5.

1 INTRODUCTION TO NOISE
Any electrical signal transmitted from one point to another point is classified as having two parts, the
desirable part and undesirable part, which is noise. The magnitude of noise is directly related with the
ability to recover the original signal without error. Below are the figures how the signal is corrupted by
the noise:

Figure 1: Information signal Figure 2: Noise signal

Figure 3: Noise and information signal

Types of Noise
There are three types of noise:
(a) External noise
(b) Internal noise.
(c) Cross talk

External Noise
External noise is noise that is generated outside the device or circuit. Below are the primary sources of
external noise:
(a) Lightning
(b) Solar noise
(c) Cosmic Noise
(d) Man-made noise

Lightning
It is a major source of noise and is caused by the static discharge of thunderclouds. A wide band of
frequencies is generated during discharge, thus affecting mostly low- and high frequency bands up to
30MHz .
Solar Noise
It is caused by ionized gases of the sun produce broad range frequencies that penetrate Earth’s atmosphere
at frequencies used by communication systems. These disturbances are especially intense when sunspot
activity peaks approximately every 11 years.

Cosmic Noise
It is caused by distant stars in our universe, like the sun, also radiate intense levels of noise at frequencies
that penetrate Earth’s atmosphere.

Man-made Noise
It is simply noise that is produced by mankind such as from electric motors, automobile ignition systems,
etc. man-made noise is most intense in the more populated metropolitan and industrial areas.

Internal Noise
Internal noise is caused by electrical interference generated within the device or circuit. Below are the

1
primary sources of internal noise:
(a) Shot noise
(b) Thermal noise

Shot noise
The name originates from the sound that it produces at the audio output of a receiver. The sound is similar
to that leaf shot falling on top of a tin roof. This noise is caused by the random arrival of carriers (holes
and electrons) at the output element of electronic devices, such as diode and transistor.

Thermal Noise
It is caused by rapid and random movement of electrons within a conductor due to thermal agitation.
Since particles such as free electrons are in movement, they posses kinetic energy that is directly related
to the temperature of the resistive body. At absolute zero (Kelvin), the kinetic energy of all charged
particles becomes zero, therefore no thermal noise, but at temperature above 0° Kelvin, the charged
particles begin to move. At any instant time that the number of charged particles flowing in one direction
may exceed those flowing in the opposite direction, so, no DC current flows. But there is still about a few
micro volts exist that might overwhelming for most high-gain receivers compared to the signal amplitudes
received at the antenna input.
Below is the equation shows the mathematical relationship that was developed by Johnson:
Pn = kTB
where k = Boltzmann’s constant of 1.38 x 10 −23
T = absolute temperature of the device (oK)
B = bandwidth
Pn = noise power output

Cross Talk
Many of us have experienced listening to other telephone conversations. This type of noise called cross
talk occurs as a result of inductive and capacitive coupling from adjacent channels. Subscriber loops and
trunk circuits commonly multiplexed together to form bundled cables often have severe cross talk,
particularly in long lengths of cable.

5.2 NOISE IN REACTIVE CIRCUITS

In a warm resistor (i.e., one above absolute zero degrees Kelvin), free electrons move about in thermally
excited motion. This gives rise to a noise voltage that appears across the resistor’s terminals. This noise
was first analysed in 1927 by J.B. Johnson of the Bell Telephone Laboratories, and it goes by the names
thermal noise, white Gaussian noise, Johnson noise and kTB noise.
Each thermally excited electron contributes to the noise in the resistor. There are a large number of such
electrons, each moving very rapidly and each contributing a small amount of noise power. As a result,
thermal noise is the result of a large number of noise voltages.
In a reactive circuit, thermal noise is the maximum available noise power (sometimes called the available
power) or noise power that the warm resistor delivers to the external circuit under impedance matched
conditions.
Often, small amounts of power are specified in dB relative to one milliwatt; the units used are dBm. So
1/10 milliwatt would be -10dBm, 1 milliwatt would be 0 dBm and 10 milliwatts would be +10dBm, etc. In
units of dBm, the noise power delivered by a resistor of R Ω at T degrees Kelvin in a bandwidth of B Hz
is

RMS Value of Noise Voltage in a B Hz Bandwidth

VRMS = √(4RkTB)
where VRMS is the RMS value of the noise voltage vn (considering a bandwidth of B Hz)
2
5.3 NOISE IN RECEIVING ANTENNAS AND AMPLIFIERS
At resonance, the impedance measured at the terminals of a radio frequency communication antenna is
real valued (pure resistance). The resistance that appears at the terminals is the sum of a radiation
resistance and an ohmic resistance.
For commonly used antennas, the radiation resistance is approximately 72 Ω for a half-wave dipole in
free space.
From a transmitter, power supplied to an antenna is “absorbed” by these resistances. The power
“absorbed” by the radiation resistance is radiated into space, and power “absorbed” by the ohmic
resistance is turned into heat (it is wasted).
Usually, an antenna’s ohmic losses are small compared to the power that is radiated (the radiation
resistance is much larger than the ohmic resistance).

Random noise appears across the terminals of a receiving antenna. This noise comes from two sources:
(1) thermal noise generated in the antenna’s ohmic resistance
(2) noise received (“picked up”) from other sources (both natural and man-made).

Often, the antenna noise is represented as though it were thermal noise generated in a fictitious resistance,
equal to the radiation resistance, at a temperature T A that would account for the actual delivered noise
power. That is, the antenna is modelled as a warm resistor, with value equal to the radiation resistance,
operating at some temperature of TA degrees Kelvin. TA is the value at which the
fictitious resistor would deliver an amount of noise power equal to what the antenna delivers. T A is called
the noise temperature of the antenna.

Effective Noise Temperature of a Noise Source

A noise source (any object that generates electrical noise) can be characterized by specifying its effective
noise temperature.
Suppose a source, within a bandwidth of B Hz, delivers Pa watts to an impedance-matched load, we
define the effective noise temperature of the source as
T0 ≡ Pa / kB degrees Kelvin

5.4 NOISE MEASUREMENTS

There are two types of measurements:
(a) Signal-to-Noise Ratio
(b) Noise Figure and Noise Factor

5.4.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio

It is the ratio of signal power to noise power. More specifically, it is the ratio of signal power in a
specified bandwidth to noise power in the same bandwidth.
It is typically measured at the receiving end of the communication system prior to the detection of the
signal.
Often, SNR is given in dB; let Ps and Pn denote signal and noise powers, respectively. In term of dB, we
write
SNR(dB) = 10log10 (Ps / Pn)
As a signal passes through a cascade of amplifier stages or devices, the SNR decreases after each stage
because noise is added in each stage. However, in many applications involving a cascade of low-noise,
high-gain stages, the overall output SNR is determined by the input SNR and the noise properties (i.e.,
the noise figure) of the first stage alone; that is, stages after the first influence very little the overall
system SNR

5.4.2 Noise Factor/Figure

Noise is added to a signal as it passes through a system, such as an amplifier. Thermal noise, which is in

3
all practical electronic systems, is the most predominant noise in many systems. Since the system
amplifies/attenuates its input signal and noise equally, and more noise is added by the system itself, the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the output is lower than the signal to noise ratio on the input. Noise factor
and noise figure characterize the extent of this degradation as the signal passes through the system.
Let (SNR)IN and (SNR)OUT denote the input and output signal-to-noise ratios, respectively, of the system
(these are specified in the same bandwidth). Let P si and Pni denote the input signal and noise powers,
respectively. Likewise, denote as Pso and Pno as the output signal and noise powers, respectively.

Then, Noise Factor is defined as the ratio of signal-to-noise power at the input of a device to the signal-
to-noise power at its output.
Then, system noise factor is defined as

…....(i)
where Ga = Pso/Psi is the power gain of the system (F > 1 in real-world, noisy systems. However,
the smaller F is the better.)

Now, Pno = GaPni + Pne, where Pne = GakTeB is noise added by the amplifier/device. Combine this with (ii)
to obtain

….......(ii)
Often, Noise factor F is converted to Decibels (dB). In this case, we use the name Noise Figure.

All amplifiers, for example contribute some degree of noise to the signal. If an amplifier generated no
noise of its own, its input and output SNR would be equal. Noise factor would be 1 in this ideal case,
which is equivalent to noise figure of 0dB

Relationship Between System Noise Factor and Temperature

Usually, one has knowledge of the amplifier’s gain Ga, noise factor F and source noise temperature T0
Using equation (i), one can write the output noise power as
Pno = FGaPni = FGakT0B........(iii)
Suppose that we are given a noise source, at temperature T0, connected to an amplifier having an effective
noise temperature of Te ,the noise power output of the amplifier is given by;
Pno = Gak(T0+Te)B........(iv)
Equating expressions (iii) and (iv), we get

….......(v)
Alternatively, this result can be solved for
Te = T0 ( F − 1)........(vi)

Overall Noise Figure of Cascaded Networks

Most systems involve several stages connected in a cascade fashion. For example, a typical radio
receiving system consists of a combination of antenna, RF amplifier, down converter, IF amplifier
followed by other stages.
In order to perform a noise analysis of such systems, we need to know how to compute the noise factor of
a cascade of stages given the noise factor and gain of the individual stages. Typically, the overall noise
factor F is calculated for a bandwidth B that is the bandwidth of the overall system, rather than that of
individual stages. Figure below depicts two cascaded-connected stages with associated gains, effective
noise temperatures and noise figures.

4
A standard noise source (a resistor at temperature T0) is connected to the input side. The noise power
output delivered to the load is

….............(vii)

Let Te1,2 denote the noise temperature of the cascaded network. comparison of equation (vii) to
equation (iv) leads to the conclusion

….........(viii)
Te1,2 accounts for the noise introduced by both two-ports acting together. It is the overall noise
temperature of the cascaded two-port.
This process can be extended to the case of n such cascaded two-port networks. Following the approach
just outlined, one can easily find that n cascaded networks has an overall noise temperature of

…......(ix)
where Te,k is the noise temperature of the kth network in the chain.
The overall noise factor of n cascaded networks can be expressed in terms of the individual noise factors.
From equation(v), we know Te = T0(Fk−1)...........(x)
where Fk is the noise factor of the kth network
Now substitute equation (x) into (ix) to obtain for the overall noise temperature of the cascaded network

Finally, use equation(v) in the previous expression for the two-port equivalent noise temperature in to
obtain

…....Friss' formula