system. (Winn, et al., 1978). Solar Designer Ver 6.0
(http://qcd.co.jp/) was used as simulation tool due to its user friendly
single interactive interface for input data and immediacy of predicted
results essential to iterative design process. (Tungnung, 2016, 2019).
The procedures, modules components, and inputs are easy to access and
control for application in varied conditions. It is widely used for re-
search and publications. (Kodama et al., 2006, 2015; Tungnung et al.,
2014; Tungnung, 2016, 2019; Tungnung et al., 2017; Tungnung et al.,
2018; Miyaoka et al., 2014). Parametric-architecture-affordance is
propose as a novel control system to straddle differences between the
architectural spaces, climate, and lifestyle. Synergies in various para-
metric combinations and the function possibilities, based on predicted
temperature, between various combinations of space, and diurnal or
seasonal time are made perceivable to highlight layout of space func-
tions for sleeping, sedentary activities, light work, etc. To utilize natural
ventilation flexible ventilation is proposed. “In this study, flexible
ventilations consider is 18 °C ≤ AT ≤ 28 °C (AT: ambient temperature)
and 30 ACR (air-change rate) is allowed when the ambient temperature
is 18–28 °C and 0.5 ACR at other times.” (Kodama et al., 2006;
Tungnung and Kodama, 2014; Tungnung, 2016, 2019; Tungnung et al.,
2017). Normal ventilations with 30 ACR (day and night), 0.5 ACR (day
and night) and a combination of 30 ACR (night) and 0.5 ACR (day) are
also simulated. (Tungnung et al., 2014; Tungnung, 2016; Tungnung
et al., 2017). 18–28 °C is the assumed thermal comfort temperature
range, auxiliary heating or cooling is required below or above that.
Solar radiation (Wh/m2) on surface of the south wall orientations is
considered. (Krishan et al., 1999).
3.5.1. Simulation input data
The simulation modules parameters were set base on survey data of
vernacular and modern architecture, climate, and lifestyles. (Fig. 6).
Simulation modules variable and invariable input data, technical spe-
cifications of material properties, and lifestyles are incorporated in the
best representative way. (Tables 1, 2, Fig. 6).
3.5.2. Simulation methods
“Passive design’s thermal performance is determined by the com-
bination of a large number of building elements (or spaces).”
(Tungnung, 2016, 2019). Traditionally, scale models or drawings were
used to select a set of compatible parts base on the designers intuitive or
experiences. (Jones, 1970). In this study, the intuitive method of se-
lection of module combinations is based on climate characteristics and
survey. (Fig. 1,6). The variable design elements sub-sets in this com-
bination are space(S), time (T) in hours, and month(M) of the seasons
each with three variable parametric sub-solutions: 1, 2, 3. (Fig. 7). In
parametric strategy, module S1 has two sub-sets, Time (T) and Month
(M), with three sub-solutions each, so there are 23 = 8 possible
K. Tungnung Solar Energy 207 (2020) 1–9

Fig. 6. Parameters of simulation modules of spaces S1, S2, S3 to predict temperature ranges and possible functions.

Table 1 The variable parameters: 1, 2, 3 represents the variable grades of the

Variable and invariable parameters of modules. sub-sets. (Fig. 7). To find the optimum matrix combinations, the in-
Invariable parameters of modules
dividual element analyse was systematically varied in grade as 1, 2, 3
and the other elements parameters were kept constant. For instance, to
Elements Function Parameters analyse the effects of months (M) on living-dining space (S1), the
parameters of a month(M) was systematically analysed for parameters:
Thermal mass Heat storage and Wall: 0.62 W/(mK)
Thermal Conductivity
1, 2, 3 and other parameters were kept constant. (Fig. 7). To analyse the
Floor: 1.1 W/(mK) effects of months (M) on attic-space (S2), the parameters of a month
Ceiling: 0.14 W/(mK) (M) was systematically analyse for varying grades: 1, 2, 3 and other
Glazing Windows Heat gain/loss (single Thermal transmittance: 5.997 W/ parameters were kept constant. The same iterative process is applicable
glazing) (mK)
for analysing the effects of months (M) on veranda space (S3). Simi-
Solar transmittance: 0.856
Insulation Thermal conductivity larly, the effects of spaces (S) and time (T) can be can be analyse in an
(attic-space) Ceiling: 0.0372 W/ iterative process. Finally, based on temperature ranges optimum com-
(mK) binations can be infer for each space and functions. (Fig. 8).
Floor Thermal conductivity Wood: 0.14 W/(mK)
Mortar: 1.3 W/(mK)
Roof Thermal conductivity/ Metal: 45 W/(mK)
emissivity 4. Simulation results and discussions
Invariable parameters of modules
“Synergy concepts, if implemented properly, can help designers to
Elements Function Parameters create net-zero or net-positive buildings. Each of the synergies pri-
marily addresses one of the four aspects of integrated design: climate,
Site Micro-climate, Albedo River and hills with green use, design, and systems.” (DeKay and Brown, 2014). Passive design
vegetation
Module Volumes S1, Living-dining 3.6 m × 9 m × 3.5 m
entails intuitive architectural ingenuity base on climate to afford
S2, Attic-space 7.3 m × 9 m × 2.5 m thermal comfort by responding to the forces of nature according to
S3, Veranda (3.6 m × 1 m) x2+(9.3 m × 1 m) diurnal and seasonal climate change. Passive design affordances add a
Orientation Sun control East-West orientation new perspective as a theory-and-strategy. Parametric simulations reveal
Occupancy Residence 7 × 24 h
the synergy effect of mutual complementarity of spaces with diurnal or
Climate Cool-humid Cool summer, cold winter,
salubrious spring/autumn seasonal time spans to afford comfortable temperature ranges,
Ventilation Air-change rate (ACR) Flex Vent: 18 °C ≤ AT ≤ 28 °C 18–28 °C. Analysis of temperature fluctuations in varied seasonal or
Indoor heat Occupants 464.9 W/(mK) (4 people) diurnal time shows the thermal performance of the space modules and
sources suggests possible lifestyle activities: sleeping (bedroom), light work or
Refrigerator 151 W/(mK) (24 h)
sedentary activities (living-room).
Oven,
fire-hearth 2145 W/(mK) (4 hrs/ The simulation results show that optimal comfort (18–28 °C) is
day) possible for different spaces of the house at different time of the day and
months of the seasons under different ventilation modes. “Solar thermal
concepts use the energy from the sun to heat or cool the building and
combination solution sets to be compared and analyse. Similarly, usually consist of four separate components: (1) collection (2) storage
modules S2 and S3 have 8 possible solutions each, so there are 24 so- (3) distribution (4) control.” (Holtz et al., 2015). In these simulation
lutions to be compared in total. The parametric simulation matrix modules, thermal mass plastered brick walls, and plain cement concrete
proposed parametric-architecture-affordance (PAA) simplifies and (PCC) plinth in the living-dining space (S1) functions as thermal storage
make complementary possibilities perceivable. for coolness collected during night-ventilation to afford indoor comfort

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K. Tungnung Solar Energy 207 (2020) 1–9

Table 2
Variable design elements parameters of space modules S1, S2, S3.
Elements Techniques/Function Parameters

Walls Thermal mass heat storage and thermal conductivity S1: 150 mm brick wall
S2: 25 mm wooden wall
S3: Semi-open veranda, no walls on 3 sides
Roof Thermal conductivity, emissivity, and shading eaves S1: Porous 25 mm wood battens
S2: 0.55 mm galvanised iron roof
S3: Semi-open with 0.55 mm galvanised iron roof eave
Window glazing Heat gain/loss, thermal and solar transmittance S1: 3.6 m × 1.4 m (single glaze)
S2: (2 × 0.5) m + (2.5 × 1.4) m
S3: Semi-open veranda, no windows
Insulation Reduce heat gain/loss S1: 150 mm brick wall, and attic space
S2: 0.55 mm metal roof, no insulation
S3: Semi-open, no insulation
Floor Thermal mass and heat storage, earth contact to stabilize temperature by radiation S1: 250 mm PCC plinth, and cement
S2: 25 mm wooden floor
S3: 250 mm PCC concrete plinth & 30 mm wood
Eave Shading S1: 1 m roof eaves
S2: 1 m roof eaves
S3: 1 m roof eaves
Doors Ventilation S1: 2 doors of 1.2 m × 2.4 m each
S2: 2 doors of 1 m × 2 m each
S3: Semi-open veranda, no doors

during summer days. (Fig. 8c). The complementary combination of the
modules passive design elements: thermal mass walls (150 mm) and
plinth (250 mm), shading eaves (1 m), ventilation modes, and insula-
tion property (0.62 W/(mK) of attic-space and bricks afforded comfort
temperature ranges in most seasons in the living-dining room. Living-
dining space (S1) shows optimum comfort temperature ranges
throughout the day, night and evening during autumn (M1), 20–28 °C,
and winter (M2), 17–22 °C. (Fig. 8a, b). The diurnal summer (M3)
temperature ranges 20–31 °C in the living-dining space (S1). (Fig. 8c).
The minimum temperature in winter in the living-dining room is 17 °C
from 06–09 h and maximum is about 31 °C from 18–20 h in summer. In
winter, the living-dining room's dark colour concrete floor with low
albedo of about 0.2–0.3 and brick walls serves as heat absorber and
storage for solar heat gain and indoor heat sources while the insulating
attic-space, 0.0372 W/(mK), brick walls, and air-tightness affords in-
sulation and heat conservation throughout the day and night. (Fig. 8b).
It can function as bedroom, living-room, kitchen, social space for family
or to entertain guests in most seasons. Auxiliary heating and cooling
methods like heaters and fans and adaptive lifestyles, such as engaging
oneself in sedentary or light works can afford thermal comfort for the
brief discomfort periods. In attic-space higher thermal conductivity,
45 W/(mK), and heat gain from metal roof resulted in higher tem-
perature range and discomfort in autumn (42 °C) and summer (48 °C)
during very sunny days when ambient temperature is about 30–35 °C,
but less than ≤30 °C on sunny or cloudy days. (Fig. 8a, c). However,
comfort can be expected in attic-space due to the roof high heat emis-
sivity (0.8) in winter daytime (24 °C) and lower temperature (20–28 °C)
in summer nights. (Fig. 8b, c). It can function as daytime space in
winter and as bedrooms in summer and reduce the use of fans. During
autumn and summer days attic-space shows higher temperature ranges
due to higher solar heat absorptance by the corrugated metal roof but
the same principle affords for a cooler space in the nights due to higher
emissivity. Bedroom in the ground would be much warmer in winter.
Semi-open shaded verandas (S3) shows low temperature (18–28 °C) in
summer afternoon and evening and fresh airflow can function as light
workspace or enjoy fresh air. (Figs. 6, 8b, c). It can also serve as a
comfortable sun-space in winter daytime. These empirical design pro-
cesses can be beneficial to designing spaces form, layout, function, etc.
In the attic-space room flexible ventilation system:
18 °C ≤ AT ≤ 28 °C (AT: ambient temperature) is not effective in re-
ducing peak summer temperature because low thermal mass but high
thermal conductivity roof and walls and low air-changes (0.5 ACR)
above 28 °C significantly increase room temperature. (Fig. 8a, c).
However, normal ventilations with 30 ACR (day and night) in autumn,
0.5 ACR (day and night) in winter, and a combination of 30 ACR (night)
and 0.5 ACR (day) shows predicted maximum temperature ranges
≤35 °C in autumn, 29 °C in winter, and ≤41 °C in summer in the attic-
space. (Fig. 9a, b, c).
Quantitative comparative analysis with other relevant studies pre-
sents a challenge due to the complexity and novelty of the theoretical
interpretation of affordance, specific climate zone, and architectural
modules studied. Variation of design elements parameters, such as
ventilation modes, materials, forms, thickness and sizes of windows,
shading eaves, walls, floor, roof, etc., could significantly effect a space
thermal performance. (Tungnung, 2016, 2019; Tungnung et al., 2017).
Relevant studies by the author(s) in the same climate zone for the same
building typology shows significant temperature fluctuation due to
variation of ventilation modes (air changes rate per hour) but under
similar ventilation modes the ground floor shows close temperature
ranges of about 20–33 °C. (Tungnung et al., 2017). This study shows
better thermal comfort temperature, 20–30 °C, in the living-dining
space due to insulation effect of the attic-space, and higher thermal
mass brick walls and earth contact concrete floor. There are no relevant
studies for attic-space rooms in cool-humid climate zone of North-East
India for the same archetype houses in the knowledge of the author.
Comprehensive comparative analysis with other relevant studies are

Fig. 7. Design parameters combination matrix for parametric simulations.

7
K. Tungnung
Fig. 8. Temperature (°C) fluctuation and solar radiation on South wall in simulation modules for 3 typical days of representative months of a year (a) October,
Autumn (M1), (b) January, Winter (M2), (c) May, Summer (M3) under flexible ventilation.
future challenges.
5. Conclusions
The paper is expected to initiate collective response from a plethora
of stakeholders to ameliorate modern lifestyles energy shortage, spatial
needs, comfort notions and the design process for two storey houses in
cool-hummid climate zones of North-East India. In view of the absence
or limited researches on affordance theory in passive design, the paper
asserts a novel critical theory, method and strategies, and application
possibilities. Passive design consists of a number of architectural spaces
and elements that have mutually complementary or incompatible
thermal performance. Often, spaces are design as a fixed function.
Parametric strategy of passive design affordances highlights appro-
priate space functions possibilities. Affordance concept is critique and
fitted to passive design as a theory-and-strategy: (1) to find com-
plementarity of space, forms and materials with climate and lifestyle
functions, (2) to articulate parametric passive design strategy and
control tool. Passive design affordance is propose as three novel com-
plementary relationships in the environment: climate-architecture-af-
fordances (CAA), lifestyle-architecture-affordances (LAA), parametric-
architecture-affordances (PAA). Parametric methods are a sequel to
papers published by the author(s), but the synergetic effect due to the
combination of space and time, and the possible lifestyle functions in
spaces base on predicted temperatures are unique. As a biometeor-
ological approach the paper examines the relationship between human
comfort and lifestyle functions with temperature on diurnal time scales
or shorter hours in various seasons as a critical theory of affordances.
Perception of the environment’s affordances could be beneficial to
passive design process in architecture design theory and practice.
Knowledge of lifestyles afforded input data for simulations to find
possible complementary relationship with spaces and climate.
Parametric-architecture-affordance as a tool controls and makes the
complementarity of spaces, climate, and lifestyle perceivable through
visual constructs, such as graphs, figures, and empirical data. The si-
mulation results predict the thermal performance of building spaces
Fig. 9. Temperature (°C) fluctuation and solar radiation in simulation modules for 3 typical days of representative months of a year (a) October, Autumn (M1), (b)
January, Winter (M2), (c) May, Summer (M3) under normal ventilations: 30 ACR (day and night), 0.5 ACR (day and night) and a combination of 30 ACR (night) and
0.5 ACR (day).
8
Solar Energy 207 (2020) 1–9
and suggest appropriate functions or adaptive occupancy, such as
sleeping (bedroom), light work or sedentary activities (living-dining
room, lounge, veranda) and other leisure activities. During spring and
autumn seasons the living-dining space and veranda shows comfortable
temperature ranges. Flexible ventilation system is not effective in re-
ducing peak temperatures of autumn and summer in the attic-space due
to the low thermal mass with high thermal conductivity roof and walls.
Normal ventilations with air change rates adapted to the diurnal tem-
perature fluctuations in the night, morning and evening are more ap-
propriate. Galvanised iron roof high emissivity allows rapid cooling at
night that can afford for night time bedrooms in summer while high
thermal conductivity and air-tightness can afford warm spaces in winter
daytime. The shaded verandas show temperature ranges lower than
indoors in summer afternoon and evening, so it can serve as semi-
outdoor space for light work or sedentary activities. The living-dining
room in the ground floor shows comfort temperature ranges most of the
time due to optimum combination of moderate thermal mass, ventila-
tions, shading, and insulating spaces or materials. The attic space afford
insulation to the ground floor. Traditional houses have sloping thatch
roof with low thermal conductivity but modern houses with galvanized
iron roofing cause indoor discomfort in summer days and winter nights
due to high thermal conductivity. The results highlight indoor comfort
possibilities of specific rooms in two storey houses with durable and
affordable modern galvanised iron roof for specific hours and seasons.
The parametric strategy optimize design process with logical certainty
and the findings are expected to benefit design and construction prac-
tices or operations and lifestyle functions towards economical low en-
ergy and environmental sustainability in North-East India. These con-
textual methods of research and simulations provide a new knowledge
for parametric strategies. Perceived affordances, lifestyle responsive-
ness are critical to passive design process, energy and spatial efficiency.
Acknowledgements
This research paper does not receive any specific grant and funds
from agencies. Nevertheless, the author(s) is much obliged and grateful
K. Tungnung
to everyone including professors and colleagues, and house owners for
their insights, advice, constructive critiques, data, and co-operation.
The author is much indebted to Japanese Govt. MEXT
(Monbukagakusho) for the Research Scholarship Grant (2010-2016)
No.: 91006000833 that initiated this research, and also acknowledged
the editor(s) and reviewers for their support and guidance in making
this paper appropriate to wider audience.
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