Module 3: PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR, HUNGER &

THIRST
❖ PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR
❖ PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF THIRST
❖ ROLE OF HYPOTHALAMUS & AMYGDALA IN FEAR
AND ANGER
❖ PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUNGER

I. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR – [PDF]

II. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF THIRST

A. What is thirst
B. Water outputs from body Refer N.P Devi
C. Mouth & Gastrointestinal tract thirst signals textbook

D. Kidney & Drinking Behavior

E. Hormones Involved in Thirst

1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

➢ also called vasopressin/ Arginine V

➢ It is a hormone secreted by the hypothalamus region of brain.
➢ Stored in the posterior lobe of pituitary gland.
➢ It acts as a water conservation hormone that prevents diuresis
➢ Diuresis-excess loss of water from the body through urine.
➢ Solute concentration of a solution is known as osmolarity.
➢ It determines the water concentration in the solution.
➢ Minor elevations in osmolality result in secretion of ADH.
➢ ADH acts on kidneys which increases water reabsorption
➢ Hence maintain osmolality.
➢ ADH helps to restore blood volume and pressure.

2. Aldosterone

➢ is a Steroid hormone
➢ It is also a Mineralocorticoid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex.
➢ Essential for sodium conservation.
➢ Plays major role in the regulation of blood pressure& sodium potassium.
➢ Water homeostasis
 ➢ Aldosterone upregulates the sodium channels in the collecting ducts of kidney and
colon.
➢ Thus, increasing the membrane permeability for sodium and thus absorption.
F. Hypothalamus & Neural Mechanisms involved in thirst
➢ Brain transforms the need for water into the desire to drink through a motivational
mechanism by which the forebrain thirst circuit drinking.
➢ Body’s primary ‘thirst centre’ in the brain is HYPOTHALAMUS
➢ Hypothalamus also regulates:
▪ Body temperature
▪ Sleep and appetite
➢ Special receptors/sensors in hypothalamus continuously monitor the concentration of
sodium and other substances in the blood stream.
➢ It is integrating centre.
➢ It receives information from the sensors and initiates response to maintain
homeostasis.
➢ It also receives inputs from sensors in the blood vessel that monitor blood pressure and
volume.
➢ If blood volume/pressure decreases either by excessive loss of fluid, or bleeding,
excessive loss through sweat, diarrhoea or when blood sodium concentration elevates
hypothalamus initiates an urge for fluid intake.
G. Regulation of water intake by hypothalamus
1. Regulation of water intake by hypothalamus

➢ Thirst centre is located in the lateral nucleus of the hypothalamus.

➢ It is stimulated by plasma hypertonicity, which occurs when the water content of
the body is reduced.
➢ Stimulation causes a strong desire for water intake& animals drink large quantities
of water.
➢ If thirst centre is damaged, organism stop the fluid intake and dies off due to
dehydration.
2. Regulation of thirst through osmoreceptors

➢ Osmoreceptors-located in the Supraoptic Nucleus of hypothalamus.

➢ These osmoreceptors in anterior hypothalamus sense the osmolality of blood fluids.
➢ Increased plasma osmolality stimulates osmoreceptors
➢ Which in turn send signals to posterior pituitary gland to secrete Anti Diuretic
hormone (ADH)
➢ ADH acts on the renal tubules in the kidney & promotes reabsorption of water from
the collecting ducts of kidneys.
➢ This prevents excess water loss through kidney.
➢ When body has excess water exactly the opposite happens.
3. Renin- Angiotensin system mediated thirst regulation

➢ A decrease in blood volume and pressure can activate the RAS system.
 ➢ Whenever there is a drop in blood volume specialized kidney cells called
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) detects pressure reduction.
➢ Hence, they secrete an enzyme called Renin into the bloodstream.
➢ Renin acts on another protein Angiotensinogen which change into angiotensin I
➢ The angiotensin I is converted into angiotensin II by an enzyme called angiotensin
converting enzyme (ACE).
➢ (This enzyme is predominantly found in the capillaries of the lungs but can also
be found in epithelial cells of the kidney)
a) Important functions of angiotensin II

➢ It is a powerful vasoconstrictor that causes blood vessels to narrow resulting in

increased blood pressure.
➢ It also stimulates adrenal cortex to release aldosterone which increases
reabsorption of sodium into blood thereby water retention.
➢ Stimulates release of ADH from posterior pituitary glands and thereby water
retention in kidneys.

III. ROLE OF HYPOTHALAMUS & AMYGDALA IN FEAR &

ANGER

A. What is fear?
➢ Fear is natural neurophysiological process and basic human emotion.
➢ Fear is an unpleasant emotion to a threatening situation and it is subjective.
B. Physiological changes during fear:
▪ Shivering voice
▪ Sweaty palms
▪ Increased heart rate
▪ Altered respiration
▪ Dilated pupils
➢ Fear an occur by conditioning
➢ Fear reaction can be produced in conscious animals by the stimulation of:
▪ Hypothalamus&
▪ Amygdaloid complex
➢ Also, if amygdala is destroyed people lack the normally evoked autonomic and
endocrine expressions.
C. HYPOTHALAMUS & AMYGDALA
➢ Amygdala consist of certain other structures compared of distinct groups of cells such
as:
▪ Lateral Amygdala (LA)
▪ Basal nuclei Together known as Basolateral Amygdala (BLA)
▪ Accessory basal nuclei
➢ Lateral Amygdala and Basal Nuclei are surrounded by
▪ Central nucleus (CE)
▪ Medial nuclei &
▪ Cortical nuclei
➢ These entire structures constitute an Amygdaloid complex.
➢ The Lateral Amygdala within the BLA can be divided into 3 major subdivisions;
▪ Dorsal lateral amygdala
▪ Ventro lateral amygdala
▪ Medial lateral amygdala
➢ Dorsal lateral amygdala is divided into:
▪ Superior region
▪ Inferior region
➢ Each of these nuclei is structurally distinct with specific connections & functions.
1. Lateral amygdala

➢ Signified as the gatekeeper of the entire amygdala.

2. Basolateral Amygdala (BLA)

➢ part of the brain with dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain;
it is critical for classical conditioning and attaching emotional value to memory
➢ Receives sensory input from the thalamus, hippocampus and cortex.
➢ Transmit signals to stimulate the suitable brain regions that are significant to that
sensory informational signal.
➢ These structures receive inputs from:
▪ Visual cortex – Vision
▪ Auditory cortex - Hear
▪ Somatosensory cortex – Touch/Pain
▪ Olfactory cortex - Smell
▪ Gustatory cortex - Taste
➢ Neural signals are also transmitted to the Central Nuclei (CE).
➢ CE is part of the brain involved in attention and has connections with the
hypothalamus and various brainstem areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and
endocrine systems’ activity
➢ CE serves as the output nucleus of the Amygdala.
➢ CE generates an increase in attention toward the stimulus thus producing fear.
D. Expression
➢ Expression of fear responses includes connections from the CE to the brainstem.
➢ These connections regulate certain specific behaviours and physiological responses
such as freezing when confronted with dangers.
➢ There is a mutual connection between the Amygdala and the hypothalamus.
➢ The Amygdala forms two direct and one indirect connection to the hypothalamus.
➢ These linking pathways forms the anatomical basis for the neural communication
between the Amygdala and hypothalamus.
➢ During the situations of fear and anxiety the direct projections from the central
nucleus of the Amygdala to the lateral hypothalamus activates the sympathetic
nervous system.
➢ Then the central nucleus generates the output circuitry which in term activates the
hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis.
➢ The hypothalamus sends signals to the pituitary gland to release the
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and to adrenal glands to form adrenal
hormones such as:
▪ Adrenaline
▪ Cortisol
➢ As these hormones enter the bloodstream physical changes occur that equips the
organism to cope with threatening situation or stimulus.
➢ Recent evidence shows lateralization of Amygdala in emotional processing.
➢ Functional brain imaging studies of emotion revealed that the right hemisphere of
the brain appears to be more responsive to emotional stimuli than the left
hemisphere;
➢ Whereas the left Amygdala is more active during emotional processing.
➢ In humans, the Amygdala can perceive information related to threats or danger
including facial expressions related to fear.

A. What is Anger?
➢ Anger is an emotion characterized by antagonism toward someone or something you
feel has deliberately done you wrong.
➢ Anger/Rage/Wrath
➢ Anger is a response to threats or stressors in an organism’s environment.
➢ A blend of the intense emotional state including a strong uncomfortable and
antagonistic response to a perceived provocation, hurt or threat.
➢ Principle cause of anger is generally the persons environment.
B. Neural basis of Anger:
➢ Triggers to anger:
▪ Stress
▪ Financial issues
▪ Health issues
▪ Overwhelming requirements on time and energy.
➢ Anger triggers the flight or fight response and is accompanied by some external
expression
➢ Especially facial expressions and body language.
➢ Anger can be of different types:
▪ Passive anger
▪ Aggressive anger
▪ Assertive anger
➢ Passive anger:
➢ Passive anger is a pattern of indirectly expressing negative feelings instead of openly
addressing them.
➢ Person do not reveal their state of anger to anybody, instead they provide some
signals that they are anger through body language
➢ Short responses in communication.
➢ Moving back from people.
➢ Express frustration at insignificant things.
➢ Aggressive Anger:
➢ Usually gets out of control and causes problem for everyone involved.
➢ It can get violent and nasty with symptoms like:

Showing mistrust Selfishness

Destruction Risk taking behaviour

Threatening people directly Unpredictability

Condemning other people for
Harassing and insulting
their own mistakes.
Reckless driving

➢ Assertive Anger
➢ It is quiet and respectful anger.
➢ The person indeed does not need to cause an argument or be violent.
C. Role of Hypothalamus and Amygdala in Anger and Aggressive Behaviour
➢ • Researches suggest:
➢ Amygdala – major part of neural circuit that control aggressive behaviours.
➢ Anger develops in an individual’s mind and body accompanied by a cascade of
physiological events.
➢ Anterior hypothalamus and periaqueductal grey (PAG a region of midbrain) are two
specific brain areas involved in anger and associated behavior.
➢ Neural circuits of hypothalamus, Amygdala, PAG, are the chief regulatory networks
that regulates aggression in human beings
▪ Cerebral cortex
▪ Anger starts in the Amygdala
▪ Then stimulates the hypothalamus
▪ Anterior hypothalamus receives direct inputs from the central nucleus of
Amygdala because of hypothalamus reciprocal connections with PAG, midbrain.
▪ Enhanced activation of hypothalamus causes enhanced activation of PAG.
▪ Hence, enhance aggressive behavior.
➢ In animals’ stimulation of Amygdala increases the aggressive behavior.
➢ In animals’ lesion or removal of Amygdala decreases the aggression
➢ In humans, neuroimaging technique like MRI have revealed: distinct activation of
Amygdala during times of fear and anger.
➢ Recent reports suggest that damaged and reduced Amygdala volumes associated
with greater level of aggression.
➢ Hypothalamus generates aggressive behavior when it is stimulated.
 ➢ In animals, when the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) and lateral
hypothalamus (LH) stimulated electrically results in the expression of aggressive
behavior.
➢ Neural pathway of aggressive behavior:

IV. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUNGER – [PPT]