SAFETY AND SECURITY

This course covers the safety and security aspect of transport. The aim is to acquire the skills that
necessary to ensure a risk free transport of goods and passenger. To achieve this objective we
shall look at the following:

 ISPS code for sea transport

 Safety and security requirement for ships
 Safety and security inspections at interfaces and preventive actions
 Safety of life at sea
 Maritime security

Introduction.

Transport is perhaps the most international of all the world's great industries - and one of the
most dangerous. Because of the environment in which the ships and other vehicles operate there
are a lot of safety and security issues concern and which has to be dealt with.

Most people usually confused between maritime safety and maritime security. Let’s quickly look
at their definitions. According to SOLAS “Maritime safety involves those measures employed
by owners, operators and administrators of vessels, port facilities, offshore installations and
other marine organizations and establishments to prevent or minimize the occurrence of
mishaps or incidents at sea that may be caused by substandard ships, unqualified crew or
operator error”.

On the other hand maritime security involves those measures employed by owners, operators
and administrators of vessels, port facilities, offshore installations and other marine
organizations and establishments to prevent intentional damage through sabotage, subversion,
or terrorism, arm robbery and piracy against port installations, vessels and port facilities.

It has always been recognized that the best way of improving safety and security at sea is by
developing international regulations that are followed by all shipping nations. Most of these

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conventions are developed by the IMO. The most important convention as far as safety is
concern is the SOLAS convention.

CHAPTER ONE

THE INTERNATIONAL SHIP AND PORT FACILITY SECURITY (ISPS) CODE

The International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code is an amendment to the Safety
of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention (1974/1988) on minimum security arrangements for ships,
ports and government agencies. Having come into force in 2004, it prescribes responsibilities to
governments, shipping companies, shipboard personnel, and port/facility personnel to "detect
security threats and take preventative measures against security incidents affecting ships or port
facilities used in international trade

In the wake of the 9/11 attacks in the USA, the IMO, decided to develop, recommend and
implement a set of security measures applicable to ships and port facilities around the world..
These measures called International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS) are
implemented through International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974
chapter XI-2 to enhance maritime security.

The purpose of the ISPS Code is to:

 provide a standardised, consistent global framework across the maritime world, this
enables various countries (that have subscribed to the code) to evaluate, detect and asses
the security risks to the ships calling at their ports and allows them to take appropriate
measures to determine the security levels they must follow and the corresponding
security/preventive measures to be taken.

 to institute respective roles and responsibilities of all parties (governments and

government agencies subscribed to the code, port administration and the shipping and
port agencies) concerned, at a global and domestic level , to ensuring maritime security

 to exchange/share relevant security related information

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  and to assure shipowners that adequate and proportionate maritime security measures are
in place for their ships

As per the code, each of the entities above, are required to place appropriate security
officers/personnel on each ship, in each port facility and in each shipping company to prepare
and to put into effect the security plans that will be implemented. The ISPS Code consists of two
parts & three levels of security.

The parts of the ISPS code are:

• Part A – These are mandatory provisions which talks about the employment of security
officers in the shipping companies, their ships and port facilities that they call. This also
covers various security matters that need to be considered in the preparation of security
plans to be implemented in the ships and port facilities.

• Part B – These are recommendatory provisions providing guidance and

recommendations on how the above security plans must be prepared and implemented.
The security levels are implemented by the local port authority under consultation with
the government authorities. The security level adopted by the port facility must be co-
ordinated with the ship for synergy.

Application of the code

The Code applies to the following types of ships engaged on international voyages:

 passenger ships, including high-speed passenger craft;

 cargo ships, including high-speed craft, of 500 gross tonnage and upwards; and
 mobile offshore drilling units; and
 Port facilities serving such ships engaged on international voyages.

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The setting of security levels and appropriate measures to take in each level

The ISPS code requires the port authorities and the shipping company to identify three security
levels under which their port is operating. The three levels of security are:

Security Level 1 – normal – this is the level at which the ships and port facilities operate
under normal conditions. Minimum protective measures will be maintained at all times.

 In normal level, both ships and port operations are carried out in general way.
 Minimum security measures are always maintained on board and in port.

 Ship and port operation are carried out as per ship and port facility security plan.

 Port facility ensures to keep the ‘no access’ areas under surveillance at all times.

 Ship and port authority mutually supervise loading and unloading operation of cargo and
stores, ensuring access control and other minimum security criteria.

 Minimum access in the ship is maintained at all times.

Security Level 2 – heightened – this is a level that will apply whenever there is a
heightened risk of a security incident. At this level, additional security measures will have to be
implemented and maintained for that period of time. This time frame will be determined by the
security experts on the ship or at the port facility.

 In level 2, the threat to the security is higher than the normal level.

 All the routine and cargo operations are carried out with an increase in security measures
in both ships and ports.

 Look-outs in no access zone and waterside area is to be increased by port and ship
authorities.

 Access control is maintained all the time with escorting the visitors and use of security
equipment like metal detector etc.

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  Communication between port authority and ship administration is always maintained in
case of increase in security level.

 Preparing a full or partial search operation of ship.

 A declaration of security is undertaken between port state and ship administration.

Security Level 3 – exceptional – at this level, it is considered that a security incident is

imminent and SPECIFIC security measures will have to be implemented and maintained for that
period of time. At this level, the security experts will work in close conjunction with Government
agencies and possibly follow specific protocols and instructions.

Level 3 is imposed when the probability of security threat to ship or port authorities is highest or
imminent and specific protective measures are to be maintained.
 In level 3 all ship and port operations are stopped and frequent security rounds and duties
are carried out by both ship staff and port authorities. Boat patrols are done by port state
on the water side.

 Main propulsion plant is always kept ready for moving the ship out of port if require.

 No personnel is allowed to access the ship without the authorization of port state official.

 Only one access point is maintained on board at all time.

 Preparing a full search operation of ship or under water hull search operation with port
facility.

 Preparation for evacuation of ship by its staff.

 A declaration of security is undertaken between port state and ships administration.

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 CHAPTER TWO
SAFETY AND SECURITY REQUIREMENT FOR SHIPS
Maritime security is a major issue for shipping companies, legal advisors, risk management firms
and relevant international organisations and authorities. These maritime industries operate on a
global scale with access to some of the busiest shipping routes in the world vital for trade and
humanitarian purposes with measurable benefits for all.

But this accessibility presents a series of challenges. Piracy, terrorism, arms smuggling,
stowaways, corruption, human and drugs trafficking and other illegal acts which fit into the
category of transnational organized crime. These serious threats to life and liberty will continue
to make the world an uncertain place.

a) How vessel security is maintain during a voyage.

As will be seen later before the vessels leaves port it is thoroughly checked for stowaways,
terrorist, hijackers and weapons. While at sea it is but normal that the vessel security is main.
This can be done by

 Planning the Voyage - carry out a risk assessment and make an assessment of the
measures required when transiting high risk areas
 Training and planning counter attack by the crew - many attempted piracy and armed
robbery ‘attacks’ are unsuccessful, countered by ships’ crew who have planned and
trained in advance

 Being vigilant: the crew of the ship need to be vigilant in other to avoid surprised attack
by the arm rubbers, terrorist, hijackers, pirates etc.

 Maintaining a high speed where possible in high-risk areas

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  Using good communications with relevant authorities - report to the relevant
authorities before, during or after an attack

 Constant testing of the security equipment and security drills. This will make the crew
be ready for any eventuality

b) Types of security threats.

There a number of security threats to which vessels are subjected, some of these threats include
piracy and hijacking, terrorism, human and drug trafficking, arm smuggling etc.

i) Piracy and hijacking: Piracy is defined by UNCLOS as:

a. any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends
by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft, and directed:

i. on the high seas, against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on
board such ship or aircraft;

ii. against a ship, aircraft, persons or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any
State;
b. any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship or of an aircraft with knowledge
of facts making it a pirate ship or aircraft;

c. any act of inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in subparagraph (a) or (b).
Hijacking on the other hand simply means to take control of a moving vessel and change it
course.

Piracy and hijacking are the main threats with inestimable costs in terms of commerce and
human life. The safety of a vessel, its cargo and crew is a number one priority, especially in
dangerous seas where the risks of a pirate attack are high. This has greatly affected shipping
operations around the world especially of the coast of Somalia and around the gulf of guinea.
Where vessels and have been seized and ransom demanded. Vessels and crews require protection
from highly trained, professional security teams with conflict management and weapons
handling skills.

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 ii) Terrorism

Terrorism is the use of violence or threatened use of violence (terror), often targeting civilians, in
order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It can also be defined as violence or the
threat of violence, especially bombing, kidnapping, and assassination, carried out for political
purposes. This acts have also been used on board vessels to either attack vessels belonging to
some enemy countries or aim at killing people from a particular country. The increasing threat of
terrorism has resulted in co-operation between NATO and other organisations in order to find
solutions to this problem. One act of counter-terrorism is Operation Active Endeavour
(http://uknato.fco.gov.uk) in which NATO ships patrol high risk areas, looking for suspect
vessels whilst protecting merchant shipping at the same time.

Other similar maritime activities include Operation Atalanta (EU NAVFOR) and Operation
Ocean Shield and Operation Allied Protector (NATO counter-piracy).

iii) Human trafficking

Human trafficking is a highly lucrative trade for criminal gangs and illegal cartels that control
multi-million pound operations across several continents. This is usually run in conjunction with
the drugs trade and always for the purpose of exploitation. This men trafficked to be used as drug
pushers or to operate in the drug gang.

iv) Arms smuggling

The demand for illegal weapons is driven by the drugs trade and internal conflicts, i.e. civil wars
where power and profit are the end goals. These weapons are illegally imported into a country
where they are used to destabilize a government or regime.

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These maritime threats can be reduced with threat intelligence, risk assessments and personnel
who are trained to deal with potentially violent situations.

c) Vessels security facilities and features

Like ports all ships are supposed to have security facilities and features that can be used to fight
against maritime insecurity. They type of facilities are design to fight against different types of
threats.

For stowaways the following facilities are used.

i. X-ray machines: At one time it was thought that using x-ray machines was an efficient
method of detection. However, it turned out that the x-ray intensity needed to penetrate the
walls of a steel box would have been so great that it could prove fatal to anyone inside. ii.
Stethoscopic microphones: Stethoscopic microphone testing seemed quite promising until it
became clear that the background noises produced by day-to-day port operations were difficult
to filter out.

iii. Alarm system and/or closed circuit television: An alarm system with infrared detectors,
door contacts, motion sensors, surveillance cameras etc., as in an ordinary surveillance
system could be mounted on board to ease the monitoring of critical access points. The
surveillance should be monitored from the bridge.

iv. Heat seeking cameras: The purpose of a heat-seeking camera is to detect temperature
variations of as little as two degrees inside a container. However, it turns out that this tool
also has its deficiencies, as many materials, including certain types of cargo, can generate
heat. Moreover, some stowaways have learned to beat the cameras by putting up layers
of cardboard along the inside walls of the container.

v. Carbon Dioxide detectors: Carbon dioxide detectors are probably the most successful
technology available at the moment and are used in a number of ports. The detector is
inserted into the containers air vent in order to detect breathing inside.

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In the case of Pirate the following measures are applied

i. Evasion of Pirate-Infested Waters: For example, one of the most common and least
aggressive methods of fighting piracy is simply by avoiding it, and by and large it will
guarantee the safety of the ship. Of course, this is not suitable for regular journeys, as the
extra cost in fuel and time will negate any potential benefits- though many would argue
that reducing the cost of human life makes any other increased costs worthwhile. More
importantly, however, evasion does not work long-term; studies have shown that the
areas of major piracy shift to reflect the major shipping routes and the main targets for
attack. Therefore, by changing routes to avoid pirates, ships may inadvertently call more
attention to themselves in the long run. Nonetheless, it is a useful tactic to consider.

ii. Weapons and Other Defensive Tactics: Barbed wire may be effective in close combat.
Other tactics can seem far more effective, though are really only more combative. This
does not necessarily make these other methods lethal or even particularly aggressive, but
are still more of an active defense than evasion is. For example, barbed wire provides a
cheap and effective method of fighting piracy, even without being particularly ‘active’.
By lining the hull of a ship with barbed wire, crews can ensure that pirates cannot board
them. Similarly, the sight of a vessel covered in barbed wire may be enough to deter
some Pirate attacks. On the other hand, this can be seen as too aggressive for civilian
crafts, which have been increasingly targeted by pirates.

Other similar methods include water hoses and foam, which can help make boarding
practically impossible without causing any actual injuries. One thing there is plenty of in
the ocean is water. High powered water cannons mounted at potential pirate boarding
locations can shoot out. This water can either be directed to physically impede the pirates
from boarding, or even to make it difficult for them to move their skiff up to the edge of
the boat. Even if they’re not impenetrable, even a short delay can allow the crew to call
for help.

iii. Armed guards: Armed guards are a much more hostile form of security for ships, and
yet are not necessarily just there to fight pirates; just like barbed wire, the sight of a ship
protected by Maritime Security Forces can be enough to deter many pirates and avoid

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 attack altogether. However, if they are attacked, these forces will help ensure the safety
of
all those on the ship. However, this can be a particularly costly method, as these forces
will require equipment such as weaponry and armor, all of which will likely be factored
into operating costs.

Other more expensive options include weaponized radar, which is more accessible than
many realize!

iv. Citadel: A citadel is a fortified room where a crew can go in case of a pirate attack.
Citadels have heavily reinforced doors, stocks of food and water, and communications
equipment. Citadels are constructed as a last resort– if the ship isn’t able to evade or
deter the pirates, and has no armed guard, the captain can order the crew to retreat.
Citadels are also very expensive to construct and nothing is impenetrable– a clever or
determined pirate can find his way through almost anything.

Other security features include

v. Securing the bridge

The bridge is the main focus of pirate attacks. Kevlar body armor and helmets for the
bridge team will protect from the initial fire pirates direct at the bridge. Placing a double
layer chain link fence around the back and sides of the bridge can decrease the
effectiveness of RPG’s. Every second counts– pirate entry into the bridge can be delayed
with reinforced doors and locks.

vi. Physical barriers to prevent boarding: The Best Management Practices for Protection
against Somalia Based Piracy guide recommends using physical barriers to hinder pirates
if they try to board your vessel. A barbed wire fence at the edge of the deck can
especially effective if constructed to hang overboard, preventing pirates from hooking
their ladders.

Electric fences can also work for certain vessels, but shouldn’t be used for ships carrying
hydrocarbon.

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 CHAPTER THREE
THE NATURE OF VESSEL SECURITY IN PORTS AND INTERFACES

Whenever a vessel enter the port or any other interface it is important that the vessel be secured
this is to prevent people and unwanted materials from being smuggled onto the vessels. The ISPS
code has strict rules on how these should be done.
a) Adherence to the ISPS code.

According to Lloyd’s handbook on maritime security the implementation of ISPS Code involves
a number of steps and efforts such as undertaking security assessments, developing security
plans, designating security officers, and establishing training and drill programs. To prove
compliance with the Code, maritime security operators have to put procedures in place for
monitoring access, activities of personnel, and cargo operations, conduct regular security
inspections of port facilities and ships, provide adequate training for security personnel, report to
the relevant authorities, and ensure that security and communications equipment is properly
operated, tested, and maintained.

All vessels and ports most comply with the provision of the ISPS code. A ship is required to act
upon the security levels set by Contracting Governments as set out below.

At security level 1, the following activities shall be carried out, through appropriate measures, on
all ships, taking into account the guidance given in part B of this Code, in order to identify and
take preventive measures against security incidents:

1) ensuring the performance of all ship security duties;

2) controlling access to the ship;

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 3) controlling the embarkation of persons and their effects;
4) monitoring restricted areas to ensure that only authorized persons have access;
5) monitoring of deck areas and areas surrounding the ship;
6) supervising the handling of cargo and ship.s stores; and
7) ensuring that security communication is readily available.

At security level 2, the additional protective measures, specified in the ship security plan, shall be
implemented for each activity detailed in section 7.2, taking into account the guidance given in
part B of this Code.

At security level 3, further specific protective measures, specified in the ship security plan, shall
be implemented for each activity detailed in section 7.2, taking into account the guidance given
in part B of this Code.

Whenever security level 2 or 3 is set by the Administration, the ship shall acknowledge receipt of
the instructions on change of the security level. Prior to entering a port or whilst in a port within
the territory of a Contracting Government that has set security level 2 or 3, the ship shall
acknowledge receipt of this instruction and shall confirm to the port facility security officer the
initiation of the implementation of the appropriate measures and procedures as detailed in the
ship security plan, and in the case of security level 3, in instructions issued by the Contracting
Government which has set security level 3. The ship shall report any difficulties in
implementation. In such cases, the port facility security officer and ship security officer shall
liase and co-ordinate the appropriate actions.

If a ship is required by the Administration to set, or is already at, a higher security level than that
set for the port it intends to enter or in which it is already located, then the ship shall advise,
without delay, the competent authority of the Contracting Government within whose territory the
port facility is located and the port facility security officer of the situation.

In such cases, the ship security officer shall liaise with the port facility security officer and
coordinate appropriate actions, if necessary. An Administration requiring ships entitled to fly its
flag to set security level 2 or 3 in a port of another Contracting Government shall inform that
Contracting Government without delay.

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When Contracting Governments set security levels and ensure the provision of security level
information to ships operating in their territorial sea, or having communicated an intention to
enter their territorial sea, such ships shall be advised to maintain vigilance and report
immediately to their Administration and any nearby coastal States any information that comes to
their attention that might affect maritime security in the area.

When advising such ships of the applicable security level, a Contracting Government shall,
taking into account the guidance given in the part B of this Code, also advise those ships of any
security measure that they should take and, if appropriate, of measures that have been taken by
the Contracting Government to provide protection against the threat.

While at Port the ship need to be protected. To do this there are series of security measures aimed
at protecting the vessel. According to strategic blue print on port security, ships like other critical
assets within the port, vessels must have their own security ring, which is a part of, but
necessarily independent of, the terminal security apparatus. The key to effective vessel security
and deterring/preventing incidents of stowaways, piracy, drug smuggling, pilferage, and
terrorism is: exercise strict access control at the gangway -- to include a search of all items
carried onboard, know who is onboard at all times, maintain a secured waterside, and conduct
post-arrival and predeparture inspections. All vessels calling on the port should be assigned a
Vessel Security Team (VST). The VST should be deployed from the time of arrival until time of
departure. Upon each arriving vessel’s clearance by government officials, the VST should
immediately board the vessel and conduct a quick inspection of the deck and exterior of the
superstructure. This inspection is to detect stowaways, terrorists, or narcotics, unlocked doors
into the superstructure, potential HAZMAT emergencies, etc. All discoveries of undocumented
persons, suspected narcotics, or HAZMAT situations should be reported immediately to the
Captain. Other security discrepancies should be noted in the gangway logbook and reported to
the Chief Officer. Following this inspection the VST officers should deploy to their positions and
continue with their duties.

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 b) Vessel Security Team Deployment For Different Types Of Vessels

VST Deployment for LO/LO Commercial Cargo/Container Vessel: For LO/LO vessels the
Vessel Security Team should consist of no less than three Security Officers and one VST
Supervisor: One (1) Security Officer posted at the gangway to control and document the entrance
and exit of persons (stevedores, crew, visitors, vessel agents, government officials, etc.) and
search all parcels, bags, water coolers, etc. carried on and off the vessel. One (1) Security Officer
patrolling the deck to monitor activities of the stevedores and ongoing cargo operations.

One (1) Security Officer patrolling the waterside, scanning the waters for ”swimmer” stowaways,
scuba divers, drug smuggler launches, etc. One (1) VST Supervisor constantly patrolling the
vessel decks and inspecting and supervising the operations of the security officers and taking
charge of security situations. All empty containers not inspected by port Checkers should be
inspected and sealed dockside at the hook by the VST Supervisor.

VST Deployment for RO/RO Vessels : The Vessel Security Team should consist of no less than
four Security Officers and one VST Supervisor: One (1) Security Officer posted at the top of the
Ramp to control and document the entrance and exit of persons (stevedores, crew, visitors, vessel
agents, government officials, etc.) and search all parcels, bags, water coolers, etc. carried on and
off the vessel. This officer should also constantly scan the dockside for unusual activity. One (1)
Security Officer posted on the ramp to inspect the undersides of trailers, inside vehicles and
Ottawas, and search/seal empty containers for the presence of stowaways, narcotics, and
terrorists. One (1) Security Officer patrolling the internal deck where loading trailers/equipment
are being staged. One (1) Security Officer patrolling the weather/upper deck waterside, scanning

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the waters for ”swimmer” stowaways, scuba divers, drug smuggler launches, etc. One (1) VST
Supervisor constantly patrolling the vessel decks and inspecting and supervising the operations
of the security officers and taking charge of security situations.

Key Vessel Security Procedures

Below are key procedures used in maintaining effective vessel security

i. Post a sign at the gangway which advises “Authorized Personnel Only – Present ID to
Gangway Security – All bags, packages, etc. will be searched for weapons and
contraband.”

ii. All stevedores and visitors relinquish their port ID badges or national ID cards to
gangway security officer while onboard.

iii. Use Visitors Log, Stevedore List, Shorepass Log, and security logbook to document the
entrance and exit of persons and all security incidents.
iv. Maintain all Superstructure doors and cargo and deck hatches secured when not under
guard.

v. Deck maintenance and storage lockers and crane access hatches should be kept secured
when not in use.

vi. Rat guards on mooring lines. vii. Secure anchor chain cover while in port.

viii. Stevedores restricted to immediate work areas. ix.

Jacob’s ladder and Pilot ladder secured.

x. Cargo bay access hatches locked when not in use. xi.

Waterside/Dockside illumination during night. xii. Use
plastic/paper seals on access points of minimum usage.

xiii. Place sawdust or flour on deck around anchor chain and mooring lines holes and in key
crawl spaces (entry noted by hand and footprints).

xiv. No POVs parked on dock next to vessel.

xv. All ship’s stores and ship chandler products searched by Narcotics Detection K-9 Team
dockside.

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xvi. All empty containers should be inspected for narcotics and stowaways and sealed prior to
lading onboard the vessel. The container and seal numbers for all containers/trailers
loaded onboard should be recorded on a Tally Sheet.

Pre-Departure Search for Contraband & Stowaways

Upon completion of cargo operations, the VST Supervisor should coordinate and lead the
officers (with the exception of the officer posted at the gangway) in a systematic and
comprehensive search of the vessel for stowaways and narcotics. The gangway security officer
should restrict access to the vessel during this inspection. Upon termination of the vessel search,
the VST Supervisor should complete a “Vessel Search Certificate” and provide signed copies to
the Captain, Vessel Agent, and the Shift Security Supervisor.

c) Recent development in security at port and other interfaces and the

reasons

Since the September 11 attack in the US and the introduction of the ISPS code, security at the
port has taken a new dimension. Some of the recent development in security include the
following.

Physical Security Barrier & Illumination -The entire land boundary of the port is identified and
protected by a wall or fence not less than eight feet in height and topped with three strands of
barbed wire or baled concertina wire. The wire topping should be secured to arms that are angled
outward at 45 degrees. If the perimeter barrier is fencing, then it should be constructed of either
of

“climb-resistant” stretched steel or 9-gauge chain link wire mesh, with two-inch openings, and
secured at the bottom with metal tubing or a concrete footing, to deter under the fence ingress.

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The level of illumination along the perimeter barrier should be no less than 2-foot candles at
ground level (similar to the level of lighting in a stadium), projecting 10 feet inside the barrier
and 20 feet outside the barrier. This same lighting standard should be met in cargo and container
staging areas, along the berths, and on the exterior of buildings and warehouses. Good lighting is
arguably the most effective and least expensive measure of deterrence against cargo pilferage,
container theft, and other similar violations.

Waterside Security Measures-A security launch with armed security officer (s) should patrol
along the berth and in nearby waters to deter or prevent unauthorized approach and access on the
waterside of the port by stowaways, smugglers, pirates, terrorists, etc. Increasingly narcotics
trafficking organizations are using SCUBA divers to attach drug-laden torpedoes/boxes to the
hulls and undersides of vessels. If this threat is suspected, the port security program should
include the use of underwater security patrols (SCUBA), an anti-diver system, or the installation
of underwater CCTV cameras. Likewise, drug smuggling and professional stowaway
organizations utilize small boats or launches to transport their stowaways, drug couriers, and
contraband to the waterside of the vessels for lading. Moreover, as demonstrated by the attack on
the USS COLE in Yemen, terrorists utilize small launches and port services vessels to attack
large vessels while in port. The 24-hour security patrol ensures that threats from the waterside
are deterred or prevented.

Perimeter Intrusion Detection –Generally, it is a common practice to deploy security officers at

stationary and roving posts along the perimeter. These posts may include: security officers

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positioned in elevated towers along the perimeter, walking along the perimeter barrier, and
patrolling via mobile means. For maximum efficiency and effectiveness, a K-9 Patrol Team may
be utilized to patrol the perimeter. Research by US law enforcement has determined that the
deployment of K-9 Patrol Teams is a force-multiplier and one K-9 Team is as effective as the
deploying of three individual police officers. Perimeter intrusion detection can also be
accomplished by or enhanced thru the use of technological security systems; among them CCTV
cameras, buried or taunt cable, microwave curtains, dual technology PIR motion detectors, and
laser beams, all which may be integrated into a manned central station.

Entrance & Exit Gates – The number of port entrances and exits should be limited to a
minimum and their purposes specifically defined. There should be separate gates for pedestrians
and vehicles. Likewise, there should be separate gates for the entrance and exit of trucks
transporting containers/cargo and those vehicles driven by employees, vendors, clients, and
visitors. Physically, the gates should be constructed so as to meet the same minimum standards
as the chain link perimeter barrier. These gates should lock with heavy-duty padlocks and the
keys controlled by security personnel. A security gatehouse should be located at each primary
access point. The gate house should have the basic items required to accomplish the tasks, such
as a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, flashlight, rain gear, vehicle and visitor gate logs, 24-hour
chronological security logbook, personnel authorization roster, telephone, emergency telephone
notification list, security post orders, and a copy of the Emergency Action Plan.
Access Control Policy & Procedures – All access points (gates) into the port should be strictly
controlled and there should be a comprehensive policy and specific written procedures which
define the access of persons (employees, visitors, contractors, truck drivers, ship chandlers, etc.),
vehicles (employee and visitor cars, trucks, etc.), and items (cargo, containers, trailers, ship’s
goods, spare parts, etc.) into and out of the port. “Authorized Personnel Only”, “Identification

Checkpoint” and “Subject to Search upon Entry and Exit” signs should be posted and highly
visible at all access points. Security officers posted at pedestrian gates should stop and challenge
all persons, inspect their identification badges, and search any boxes, briefcases, or other items
for contraband. Employees should present their ID badges to the security officer upon entrance
and exit and wear their badges at all times while in the port. All visitors (clients, vendors,
contractors, etc.) should be stopped at the gate, their visit confirmed with the sponsoring port
employee, a temporary badge issued and visitor log completed, and any items opened and
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inspected for contraband. The interior and trunks of all vehicles should be visually checked for
contraband. No privately-owned vehicles should be permitted inside the terminal. All trucks
entering the cargo gates should be stopped, the driver’s license checked for validity, the cab
inspected for contraband and unauthorized persons, container seals inspected, and relevant
information recorded on a comprehensive gate log.

Access Control Badge System - Each person entering the port should be issued an identification
badge. The ID badge program should be managed by a computer-based system which functions
with proximity or magnetic strip badges, assigns zones of access, permits or denies a person’s
access into a specific zone, and records this activity into a data base. The front of the employee
ID badge should have a color photo, the employee’s name and signature, government identity
document or passport number, position, and an expiration date. The back of the ID card should
note the employee’s date of birth, height, weight, color of hair and eyes, complexion, and the
signature of the Port Director. Each employee’s badge should be programmed to allow access to
specific zones, this being based on his/her job or position requirements. Employees who have
forgotten or lost their badges should be issued a “temporary badge” for the day or while a new
badge is being prepared. Visitor badges generally are for “one-day use”, disposable, and should
note the name of the visitor, government identity document or passport number, area or zones
visiting, and the date issued. Non-employees who temporarily or frequently work in the port -
such as contractors, clients, and government representatives - should be issued a badge similar to
the employee ID badge (but a different color). A permanent record of the issue all non-employee
badges (with the captured data) should be maintained for at least two years.

Narcotics Control at Access Points -- Attempts to smuggle drugs through the access points and
into the port may be conducted via hand-carried items, inside vehicles, and in containers/trailers
and their cargo. While hand-carried items, such as briefcases, boxes, etc., can be effectively
inspected by a “hand-search” by the Security Officer, it is not as practical (time wise) or effective
to do so in the case of a loaded cargo container, empty trailer, or vehicle. In these cases, highly
trained and certified Narcotics Detection K-9 Teams should be positioned at the access points
and utilized to inspect the containers, cargo, and vehicles for narcotics. Alternatively, if
financially possible, container X-ray stations should be positioned at the vehicle and container
entrance points to screen for narcotics (as well as other contraband).

20
Explosives Detection at Access Points -- During times of heightened risks of terrorist attacks,
bombing or violent labor conflicts, extra security measures should be implemented to screen for
explosive devices and weapons entering the port. In the event that there is a specific threat or
reliable information of a planned attack, the security procedures should be further enhanced. The
four primary means of searching and screening for explosive devices and weapons are: a visual
and hand-search, the use of a vapor analyzer to detect chemical odors from explosives, an X-ray
machine (which vary in size from those used to screen letters/parcels to those that inspect
vehicles and shipping containers), and an Explosives Detection K-9 Team. These four measures
may be used independently or in combination; this generally being determined by the level and
type of threat. Special attention should be given to suspicious mail and delivery packages and
unattended vehicles positioned at access points or near key assets or buildings.

Weapons of Mass Destruction Detection at Access Points - Ports must develop, test, and
continually update contingency plans for the rapid deployment of systems and measures for the
detection of chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons (typically referred to as Weapons of Mass
Destruction). In many cases, the port will rely on the national government to provide such
technical capabilities, however, it is critically important that the Port Security Director develop
the policies, plans and procedures which will ensure a successful integration of these measures
without significantly impacting the port’s business or endangering the safety of its personnel.
These contingency plans and procedures should be fully coordinated with the relevant
government agencies and “tested” on a periodic basis. The contingency plans will interrelate
with the port’s “Disaster Preparedness and Recovery Plan” – which ensures business continuity
and the safety and security of the personnel.

Mobile Security Patrols - The interior areas of the port, such as the container stacking zones,
cargo staging areas, facility and maintenance buildings, equipment storage areas, and berths
should be patrolled continuously by security officers in vehicles. These units should patrol in
separate, overlapping zones. These security personnel should monitor general yard activities,
restrict the movement of tractor-trailer drivers to within their vehicles, observe the transloading
of cargo containers, and monitor the activities of stevedores and laborers working on the docks.

Foot Security Patrols -The conducting of periodic inspections and Tallies of containers and seals
throughout the yard by the security officers are effective deterrents to cargo pilferage, drug
21
smuggling, and container manipulation, as well as a means of establishing a specific time period
of an incident. The foot security officers should be constantly vigilant that personnel are wearing
valid ID badges and are in their authorized zones, that doors and windows of all structures and
buildings are secured during non-operational hours, and that drivers are not operating equipment
at high rates of speed or in a dangerous manner.

Security Operations Command Center - Security systems specialist (s) should be deployed 24
hours per day in the Security Operations Command Center for the purpose of observing and
operating the central station system (which manages and controls all perimeter intrusion
detection measures, CCTV deployed in the patio, on the berths and outside/inside buildings,
building intrusion and panic alarms, access control system, fire alarm systems, etc.). All security
systems should be fully integrated and support each other in the event of an incident.

Shift Security Supervisor - There should be one person designated as the overall Shift Security
Supervisor and he should direct, lead, and manage the terminal security officers and other
deployed security resources (K-9 Teams, Security Operations Command Center personnel,
Vessel Security Teams). The Shift Security Supervisor is a first-line management position and is
a critical part of the overall security program. The Shift Supervisor should constantly patrol (in
vehicle) the port, inspect/supervise security personnel, interact with other port managers, and
respond to and take charge of incidents or potential security situations.

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 SAFETY

What is maritime safety?

By definition, maritime safety involves those measures employed by owners, operators and
administrators of vessels, port facilities, offshore installations and other marine organizations and
establishments to prevent or minimize the occurrence of mishaps or incidents at sea that
may be caused by substandard ships, unqualified crew or operator error.

Classification of Maritime Safety

There are three broad classes of maritime safety:

1) Hardware
2) Software
3) Human-ware

Hardware safety

It involves the design, performance and reliability of the technical system. The reliability of
every single component of the technical system is vital. The failure of an item that may seem to
23
be nonessential may be the beginning of a hazardous situation. It is therefore imperative that
every single item or component of the technical system is built, kept and maintained at the
highest possible operational mode. This is an indication that naval architects and practicing
engineers have the responsibility to ensure that their product, the ship, is safe.

Software Safety

This involves rules and regulations, codes and practices, operating procedures, casualty
reports and reports of investigations in maritime safety. It is prudent to note that it is through
lessons learnt from casualties that most regulations are formulated upon. Interestingly, most of
the casualties, with exception of those caused by Acts of God, are generated by human failure in
the design of the hardware and preparation of the software.

Human-ware Safety
It deals with individual attitudes, knowledge, aptitude, experience, education, training,
professional requirements, etc. No system can be absolutely safe simply because of the human
factor. The human factor is said to be the weakest link. Shipping is perhaps the most
international of all the world’s great industries, but also one of the most dangerous. The
development and adoption of international regulations by all shipping nations has been
recognized as the best way of improving safety at sea. After IMO came into being in 1959, its
first task was to adopt a new version of the SOLAS convention, the most important of all
treaties dealing with maritime safety. The Titanic disaster of 1912 led to the adoption of the
first SOLAS in 1914.

SOLAS was adopted after the United Kingdom called a conference following the Titanic
disaster and it was the first convention to lay down international rules governing the safety of
shipping, such as making sure enough lifeboats and lifejackets are available onboard for all
persons (crew and passengers alike).

IMO has also developed and adopted international collision regulations and global standards for
seafarers, as well as international conventions and codes relating to search and rescue (S & R),
the facilitation of international maritime traffic, loadlines, the carriage of dangerous goods and
tonnage measurement.

24
The Maritime Safety Committee is IMO’s senior technical body on safety-related matters. It is
aided in its work by a number of sub committees.

CHAPTER

MARITIME SAFETY NETS

Definition: These are segments within the maritime community with specific roles and
responsibilities to promote and maintain maritime safety as well as to prevent or reduce
shipboard marine pollution. The international community, flag state, shipowners, classifications
societies, port states, P & I clubs, masters and crew, ship builders/designers, terminal operators,
financiers, cargo owners and, shippers/ charterers.

INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

We have many different international organizations which are governmental and

nongovernmental agencies, but for the purpose of shipping, we will deal with IMO and ILO.

International Maritime Organization (IMO)

The convention that established the IMO was adopted in 1948 and entered into force in
1959. The IMO promotes international cooperation on technical matters affecting shipping;
recommends and encourages adoption of the highest standards of maritime safety and
25
efficient navigation; and fosters international action to prevent pollution of the sea. The most
important objective of IMO is to improve maritime safety, security and the prevention of
marine pollution through the development of new regulations and procedures or reviving
existing ones. In 1992, for example, the IMO authorized new rules for tanker design
aimed at reducing the risk of oil spills. The IMO also helps to build capacity, for instance,
through the establishment of the International Law institute and the World Maritime University.

The establishment of the IMO as the main international body dealing with technical aspects of
shipping is important for the following reasons:

a) The international nature of the shipping industry requires international machinery to as

much as possible, prevent unilateral actions.

b) Maritime safety, security and pollution prevention are global issues and must be
tackled from global perspectives.

c) Instruments adopted internally will be widespread.

The IMO has produced a number of conventions which contain regulations for the design,
construction, arrangement and equipment of vessels. The IMO conventions and related codes
and regulations contain dedicated regulations for:

 The carriage of dangerous bulk chemical cargoes, liquefied gas cargoes and
dangerous goods in packaged forms.

 Intact and damaged stability

 Lifeboats, life rafts, lifejackets and other life-saving appliances.
 Navigational aids, light and sound signals.
 Radio equipment
 Port state control
 Management for the safe operation of ships.
 Standard of training, certifications and watch keeping.
 Pollution prevention arrangements and equipment.
 Computation of Load line marks and conditions of assignment.
 Tonnage computation

26
  Security measures and arrangements

The conventions also prescribe requirements for surveys during construction and periodic
surveys in whilst in service to ensure that the standards are satisfied.

There are three key conventions which are the bedrocks of international safety legislations.

1. LOADLINE
2. TONNAGE
3. SOLAS

Two other conventions, the COLREG and STCW are very relevant. The IMO carries out most
of its work through committees and sub committees. IMO itself does not apply the regulations
contained in the conventions; this is entirely the responsibility of member states. The common
criticisms of IMO are:

1. The conventions take a long time to enter into force

2. The conventions are reactive because they are made only after serious accidents.

International Labor Organization (ILO)

International Labor Organization (ILO) is a specialized agency associated with the United

Nations (UN), whose worldwide objectives are to improve labor conditions, promote
productive employment and social progress, and raise living standards. The ILO was
established in 1919 as an autonomous part of the League of Nations and brought into formal
relationship with the UN in 1946.

The organization’s principal organ, the International Labor Conference, meets annually in
Geneva, Switzerland, to define and ratify international labor standards. The organization does
this by means of conventions, which are subject to voluntary ratification by member nations, and
recommendations that provide nations with detailed guidelines for legislation.

The ILO sets standards that cover child labor, disabled workers, discrimination and equality of
treatment, freedom of association, human rights, maternity protection, pensions, and the

27
elimination of forced labor. The organization supervise the application of ratified conventions in
national law and practice.

The ILO adopted conventions on substandard ships form the labour point of view and it calls on
administrations to have effective regulations on manning of ships. The ILO has also
adopted the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006, which has been ratified by a number of
countries so far, including Liberia. This basis of this convention is to provide a level playing
field with regard to seafarers’ employment standards.

FLAGSTATE

Flag state jurisdiction refers to the power of a state to control ships flying its flag in terms of
administrative, technical and social matters anywhere in the world. Article 94 (3) of UNCLOS
charges flag states to take those measures to ensure maritime safety with regards to:

a) Construction, equipment and seaworthiness of vessels

b) Manning of ships, labour conditions and training of crew taking into consideration the
application of relevant instruments.

c) Use of signals, maintenance of communication and prevention of pollution.

It is the responsibility of the flag state to ensure that the provisions in the conventions they have
ratified are implemented on ships flying their flags. The flag state is allowed to delegate its
authority to the classifications societies but ultimate responsibility still remains with the
Flag state. Flag states shall conduct investigations into maritime casualties. It is their duty to
ensure that ships are surveyed before registration and whiles they are in service. Most flag states
have not effectively implemented international provisions on their ships and this is due to several
reasons:

i. Insufficient trained and experienced technical personnel within an administration.

ii. The lack of sufficient infrastructure to properly interpret and support application and
enforcement of international regulations.

28
 iii. The unclear delegations of authority and regulatory oversight when inspections and
surveys are entrusted to nominated surveyors or to organizations recognized by the
administrations.

iv. The absence of effective control or oversight programmes to ensure that consistent and
competent maritime safety activities are undertaken.

SHIPOWNERS/OPERATORS

The role of the shipowner as a safety net is obvious. The inclusion of the operating system forms
the fact that many ships today are not operated by their owners. They are either chartered
out or under the care of management companies.

Shipowners have historically been concerned with safety because the safe transport of a
goods determines their profit. The safety of the crew too also determines the safety of their
property. Their interest in safety was therefore rooted in the desire to protect their property and
avoid the risk of losing their lines.

The situation has changed due to changes that have occurred in the industry, particularly the
insurance of vessels and goods. Once the ships and equipment have been fully certified as being
in compliance with such statutory and classification regulations, the owner/operator must
carry the prime responsibility for safety at sea. They must provide competent officers and crew
trained to STCW 95 standards. They must ensure that the ship and its equipment are properly
maintained. With the adoption of the ISM code, owners will now be required to focus more
effectively on safety matters.

Shipowners have always complained that safety is expensive; what about accidents? Some
shipowners have stated that their role is to own the ship profitably, and that it is the duty if the
Flag state and the classification society to ensure minimum levels of shipboard
performance in terms of human and physical aspects of safety. This already demonstrated the
level of understanding of the ship safety concept.

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CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES
Classification has evolved for over 200 years. The purpose initially was to classify ships into
different categories for insurers to stipulate their premium. This is no longer the purpose of
classification societies. Classification denotes that ships or parts of ships conform to the
rules of a particular classification society. Classification play a very important role in the
promotion of maritime safety.

It is only at the turn of the century that various national administrations contemplated
statutory legislation concerning the safety of life at sea. Long before then, classification
societies made rules concerning the structural integration of the ship and the mechanical
and electrical ability of the essential shipboard engineering system.

Main Functions of Classifications

1) To lay down rules and regulations, guidelines and standards for the design,
construction and subsequent supervision of ships, and to ensure that these
standards are implemented and fully maintained.

2) Most governments delegate all or parts of their statutory surveys to the classifications
society who then issue the statutory certificate on behalf of the administration.
Administrations delegate statutory functions to classification societies because of their
expertise and use the wide availability of highly qualified staff.

3) They also provide advisory and consultancy services to shipowners and ship yards. They
also serve as consultants to flag state administrations by participating in
delegations to IMO activities and furnishing administrations with information
regarding their participation in such activities.

4) They provide assistance to administrations to train their own surveyors and enact
maritime laws.

Criticisms of classification societies

1. Most classifications are done through surveys and it is difficult to cover all aspect of
survey work sufficiently in the time span allotted. Surveys additionally are just periodic

30
snapshots of the ship’s condition; the quality of the survey is dependent on the qualification and
experience of the surveyor.
2. The relationship between owners and classifications societies is purely commercial. Thus
if the standard of one class is too strict, owners will go elsewhere.

3. There is proliferation of classifications societies and not all of them have the
expertise to carry out classification work.

The established classification societies have come together as the International Association
of Classification Societies, IACS. IACS consists of the following members:

 American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)

 Bureau Veritas (BV)
 China Classification Society (CCS)
 Det Norske Veritas (DNV)
 Germanischer Lloyd (GL)
 Korean Register of Shipping (KR)
 Lloyd's Register (LR)
 Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (NK/ClassNK)
 Polish Register of Shipping (PRS)
 Registro Italiano Navale (RINA)
 Russian Maritime Register of Shipping (RS)

Associate Members:

 Croatian Register of Shipping – CRS – Croatia

 Indian Register of Shipping – IRS – India

The IACS has contributed to safety in many ways:

1) They have contributed to the introduction of the enhanced survey program.

2) Another important initiative of the IACS is the Transfer of Class Agreement (TOCA).

31
 CHAPTER

SAFETY AT SEA AND IN PORTS

Introduction
Safety onboard the ships is an important issue. Normally at sea and often very far from any
possible assistance, there is nobody who can be called upon for help. Of course, the ship should
be of good design, well maintained and in seaworthy condition with sufficient stability,
watertight and weather tight and properly equipped.

Prevention through recognition, rectification and avoidance of unsafe actions and/or situations at
all times and at all places on board by all personnel and passengers is of utmost importance.

Since July 2002, all ships (and their ashore offices) have to be certified under the International
Safety Management Code (ISM Code) and the crew has to work in accordance with the safety

Management System (SMS). The SMS is a set of rules, describing in detail how to use safety
gear.

Courses and regular drills are held in order to ensure that the crew is safety-conscious. The crew
is trained to use the right equipment in case of emergency. Regulations concerning safety on
ships are formulated by the IMO department called the Marine safety Committee (MSC),
responsible for the SOLAS Convention (Convention for Safety of Life At Sea).

32
a) Lifesaving Appliances:
 Lifeboats have to be installed on each side of the ship, each capable of accommodating
everybody on board. Alternatively a freefall lifeboat maybe installed on the stern, large
enough to accommodate the whole crew and passengers. If there are lifeboats on both
sides, one boat is designated as “man over board boat”, or rescue boat. On passenger
ships, there must be capacity for each person on board with 50% on each side. Every
lifeboat must have a diesel engine, started by batteries and backed up with a manual start.

 Life rafts: Inflatable life rafts are located on each side for the whole complement. A
normal cargo ship with lifeboats has the “throw overboard” type raft which needs to be
connected to the ship by a line and sea fastened with a band and closed by a hydrostatic
release.

 Life jackets: Life jackets are provided for everybody on board. They must have a light
and whistle. They are usually stored in the cabins, but sometimes in boxes near the
lifeboats. Also a few life jackets are stored where people work – engine room, bridge, etc.
Furthermore a life jacket has to hold an unconscious person who is face down in the
water, upright and has to keep his mouth 12 cm above the water level. In case of children
on board, special smaller life jackets need to be provided. Inflatable life jackets need to
have 2 air chambers and must be serviced every year.

 Life buoys: A number of Life buoys, depending on the ship’s length are positioned
around the vessel and hooked on the handrails. Some are provided with a light and/or
line. On both bridge wings there has to be a life buoy, that when released, drops by
gravity in to the sea. Attached to these buoys are a floating smoke light and a light signal.

 An immersion suit: As of July 2006, everybody on board a cargo ship, including bulk
carriers, has to have an immersion suit. An immersion suit has to be worn together with a
life jacket. The insulating quality of the immersion suits has to be such that the body
temperature does not drop more than 2 degrees Celsius after 6 hours in water with a
temperature between 0 and 2 degrees Celsius.

 Training and Certification: To work professionally with all equipment, the ship’s crew
needs to be educated and everyone must have certificate of competency. This certificate
can only be obtained when the individual is in possession of the proper diplomas,

33
 sufficient sea service and a number of certificates obtained after fulfilling certain safety
courses.

b) Safety features incorporated in vessel construction and operations

To ensure that the vessel is safe for operations there are certain constructions features spelled out
in the SOLAS convention for use by all ship builders. This are found in chapter two of the
SOLAS convention. Chapter II-1 is on Construction - Subdivision and stability, machinery and
electrical installations.

To make sure that the vessel is safe, first of all it has to construct on the strong kneel, this is to
avoid breakup during rough seas. Vessels are also subdivided especially passenger ships into
watertight compartments. This must be such that after assumed damage to the ship's hull the
vessel will remain afloat and stable. The degree of subdivision - measured by the maximum
permissible distance between two adjacent bulkheads - varies with ship's length and the service
in which it is engaged. The highest degree of subdivision applies to passenger ships. Must
vessels have what is known a “collision bulkhead” to help prevent severe damage in case of
collision. On the hull of the vessels we have draught marks that help or guide those involve not
to overload the vessel.
To prevent the risk of fire onboard the following construction features apply: division of the ship
into main and vertical zones by thermal and structural boundaries; separation of accommodation
spaces from the remainder of the ship by thermal and structural boundaries; restricted use of
combustible materials; installation of fire detection and extinction equipment on board.

There are also some design features that help facilitates search and rescue in case of an accident.
This include Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS). All passenger ships and all
cargo ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards on international voyages are required to carry
equipment designed to improve the chances of rescue following an accident, including satellite
emergency position indicating radio beacons (EPIRBs) and search and rescue transponders
(SARTs) for the location of the ship or survival craft.

Also all vessels must have firefighting equipment on board to protect against the spread of fire in
case of fire outbreak.

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 c) Implications and consequences of not implementing vessel safety in vessel
operation.

There are many implications and consequences of not implementing vessel safety in vessel
operations. The obvious consequence is that there will be accidents leading to loss of life and
property. There will loss of revenue to the shipowner due time layoff time for repairs. The vessel
might also be detain by port states control officers until the safety precautions are put in place.

Also a vessel with poor safety records might be denied access into ports.

d) Reporting Of Vessel Accidents And Incidents

Ship accidents can result in serious injuries or even death to crew members, dock workers, and
others, as well as significant losses of property. Commercial ship accidents can occur for many
reasons, and can relate to shipping vessels, cruise ships, oil rigs, and many other types of large
watercraft or structures. Cruise Ship Accidents
One area of recent interest has been commercial ship accidents on cruise lines. In the last
decade, headlines have been filled with stories of cruise ships running aground, engine fires and
other malfunctions leaving the vessel stranded at sea, and passengers falling overboard or
becoming sick with dangerous communicable diseases while at sea. In every instance, laws and
international agreements exist to govern how such incidents may be addressed, both in terms of
remedying the immediate situation and in compensating the victims for their injuries. Other
laws are in place to attempt to prevent such incidents from ever occurring in the first place, like
minimum qualifications for those running the ships, designated safe routes the ships are
permitted to take, and international safety equipment regulations.

Cargo Ship Accidents

Much like cruise ships, cargo ship accidents can also be quite damaging. Aside from injuring
crew members and potentially putting millions or even billions of dollars worth of cargo at risk,
the potential for ecological disaster and international disagreements are often enormous. Cargo
ship accidents may trigger a number of personal injury claims on behalf of crew members, dock
workers, or any other person who may be injured in the accident.
35
e) Example of accident and incidents on board vessels.

1. Man overboard: Man overboard situation is a common and one of the most
dangerous situations wherein the person falls into water while working or as a result of some
accident. Though seafarers are trained to deal with such situations, bad weather and heavy sea
can spoil the rescue operation. Areas with extremely water temperature can also cause
hypothermia or other dangerous health issues, even death. Several people have lost their lives in
past because of such accidents.

2. Enclosed Space Accidents: This is one of the most common type of accidents on
board ships, which has been the result of several casualties and extreme injuries. Such accidents
occur mainly when the ship’s crew enter a confined space which is not properly gas-freed and
has several pockets of toxic/flammable gases. Many officer still neglect the enclosed space entry
procedures, risking their and other crew member’s lives. Seafarers must be extremely cautions
while entering enclosed spaces.
3. Electrical Shock Accidents: Just like on land, electrical shocks have also taken
several lives on board ships. Unattended electrical connections, exposed wires, and failure in
taking basic precautions while handing electrical equipment have lead to many unfortunate
incidents.

4. Machinery Explosion – Generator, compressor, boiler blast etc: Improperly

maintained machinery and systems sometimes leads to major blasts/explosions, destroying the
ship’s property and killing people working on and around them. Accidents such as compressor
blasts, crankcase explosion, boiler blast etc. have caused serious injuries and even death in many
cases in the past.

5. Mooring Operations: Yet another most common reason for serious injuries and
deaths on board ships, mooring operations is considered an extremely dangerous task which
needs proper skills and knowledge. Several officers and crew members lose their lives every year
because of accidents related to mooring operations.

6. Falling From Height: On board ships, seafarers are often required to work at
heights wearing safety harnesses and other important safety tools. However, in spite of taking all

36
the necessary precautions, several crew members have lost their lives or suffered permanent
injuries as a result of falling/slipping from heights, failure of safety devices, falling inside cargo
hold during inspection, and also due to sheer negligence.

7. Piracy Attacks: Though this is not a real kind of accident on board ships, it is a
situation which is extremely life threatening. Pirates use lethal weapons such as RPG and guns at
ship’s crew while trying to highjack the vessel. There have also been accidents wherein pirates
have boarded the vessel, killed crew members and looted the vessel. They are least bothered of
anyone’s life and can shoot without giving a second thought.

8. Lifeboat Testing Accidents: It is said that lifeboats take more lives than they
save. Lifeboat testing during drills is an important routine on board ships. However, several
seafarers have lost their lives while performing such tests. Though new regulations have been
introduced in order to ensure utmost safety while handling lifeboats, accidents involving severe
injuries and deaths still occur as a result of lifeboats.

9. Hot Work Accidents: Accidents as a result of hot work can occur because of
several reasons. One of the most common ones are when hot work is being carried out in
enclosed space with flammable gases, when the adjacent tank has flammable material, as a result
of flammable gas pockets etc. It is also seen that seafarers often fail to follow the basic hot work
procedures while carrying out such procedures, leading to unfortunate, fatal accidents.

10. Gangway Fall: Accidents have occurred on many ships when the ship’s gangway
has failed while being used by ship’s crew members or visitors. Gangway failure usually takes
place as a result of lack of maintenance and failure of gangway wire rope.

11. Ship collision: Ship collisions are one of particular importance in marine
accidents. Ship collision is the structural impact between two ships or one ship and a floating or
still object such as an iceberg.

12. Ship grounding: Ship grounding occurs when a sea vessel such as a boat or
tanker runs aground or otherwise makes contact with the bed of the body of water. This
occurrence often has a significant structural impact on the ship itself, and a ship grounding may

37
also lead to a loss of human life or environmental distress. The structural damage to the ship may
be catastrophic, or it may be minor enough that the ship can continue to function, but a thorough
inspection of the ship will be necessary after such an impact.

The dangers associated with a ship grounding vary according to the vessel and the situation that
led to the impact. In some cases, a ship grounding can lead to the vessel being stranded on the
bed that it contacted, leading to a difficult process to free the vessel or otherwise repair it. The
damage incurred by the vessel may allow water to flood the lower part of the boat, which can be
a potentially dangerous and life threatening situation. Ships can sink as a result of a ship
grounding, and loss of human life on board the vessel is possible.

13. Fir incidents on board: Fire outbreak is another common type of accident
onboard vessels. Ships are susceptible to fires due to the amount of heavy machinery found in
their boiler rooms and other areas.

f) Company procedures for dealing with the accident/incident

Whenever some incident of a serious or harmful nature happens suddenly, we classify it as an

emergency. One of the most important factors in dealing with an emergency situation, apart from
a sharp mind and the control of respectful fear, is the presence of a solid action plan. This is a
general rule that is applicable to all situations whether on board a ship in the middle of the ocean
or in a crowded city port amidst a sea of people and machinery.

Emergency situations on a ship tend to be more critical because ships are isolated, solitary
floating objects moving in the vast and deep oceans. Since there are so many possible types of
emergencies, it is necessary to know about both common and emergency essentials.

Here we will take a look at the general procedures and plans to be followed in case of an
emergency situation on board a ship.

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 g) Emergency Essentials - Types of Emergencies

For effective usage of the limited emergency equipment available on board, all personnel must be
aware of the location of firefighting gear and lifesaving appliances and be trained in their use.
They must also be aware of the alarm signals, recognize them, and muster at the muster point in
case of any type of emergency.

The general alarm will be sounded in the event of:

 Fire
 Collision
 Grounding
 Cargo hose burst
 Major leakage or spillage of oil cargo
 Any other event which calls for emergency action
If your ship's alarms are ringing, it does not necessarily mean that the situation is out of control.
Alarms are warnings, which are sounded so that people onboard take the emergency measures
like wearing their life jackets, or gathering at a common point, depending upon the type of
emergency and instructions given to them.

Structure and Function of Emergency Response Teams

The Command Center: The command center will be located on bridge. The master is to take
responsibility for the overall safety and navigation of the ship. All communications will be
performed from here to the different teams as well as shore. A log must be maintained of all
events.

The Emergency Team: The Emergency Team will have the front line job of tackling the
emergency. In general the chief officer will lead the team for the emergency on deck while the
2nd engineer will take charge for engine room emergencies. The duties of each person will have
to be laid down and practiced for every emergency so as to avoid duplication, confusion, and
chaos.

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The Support Team: The Support Team is to provide first aid and prepare the lifeboats for
lowering. Should the above two function not be required, they should assist as directed.

The Technical Team: The Technical, or Engineer's, Team will maintain the propulsion and
maneuvering capability of the ship and auxiliary services as far as is possible in the
circumstances.

CHAPTER

THE VARIOUS CONVENTIONS DEALING WITH THE SAFETY

A) THE SAFETY OF LIFE AT SEA CONVENTION (SOLAS 1974)

The SOLAS Convention in its successive forms is generally regarded as the most important of all
international treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships. The first version was adopted in
1914, in response to the Titanic disaster, the second in 1929, the third in 1948, and the fourth in
1960. The 1974 version includes the tacit acceptance procedure - which provides that an
amendment shall enter into force on a specified date unless, before that date, objections to the
amendment are received from an agreed number of Parties.

As a result the 1974 Convention has been updated and amended on numerous occasions. The
Convention in force today is sometimes referred to as SOLAS, 1974, as amended.

Technical provisions
The main objective of the SOLAS Convention is to specify minimum standards for the
construction, equipment and operation of ships, compatible with their safety. Flag States are
responsible for ensuring that ships under their flag comply with its requirements, and a number
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of certificates are prescribed in the Convention as proof that this has been done. Control
provisions also allow Contracting Governments to inspect ships of other Contracting States if
there are clear grounds for believing that the ship and its equipment do not substantially comply
with the requirements of the Convention - this procedure is known as port State control.
Thecurrent SOLAS Convention includes Articles setting out general obligations, amendment
procedure and so on, followed by an Annex divided into 12 Chapters.

Chapter I - General Provisions

Includes regulations concerning the survey of the various types of ships and the issuing of
documents signifying that the ship meets the requirements of the Convention. The Chapter also
includes provisions for the control of ships in ports of other Contracting Governments.

Chapter II-1 - Construction - Subdivision and stability, machinery and electrical installations
The subdivision of passenger ships into watertight compartments must be such that after assumed
damage to the ship's hull the vessel will remain afloat and stable. Requirements for watertight
integrity and bilge pumping arrangements for passenger ships are also laid down as well as
stability requirements for both passenger and cargo ships.

The degree of subdivision - measured by the maximum permissible distance between two
adjacent bulkheads - varies with ship's length and the service in which it is engaged. The highest
degree of subdivision applies to passenger ships.

Requirements covering machinery and electrical installations are designed to ensure that services
which are essential for the safety of the ship, passengers and crew are maintained under various
emergency conditions.

"Goal-based standards" for oil tankers and bulk carriers were adopted in 2010, requiring new
ships to be designed and constructed for a specified design life and to be safe and
environmentally friendly, in intact and specified damage conditions, throughout their life. Under
the regulation, ships should have adequate strength, integrity and stability to minimize the risk of
loss of the ship or pollution to the marine environment due to structural failure, including
collapse, resulting in flooding or loss of watertight integrity.

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Chapter II-2 - Fire protection, fire detection and fire extinction

Includes detailed fire safety provisions for all ships and specific measures for passenger ships,
cargo ships and tankers. They include the following principles: division of the ship into main and
vertical zones by thermal and structural boundaries; separation of accommodation spaces from
the remainder of the ship by thermal and structural boundaries; restricted use of combustible
materials; detection of any fire in the zone of origin; containment and extinction of any fire in the
space of origin; protection of the means of escape or of access for fire-fighting purposes; ready
availability of fire-extinguishing appliances; minimization of the possibility of ignition of
flammable cargo vapour.

Chapter III - Life-saving appliances and arrangements

The Chapter includes requirements for life-saving appliances and arrangements, including
requirements for life boats, rescue boats and life jackets according to type of ship. The
International Life-Saving Appliance (LSA) Code gives specific technical requirements for LSAs
and is mandatory under Regulation 34, which states that all life-saving appliances and
arrangements shall comply with the applicable requirements of the LSA Code.

Chapter IV – Radio communications

The Chapter incorporates the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS). All
passenger ships and all cargo ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards on international voyages
are required to carry equipment designed to improve the chances of rescue following an accident,
including satellite emergency position indicating radio beacons (EPIRBs) and search and rescue
transponders (SARTs) for the location of the ship or survival craft.

Regulations in Chapter IV cover undertakings by contracting governments to provide radio

communication services as well as ship requirements for carriage of radio communications
equipment. The Chapter is closely linked to the Radio Regulations of the International
Telecommunication Union.

Chapter V - Safety of navigation

Chapter V identifies certain navigation safety services which should be provided by Contracting
Governments and sets forth provisions of an operational nature applicable in general to all ships

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on all voyages. This is in contrast to the Convention as a whole, which only applies to certain
classes of ship engaged on international voyages. The subjects covered include the maintenance
of meteorological services for ships; the ice patrol service; routing of ships; and the maintenance
of search and rescue services.

This Chapter also includes a general obligation for masters to proceed to the assistance of those
in distress and for Contracting Governments to ensure that all ships shall be sufficiently and
efficiently manned from a safety point of view.

The chapter makes mandatory the carriage of voyage data recorders (VDRs) and automatic ship
identification systems (AIS).

Chapter VI - Carriage of Cargoes

The Chapter covers all types of cargo (except liquids and gases in bulk) "which, owing to their
particular hazards to ships or persons on board, may require special precautions". The regulations
include requirements for stowage and securing of cargo or cargo units (such as containers). The
Chapter requires cargo ships carrying grain to comply with the International Grain Code.

Chapter VII - Carriage of dangerous goods

The regulations are contained in three parts:

Part A - Carriage of dangerous goods in packaged form - includes provisions for the
classification, packing, marking, labelling and placarding, documentation and stowage of
dangerous goods. Contracting Governments are required to issue instructions at the national level
and the Chapter makes mandatory the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code,
developed by IMO, which is constantly updated to accommodate new dangerous goods and to
supplement or revise existing provisions.

Part A-1 - Carriage of dangerous goods in solid form in bulk - covers the documentation,
stowage and segregation requirements for these goods and requires reporting of incidents
involving such goods.
Part B covers Construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous liquid chemicals in bulk
and requires chemical tankers to comply with the International Bulk Chemical Code (IBC Code).
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Part C covers Construction and equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk and require
gas carriers to comply with the requirements of the International Gas Carrier Code (IGC Code).

Part D includes special requirements for the carriage of packaged irradiated nuclear fuel,
plutonium and high-level radioactive wastes on board ships and requires ships carrying such
products to comply with the International Code for the Safe Carriage of Packaged Irradiated
Nuclear Fuel, Plutonium and High-Level Radioactive Wastes on Board Ships (INF Code).

The chapter requires carriage of dangerous goods to be in compliance with the relevant
provisions of the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code).

Chapter VIII - Nuclear ships

Gives basic requirements for nuclear-powered ships and is particularly concerned with radiation
hazards. It refers to detailed and comprehensive Code of Safety for Nuclear Merchant Ships
which was adopted by the IMO Assembly in 1981.

Chapter IX - Management for the Safe Operation of Ships

The Chapter makes mandatory the International Safety Management (ISM) Code, which requires
a safety management system to be established by the shipowner or any person who has assumed
responsibility for the ship (the "Company").

Chapter X - Safety measures for high-speed craft

The Chapter makes mandatory the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft (HSC
Code).

Chapter XI-1 - Special measures to enhance maritime safety

The Chapter clarifies requirements relating to authorization of recognized organizations

(responsible for carrying out surveys and inspections on Administrations' behalves); enhanced
surveys; ship identification number scheme; and port State control on operational requirements.

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Chapter XI-2 - Special measures to enhance maritime security
Regulation XI-2/3 of the chapter enshrines the International Ship and Port Facilities Security
Code (ISPS Code). Part A of the Code is mandatory and part B contains guidance as to how best
to comply with the mandatory requirements. Regulation XI-2/8 confirms the role of the Master in
exercising his professional judgement over decisions necessary to maintain the security of the
ship. It says he shall not be constrained by the Company, the charterer or any other person in this
respect.

Regulation XI-2/5 requires all ships to be provided with a ship security alert system. Regulation
XI-2/6 covers requirements for port facilities, providing among other things for Contracting
Governments to ensure that port facility security assessments are carried out and that port facility
security plans are developed, implemented and reviewed in accordance with the ISPS Code.
Other regulations in this chapter cover the provision of information to IMO, the control of ships
in port, (including measures such as the delay, detention, restriction of operations including
movement within the port, or expulsion of a ship from port), and the specific responsibility of
Companies.

Chapter XII - Additional safety measures for bulk carriers

The Chapter includes structural requirements for bulk carriers over 150 metres in length.

Chapter XIII - Verification of compliance

Makes mandatory from 1 January 2016 the IMO Member State Audit Scheme.

Chapter XIV - Safety measures for ships operating in polar waters

The chapter makes mandatory, from 1 January 2017, the Introduction and part I-A of the
International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (the Polar Code).

B) INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON STANDARDS OF

TRAINING CERTIFICATION AND WATCHKEEPING (STCW) FOR
SEAFARERS 1978

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International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for
Seafarers, 1978 was adopted on 7 July 1978 and entered into force on 28 April 1984. The main
purpose of the Convention is to promote safety of life and property at sea and the protection of
the marine environment by establishing in common agreement international standards of
training, certification and watchkeeping for seafarers.
The 1978 STCW Convention was the first to establish basic requirements on training,
certification and watchkeeping for seafarers on an international level. Previously the standards of
training, certification and watchkeeping of officers and ratings were established by individual
governments, usually without reference to practices in other countries. As a result standards and
procedures varied widely, even though shipping is the most international of all industries.

The Convention prescribes minimum standards relating to training, certification and

watchkeeping for seafarers which countries are obliged to meet or exceed.

Amongst other things, the Convention requires that training and assessment of seafarers are
administered, supervised and monitored in accordance with the provisions of the STCW Code;
and those responsible for training and assessment of competence of seafarers are appropriately
qualified in accordance with the provisions of the Code.

STCW Convention chapters

 Chapter I: General provisions

 Chapter II: Master and deck department

 Chapter III: Engine department

 Chapter IV: Radiocommunication and radio personnel

 Chapter V: Special training requirements for personnel on certain types of ships

 Chapter VI: Emergency, occupational safety, medical care and survival functions

 Chapter VII: Alternative certification

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  Chapter VIII: Watchkeeping.

The code will apply to all crew working on sea vessels and it is very import because most of the
accident that occur onboard vessels about 90% are due to human error. Having a standard for
training this seafarers will actually improve the operational skills and reduce the risk of
accidents.

C) INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON MARITIME SEARCH AND RESCUE,

1979
This convention was Adoption 27 April 1979 and it enters into force, 22 nd June 1985. The main
purpose of the convention is to facilitate cooperation between governments and between those
participating in search and rescue (SAR) operations at sea by establishing an international SAR
plan. Cooperation of this type is encouraged by SOLAS 1974, parties to which undertake to
ensure that any necessary arrangement are made for coast watching for the rescue of persons in
distress round its coast. This arrangement should include the establishment, operation and
maintenance of such maritime safety facilities as deemed practicable and necessary.

The technical requirements of the SAR Convention are contained in an Annex. Parties to the
convention are required to ensure that arrangements are made for the provision of adequate SAR
services in their coastal waters.

Parties are encouraged to enter into SAR agreements with neighbouring state involving the
establishments of SAR regions, the pulling of facilities, establishment of common procedures,
training and liaison visits. The convention states that parties should take measures to expedite
entry into its territorial waters of rescue units from other parties.

The convention then goes on to establish preparatory measures which should be taken, including
the establishment of rescue coordination centers and sub centers. It outlines operating procedures
to be followed in the events of emergencies or alerts and during SAR operations. This includes
the designation of an on-scene commander and his duties.

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Parties to the convention are required to establish ship reporting systems, under which ships
report their position to a coast radio station. This enables the interval between the loss of contact
with a vessel an initiation of search operation to be reduced. It also help to ensure the rapid
determination of vessels which may be called upon to provide assistance including medical help
when required.

Other conventions relating to maritime safety and security and ship/port interface

 Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG),

1972

 Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic (FAL), 1965

 International Convention on Load Lines (LL), 1966

 International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR), 1979

 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime
Navigation (SUA), 1988, and Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the
Safety of Fixed Platforms located on the Continental Shelf (and the 2005 Protocols)

 International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC), 1972

 Convention on the International Maritime Satellite Organization (IMSO C), 1976 The
Torremolinos International Convention for the Safety of Fishing Vessels (SFV), 1977,
superseded by The 1993 Torremolinos Protocol; Cape Town Agreement of 2012 on the
Implementation of the Provisions of the 1993 Protocol relating to the Torremolinos
International Convention for the Safety of Fishing Vessels

 International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for

Fishing Vessel Personnel (STCW-F), 1995

 Special Trade Passenger Ships Agreement (STP), 1971 and Protocol on Space
Requirements for Special Trade Passenger Ships, 1973

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