Q1a: What are the various classes of criteria for the selection

of material?

Ans: The selection of construction materials involves considering various criteria, including:
1. **Mechanical Properties:**
- *Strength:* The ability of the material to withstand applied forces.
- *Stiffness:* The material's resistance to deformation under load.
- *Durability:* How well the material withstands wear, impact, and weathering.

2. **Physical Properties:**
- *Density:* Mass per unit volume of the material.
- *Thermal Conductivity:* Ability to conduct heat.
- *Thermal Expansion:* The material's expansion or contraction with temperature changes.

3. **Chemical Properties:**
- *Corrosion Resistance:* Ability to withstand chemical reactions, particularly corrosion.
- *Chemical Stability:* The material's stability when exposed to different chemicals.

4. **Cost:**
- *Initial Cost:* The upfront expense of obtaining and using the material.
- *Life Cycle Costs:* Considering maintenance, replacement, and disposal costs over the material's
life.

5. **Availability:**
- *Local Availability:* Accessibility of the material in the project's location.
- *Supply Chain:* Reliability of the supply chain for the material.

6. **Aesthetics:**
- *Color, Texture, and Appearance:* Considering the visual aspects of the material in the project's
design.

7. **Ease of Construction:**
- *Handling and Transportation:* How easily the material can be moved and managed on-site.
- *Installation:* The simplicity or complexity of the construction process using the material.

8. **Environmental Impact:**
- *Sustainability:* Assessing whether the material is renewable or has a low environmental impact.
- *Recyclability:* The ability to recycle or reuse the material.

9. **Local Building Codes and Standards:**

- *Compliance:* Ensuring the material meets local regulations and safety standards.
- *Performance Standards:* Confirming that the material meets specific performance criteria.

These detailed considerations help engineers and architects make informed decisions when selecting
construction materials for a project.
Q1b: State four failure modes of materials. Describe typical
examples of each mode.

Ans: Four common failure modes of materials along with typical examples:
1. **Fracture:**
- *Description:* Fracture occurs when a material experiences a break or separation into two or more
pieces.
- *Example:* Brittle materials like glass or cast iron can exhibit sudden fracture without much plastic
deformation.

2. **Fatigue:**
- *Description:* Fatigue failure happens due to repeated cyclic loading, leading to the development of
cracks and eventual failure.
- *Example:* Metal components in machinery or structures subjected to cyclic stress, such as aircraft
components or bridges.

3. **Creep:**
- *Description:* Creep is a slow, time-dependent deformation that occurs under a constant load or
stress over an extended period.
- *Example:* High-temperature applications like boiler tubes or turbine blades in which materials
experience prolonged stress at elevated temperatures.

4. **Corrosion:**
- *Description:* Corrosion is the deterioration of a material caused by chemical reactions with the
environment, leading to loss of material and structural integrity.
- *Example:* Rusting of iron or steel due to exposure to moisture and oxygen, or the corrosion of
aluminum in certain acidic environments.

These failure modes highlight the diverse challenges materials face in different situations, emphasizing
the importance of material selection and proper engineering design to mitigate these risks.
Q2a: Which mechanical tests are required on the steel
rebars?
Ans: There are several mechanical tests are essential for evaluating the quality and performance of
steel rebars in construction. Some of the key tests include:

1. **Tensile Test:**
- *Purpose:* Determines the tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation of the steel.
- *Procedure:* A sample of the rebar is pulled until it breaks, measuring the stress and strain
throughout the process.

2. **Bend Test:**
- *Purpose:* Evaluates the rebar's ductility and ability to withstand bending without breaking.
- *Procedure:* The rebar is bent around a specified diameter, and any cracks or defects are examined.

3. **Elongation Test:**
- *Purpose:* Measures the amount a rebar can stretch before breaking, indicating its ductility.
- *Procedure:* Similar to the tensile test, but with a focus on elongation before failure.

4. **Chemical Composition Analysis:**

- *Purpose:* Verifies the steel's chemical composition, ensuring it meets specified standards.
- *Procedure:* Laboratory analysis to determine the percentages of key elements like carbon,
manganese, and others.

5. **Weldability Test:**
- *Purpose:* Assesses the rebar's suitability for welding in construction applications.
- *Procedure:* Involves welding samples and evaluating the quality of the weld joint.

6. **Impact Test:**
- *Purpose:* Measures the toughness and resistance to brittle fracture of the steel.
- *Procedure:* Involves striking a notched sample with a pendulum and measuring the energy
absorbed during fracture.

These tests help ensure that steel rebars meet required specifications for strength, ductility, and other
mechanical properties, contributing to the structural integrity and safety of construction projects.
Q2b: Briefly describe the steel corrosion.

Ans: Steel corrosion is a natural process where iron-based metals, such as steel, react with
environmental factors, primarily oxygen and moisture, leading to the formation of rust or iron oxide. The
process involves the following steps:

1. **Initiation:** Small imperfections, scratches, or exposed areas on the steel surface provide sites for
the initial corrosion reaction.

2. **Propagation:** Once initiated, corrosion spreads, forming iron oxide. This weakens the steel
structure and can lead to the formation of pits and other irregularities on the surface.

3. **Continuation:** The reaction continues over time, accelerating in the presence of aggressive factors
like salt, pollutants, or acidic substances. It may eventually compromise the structural integrity of the
steel.

Corrosion can have detrimental effects on steel structures, causing material degradation, loss of strength,
and even structural failure if left unchecked. Protective measures, such as coatings, galvanization, or the
use of corrosion-resistant alloys, are employed to mitigate the impact of corrosion and extend the lifespan
of steel components in various applications.
Q3a: Describe the Aluminum Production Process.
Ans: The production of aluminum involves several key stages, from extracting raw materials to
obtaining the final metal. Here's a brief overview of the aluminum production process:

1. **Bauxite Mining:**
- *Extraction of Raw Material:* Bauxite, an aluminum ore, is mined from large deposits, primarily
found in tropical and subtropical regions.

2. **Alumina Refining:**
- *Bauxite Processing:* Bauxite is processed to extract alumina (aluminum oxide) through a process
called the Bayer process. This involves crushing, refining, and heating the bauxite with sodium
hydroxide.

3. **Electrolytic Reduction:**
- *Smelting Alumina:* The extracted alumina is then subjected to electrolytic reduction in a Hall-
Héroult cell. This cell consists of a carbon-lined steel shell immersed in molten cryolite (a sodium
aluminum fluoride mineral).

4. **Electrolysis:**
- *Electrolytic Process:* The alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite, and a direct current is passed
through the solution. This results in the separation of aluminum from oxygen, with aluminum collecting
at the cathode.

5. **Casting:**
- *Formation of Aluminum Ingots:* The molten aluminum obtained from the electrolysis process is
cast into various forms, typically ingots or billets.

6. **Fabrication:**
- *Shaping and Processing:* The aluminum ingots are further processed through various fabrication
methods like rolling, extrusion, or forging to create the desired shapes and forms for specific applications.

7. **Finishing and Surface Treatment:**

- *Surface Enhancement:* Depending on the intended use, aluminum products may undergo finishing
processes such as anodizing, coating, or painting for enhanced corrosion resistance, appearance, or other
properties.

Aluminum production is energy-intensive, primarily during the electrolytic reduction stage. However,
aluminum recycling plays a significant role in the industry, as recycled aluminum requires significantly
less energy compared to primary production, making it more environmentally sustainable.
Q3b: Name the two primary factors that make aluminum an
attractive structural engineering material.

Ans: Two primary factors that make aluminum an attractive material in structural engineering are:
1. **Low Density:**
- Aluminum has a low density compared to many other structural materials, including steel. This low
density makes aluminum structures lightweight, which is advantageous for applications where weight is a
critical factor, such as in aerospace or transportation.

2. **Corrosion Resistance:**
- Aluminum naturally forms a protective oxide layer when exposed to air, providing excellent corrosion
resistance. This makes aluminum suitable for outdoor and marine applications, as it can withstand
environmental conditions without significant degradation. Additionally, the option for surface treatments
like anodizing enhances its resistance to corrosion.

These characteristics, combined with its good strength-to-weight ratio and malleability, contribute to
aluminum's widespread use in various structural engineering applications, ranging from buildings and
bridges to aircraft and automotive components.
Q4a: Describe the various types of cements.

Ans: There are several types of cement, each designed for specific construction purposes. Here are
some common types of cement:

1. **Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC):**

- *General Purpose:* OPC is the most common type of cement used in construction. It comes in
various grades, such as OPC 33, OPC 43, and OPC 53, indicating different compressive strengths.

2. **Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC):**

- *Enhanced Durability:* PPC combines Portland cement with pozzolanic materials like fly ash. It
offers improved durability and is suitable for structures exposed to sulfate and chloride attacks.

3. **Rapid Hardening Cement:**

- *Quick Setting:* This type of cement achieves higher strength in a shorter time. It is beneficial for
projects requiring early completion, such as repairs or precast concrete manufacturing.

4. **Low Heat Cement:**

- *Reduced Heat Generation:* Low heat cement is designed to generate less heat during the hydration
process. It is used in large concrete structures to minimize the risk of thermal cracking.

5. **Sulfate-Resistant Cement:**
- *Resistance to Sulfate Attacks:* Suitable for construction in areas where the soil or water contains
sulfates, which can otherwise lead to the deterioration of concrete.

6. **White Cement:**
- *Aesthetic Purposes:* White cement is used for decorative purposes, providing a base for pigments.
It is often used in architectural projects for its aesthetic appeal.

7. **Oil Well Cement:**

- *High Resistance to Pressure and Temperature:* Designed for use in oil wells, this type of cement
withstands high-pressure and high-temperature conditions encountered in oil drilling.

8. **High Alumina Cement (HAC):**

- *Resistance to Corrosion and Abrasion:* HAC contains a high percentage of alumina and is used in
applications where resistance to acidic and abrasive conditions is crucial.

9. **Blast Furnace Slag Cement:**

- *Environmentally Friendly:* Utilizes blast furnace slag, a byproduct of the iron and steel industry,
reducing the environmental impact of cement production.

10. **Masonry Cement:**

- *For Mortar in Masonry Work:* Masonry cement is designed for use in mortar for masonry
construction, providing good workability and durability.
Q4b: Identify the reasons for using the admixtures in
concrete.

Ans: Admixtures are substances added to concrete during mixing to enhance or modify its properties.
Here are several reasons for using admixtures in concrete:

1. **Improved Workability:**
- Admixtures like plasticizers or superplasticizers help enhance the workability of concrete, making it
easier to place, compact, and finish.

2. **Water Reduction:**
- Water-reducing admixtures allow for the production of concrete with reduced water content while
maintaining the desired workability. This results in increased strength and durability.

3. **Set Retardation:**
- Admixtures like retarders slow down the setting time of concrete. This is beneficial in large
construction projects or during hot weather, allowing more time for placement and finishing.

4. **Set Acceleration:**
- Conversely, accelerators speed up the setting time of concrete. This is useful in cold weather or when
a rapid construction schedule is required.

5. **Strength Enhancement:**
- Admixtures such as accelerators, pozzolans, or silica fume can contribute to increased early or
ultimate strength of the concrete.

6. **Durability Improvement:**
- Admixtures like air-entraining agents enhance the durability of concrete by improving resistance to
freeze-thaw cycles and reducing the risk of cracking.

7. **Corrosion Inhibition:**
- Corrosion inhibitors can be added to concrete to protect embedded steel reinforcement from corrosion,
thereby extending the service life of the structure.

8. **Shrinkage Control:**
- Shrinkage-reducing admixtures help mitigate the drying shrinkage of concrete, reducing the likelihood
of cracks in the hardened concrete.

9. **Color Modification:**
- Pigments and coloration admixtures are used to alter the appearance of concrete, providing aesthetic
options for architectural or decorative purposes.

10. **Workability Retention:**

- Admixtures like hydration stabilizers help retain the workability of concrete over extended periods,
allowing for better construction practices.
11. **Volume Stability:**
- Admixtures can contribute to reducing the potential for excessive expansion or contraction of
concrete due to factors like alkali-silica reaction.

12. **Economical Considerations:**

- Some admixtures can lead to cost savings by improving the efficiency of the concrete mix, reducing
the need for excessive water, or allowing the use of locally available materials.

The use of admixtures in concrete is a strategic approach to tailor the properties of the mix to meet
specific project requirements, enhance performance, and optimize construction processes.
Q5a: Describe the basic aggregate properties.

Ans: Aggregates are essential components in concrete, providing bulk and strength to the mixture.
Here are the basic properties of aggregates:

1. **Particle Size and Distribution:**

- *Description:* Aggregates come in various sizes, from fine particles to coarse rocks. The distribution
of particle sizes affects the workability and strength of the concrete.

2. **Shape and Texture:**

- *Description:* Aggregates can be rounded, angular, or irregular. Shape influences the workability
and strength of concrete, with angular aggregates typically providing better interlocking.

3. **Specific Gravity:**
- *Description:* Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the aggregate to the density of water. It
indicates the relative density of the material and influences the weight of concrete.

4. **Porosity and Absorption:**

- *Description:* Porosity measures the void spaces within the aggregate. Absorption is the ability of
aggregates to absorb water. Excessive absorption can affect the workability and durability of concrete.

5. **Moisture Content:**
- *Description:* Moisture content is the amount of water present in the aggregate. It affects the water-
cement ratio in the concrete mix and can impact the workability and strength.

6. **Cleanliness and Contaminants:**

- *Description:* Clean aggregates are free from contaminants such as clay, silt, or organic matter.
Contaminants can negatively impact the bonding between the aggregate and the cement paste.

7. **Strength:**
- *Description:* The strength of aggregates influences the overall strength of the concrete. High-
strength aggregates contribute to higher compressive strength in the hardened concrete.

8. **Soundness:**
- *Description:* Soundness refers to the resistance of aggregates to disintegration due to chemical
reactions or weathering. Sound aggregates contribute to the durability of concrete.

9. **Deleterious Substances:**
- *Description:* Aggregates should be free from harmful substances that can affect the properties of
concrete. This includes substances that could lead to alkali-aggregate reaction or other undesirable effects.

10. **Gradation:**
- *Description:* Gradation refers to the distribution of particle sizes within the aggregate. A well-
graded aggregate mix is essential for achieving good workability and strength in concrete.
Q5b: Calculate the sieve analysis of the following aggregate
and plot on a semilog gradation paper. What is maximum
size? What is nominal maximum size?
Ans: To find total mass of sample
TOSM = Sum of all Mass retained + Mass retained in Pan

= 0+47.1+239.4+176.5+92.7+73.5+9.6

TOSM = 639.8g

Cumulative Amount Retained (CAR)

1. CAR on 1 in. Sieve = 0g

2. CAR on 3/8 in. Sieve = Mass retained on 3/8 in. sieve = 47.1g
3. CAR on #4 Sieve = CAR on 3/8 in. sieve + Mass retained on #4 sieve = 47.1g + 239.4g = 286.5g
4. CAR on #10 Sieve = CAR on #4 sieve + Mass retained on #10 sieve = 286.5g + 176.5g = 463g
5. CAR on #40 Sieve = CAR on #10 sieve + Mass retained on #40 sieve = 463g + 92.7g = 555.7g
6. CAR on #200 Sieve = CAR on #40 sieve + Mass retained on #200 sieve = 555.7g + 73.5g = 629.2g
7. CAR on Pan = CAR on #200 sieve + Mass retained in Pan = 629.2g + 9.6g = 638.8g

Cumulative Percent Retained (CPR)

0
1. CPR on 1 in. Sieve = ×100=0 %
639.8
47.1
2. CPR on 3/8 in. Sieve = ×100=7.38 %
639.8
286.5
3. CPR on #4 Sieve = ×100=44.76 %
639.8
436
4. CPR on #10 Sieve = ×100=72.36 %
639.8
555.7
5. CPR on #40 Sieve = ×100=86.99 %
639.8
629.2
6. CPR on #200 Sieve = ×100=98.34 %
639.8
638.8
7. CPR on Pan = ×100=99.84 %
639.8

Percent Passing

1. 1 in. Sieve = 100 – CPR on 1 in. sieve = 100%

2. 3/8 in. Sieve = 100 – CPR on 3/8 in. sieve = 92.62%
3. #4 Sieve = 100 – CPR on #4 sieve = 55.24%
4. #10 Sieve = 100 – CPR on #10 sieve = 27.64%
 5. #40 Sieve = 100 – CPR on #40 sieve = 13.01%
6. #200 Sieve = 100- CPR on #200 sieve = 1.66%
7. Pan = 100- CPR on pan = 0.16%

Sieve Size Amount Retained, g Cumulative Amount Cumulative Percent Percent Passing
Retained, g Retained
25mm (1 in.) 0 0g 0% 100%
9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 47.1 47.1g 7.38% 92.62%
4.75 mm (No.4) 239.4 286.5g 44.76% 55.24%
2.00 mm (No. 10) 176.5 463g 72.36% 27.64%
0.425 mm (No. 40) 92.7 555.7g 86.99% 13.01%
0.075 mm (No. 200) 73.5 629.2g 98.34% 1.66%
Pan 9.6 638.8g 99.84% 0.16%

The Maximum size of an aggregate is the sieve size that allows all or virtually all of the aggregate particles to pass.
The maximum size by given data is 1 in.

The Nominal maximum size of an aggregate is the sieve size that most of the aggregate particles pass through. It is
the smalles sieve size that retains some material but allows the majority to pass. In this case the Nominal Maximum
size is #4 sieve with 239.4g retained.
Q6a: What do we mean by curing of concrete? What will
happen if concrete is not cured? Describe 5 different
methods of concrete curing.

Ans: Curing of concrete is the process of maintaining adequate moisture, temperature, and time to
facilitate the proper hydration of cement, allowing the concrete to achieve its desired strength, durability,
and other specified properties. This process takes place after the initial setting of the concrete mix.

If concrete is not properly cured, several undesirable consequences can occur:

1. **Reduced Strength:** Inadequate curing can lead to incomplete hydration of cement particles,
resulting in lower concrete strength.

2. **Increased Permeability:** Poorly cured concrete is more likely to have an increased permeability,
making it more susceptible to the penetration of water, chemicals, and other substances.

3. **Cracking:** Lack of sufficient moisture during the early stages of concrete curing can lead to
surface cracking, compromising the structural integrity and aesthetics of the concrete.

4. **Decreased Durability:** Inadequate curing negatively impacts the overall durability of concrete,
making it more susceptible to weathering, chemical attacks, and deterioration.

5. **Surface Defects:** The appearance of the concrete may be compromised with an uneven or
discolored surface due to insufficient curing.

Here are five common methods of concrete curing:

1. **Water Curing:**
- *Description:* Water curing involves keeping the concrete continuously wet by ponding, soaking, or
wet covering to maintain a moist environment.
- *Application:* Suitable for both horizontal and vertical surfaces, especially during hot weather.

2. **Spraying or Fogging:**
- *Description:* Involves spraying or fogging the surface of the concrete with a fine mist of water to
prevent surface drying and maintain moisture.
- *Application:* Effective for preventing premature drying in conditions where continuous wetting may
be challenging.

3. **Covering with Wet Burlap or Straw:**

- *Description:* In this method, wet burlap or straw is placed over the concrete surface to retain
moisture and reduce evaporation.
- *Application:* Useful for smaller concrete surfaces and can be effective in preventing surface drying.
4. **Curing Compounds:**
- *Description:* Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds are applied to the concrete surface to
create a barrier that reduces water evaporation.
- *Application:* Suitable for horizontal surfaces, particularly in situations where continuous wet curing
is impractical.

5. **Steam Curing:**
- *Description:* Steam curing involves applying heat and steam to accelerate the curing process,
particularly in precast concrete elements.
- *Application:* Commonly used in controlled environments to achieve early strength in precast
components.

Proper selection and implementation of curing methods are crucial for ensuring the long-term
performance and durability of concrete structures.
Q6b: Which tests of hardened concrete can be performed?

Ans: Several tests are conducted on hardened concrete to assess its properties and performance. Here
are some common tests for hardened concrete:

1. **Compressive Strength Test:**

- *Purpose:* Determines the maximum compressive load a concrete specimen can bear.
- *Procedure:* Cylindrical or cube-shaped specimens are subjected to axial loads until failure, and the
compressive strength is calculated.

2. **Splitting Tensile Strength Test:**

- *Purpose:* Measures the tensile strength of concrete, especially its ability to resist cracking under
tensile stresses.
- *Procedure:* A cylindrical specimen is subjected to diametrical loading until failure, and the tensile
strength is calculated.

3. **Flexural Strength Test (Modulus of Rupture):**

- *Purpose:* Assesses the flexural or bending strength of concrete.
- *Procedure:* A beam specimen is loaded in a manner that induces bending stresses, and the flexural
strength is calculated.

4. **Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test:**

- *Purpose:* Evaluates the uniformity, homogeneity, and quality of concrete by measuring the speed of
ultrasonic pulses through the material.
- *Procedure:* Ultrasonic waves are sent through the concrete, and the velocity is determined.

5. **Rebound Hammer Test (Schmidt Hammer Test):**

- *Purpose:* Provides an indication of the compressive strength of concrete through surface hardness
measurements.
- *Procedure:* A rebound hammer is used to strike the concrete surface, and the rebound value is
correlated with compressive strength.

6. **Surface Resistivity Test:**

- *Purpose:* Measures the electrical resistivity of concrete, providing information on its permeability
and durability.
- *Procedure:* Electrical probes are used to assess the resistivity of the concrete surface.

7. **Permeability Tests:**
- *Purpose:* Evaluates the permeability of concrete, indicating its resistance to the penetration of water
and aggressive substances.
- *Procedure:* Tests like the Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT) or water permeability tests are
conducted.

8. **Durability Tests:**
- *Purpose:* Assess the resistance of concrete to various environmental factors, such as freeze-thaw
cycles, chemical attack, and abrasion.
- *Procedure:* Various standardized tests are performed depending on the specific durability concerns.
9. **Linear Shrinkage Test:**
- *Purpose:* Measures the linear shrinkage of concrete, which is important for controlling cracking.
- *Procedure:* Changes in length of prismatic specimens are measured after drying.

10. **Carbonation Test:**

- *Purpose:* Determines the depth of carbonation in concrete, indicating its vulnerability to corrosion
of embedded reinforcement.
- *Procedure:* pH indicators or phenolphthalein solution are applied to freshly exposed concrete
surfaces.

These tests provide valuable information about the mechanical, durability, and other relevant properties of
hardened concrete, helping ensure the quality and performance of concrete structures.
Q7a: What do you mean by a grout and what are the uses?

Ans: Grout is a fluid mixture of cement, water, and sometimes additives, such as sand or fine
aggregates. It is commonly used in construction for various purposes due to its flowable and pourable
consistency when mixed. Grout can be categorized into different types based on its composition and
application.

**Uses of Grout:**

1. **Tile Grouting:**
- *Description:* Grout is commonly used to fill the gaps between tiles, providing a smooth, sealed
surface and preventing water infiltration.
- *Type:* Tile grout can be sanded or unsanded, depending on the width of the tile joints.

2. **Masonry Grouting:**
- *Description:* In masonry construction, grout is used to fill the voids in concrete or masonry block
walls, enhancing their structural stability.
- *Type:* Depending on the application, grout may be non-shrink or high-flow.

3. **Structural Grouting:**
- *Description:* Used in construction to fill gaps or spaces between structural components, providing
support and stability.
- *Type:* Non-shrink grout is often used for structural applications, ensuring minimal volume change
during curing.

4. **Cable Duct Grouting:**

- *Description:* Grout is injected into cable ducts or sleeves to protect and secure cables or tendons in
post-tensioned structures.
- *Type:* Fluid grouts with appropriate flow characteristics are commonly used.

5. **Machine Base Grouting:**

- *Description:* Used to anchor machinery or equipment to a foundation, providing stability and
reducing vibration.
- *Type:* High-strength, non-shrink grouts are typically employed for machine base applications.

6. **Void Filling:**
- *Description:* Grout is used to fill voids or gaps in structures, ensuring uniform support and reducing
settlement.
- *Type:* Low-density grouts may be used for void filling to minimize additional loads on structures.

7. **Pile Grouting:**
- *Description:* Grout is injected around piles to improve load transfer and enhance the bond between
the pile and the surrounding soil.
- *Type:* Fluid grouts with good permeability are often used for pile grouting.
8. **Soil Stabilization:**
- *Description:* Grout injection into the soil is employed to stabilize loose or weak ground, improving
its load-bearing capacity.
- *Type:* Compaction grouting or permeation grouting may be used for soil stabilization.

Grout serves as a versatile construction material, offering solutions for various applications where filling
voids, providing support, and ensuring stability are essential. The specific type of grout chosen depends
on the intended use and the properties required for the application.
Q7b: A concrete masonry unit was tested according to
ASTM C140 Procedure and produced the following results:
(a) Mass of unit as received = 8271g
(b) Saturated mass of unit = 8652g
(c) Oven dry mass of unit = 7781g
For this unit, calculate (a) absorption in percentage and (b)
moisture content as a percent of absorption.
Ans: Given:
(a) Mass of unit as received (MD) = 8271g
(b) Saturated mass of unit (MSD) = 8652g
(c) Oven dry mass of unit (MOD) = 7781g

1. Absorption (A):
( MSD−MOD )
A= ×100
MOD

( 8652−7781 )
A= × 100
7781

871
A= ×100
7781

A= 0.1118 ×100

A= 11.18%

2. Moisture Content (MC):

( 8652−7781 )
MC= × 100
7781−8271

871
MC= ×100
−490

MC= −1.7755 ×100

MC= -177.55%
Q8a: Describe the classification of Asphalt used in Highway
construction.

Ans: Asphalt, a widely used material in highway construction, is classified based on various
characteristics such as viscosity, penetration, and performance grade. Here's a brief overview of the
common classifications:

1. **Penetration Grade Asphalt:**

- *Classification:* Based on the penetration value, which is the depth (in tenths of a millimeter) to
which a standard needle penetrates the asphalt under specified conditions.
- *Common Grades:* Penetration grades include penetration-graded asphalts like AC-10, AC-20, AC-
30, AC-40, and AC-50, where higher numbers indicate softer asphalts.

2. **Performance Grade Asphalt (PG Asphalt):**

- *Classification:* Based on the temperature susceptibility of asphalt binders. PG classification includes
high-temperature (PG-H) and low-temperature (PG-L) grades.
- *Common Grades:* PG grades, such as PG 64-22, PG 70-22, PG 76-22, indicate the high and low-
temperature properties of the asphalt.

3. **Viscosity Grade Asphalt:**

- *Classification:* Based on the dynamic viscosity of the asphalt binder at a specific temperature.
- *Common Grades:* Viscosity grades include AC-2.5, AC-5, AC-10, AC-20, where the number
indicates the viscosity range in poise at 60°C.

4. **Cutback Asphalt:**
- *Classification:* Based on the process of cutting back the asphalt cement with a volatile solvent. It
includes rapid-curing (RC) and medium-curing (MC) grades.
- *Common Grades:* Examples include RC-70, MC-250, where the numbers denote the minimum
kinematic viscosity.

5. **Emulsified Asphalt:**
- *Classification:* Based on the emulsification process, which involves breaking down asphalt into
small droplets suspended in water.
- *Common Grades:* Include cationic and anionic emulsified asphalts, each with specific applications
in pavement construction.

6. **Polymer-Modified Asphalt:**
- *Classification:* Involves modifying asphalt with polymers to enhance its properties, such as
elasticity and resistance to cracking.
- *Common Types:* SBS (Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene) and APP (Atactic Polypropylene) modified
asphalts are examples.

7. **Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA):**

- *Classification:* Focuses on the temperature at which asphalt is mixed and compacted, aiming to
reduce energy consumption and emissions.
- *Common Types:* Foamed asphalt, additives, and chemical warm mix technologies fall under this
classification.
Q8b: Describe the superpave mix design.

Ans: The Superpave (Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements) mix design method is an asphalt mix
design system that was developed in the United States to improve the performance and durability of
asphalt pavements. It was introduced in the 1990s by the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP)
and has since become widely adopted. The Superpave mix design method focuses on the volumetric
properties of the asphalt mixture and incorporates a performance-related approach.

Key components of the Superpave mix design include:

1. **Aggregate Selection:**
- Superpave considers the properties of aggregates, including gradation and angularity, to ensure a
durable and stable asphalt mix.

2. **Binder Selection:**
- The Superpave system uses the Performance Grade (PG) of the asphalt binder. PG grading is based on
the binder's temperature susceptibility, considering both high and low-temperature performance.

3. **Volumetric Properties:**
- Superpave emphasizes three key volumetric properties of the asphalt mixture:
- Air Voids: Ensuring that the asphalt mix has a controlled and optimal air void content to prevent
moisture infiltration and improve durability.
- Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA): This parameter accounts for the void spaces between aggregate
particles and helps ensure sufficient binder coating for durability.
- Voids Filled with Asphalt (VFA): VFA is the volume of the intergranular void space in the
compacted mix that is filled with asphalt binder.

4. **Compaction:**
- Superpave uses the Gyratory Compactor to simulate the compaction process that occurs in the field.
The compaction effort is defined by the Ndesign parameter, which represents the number of gyrations
required to achieve the desired volumetric properties.

5. **Performance Testing:**
- Superpave includes performance tests, such as the Hamburg Wheel-Tracking Test and the Indirect
Tensile Strength Test, to assess the resistance of the asphalt mixture to rutting and fatigue cracking.

The Superpave mix design method provides a comprehensive approach to designing asphalt mixes that
are tailored to specific environmental and traffic conditions. It aims to produce asphalt pavements that
offer superior performance and longevity, reducing the need for maintenance and rehabilitation.
Superpave has been widely adopted in the United States and other countries as a standard mix design
method for asphalt pavements.
Q9a: Discuss the anisotropic nature of wood. How does this
phenomenon affect the performance of wood?

Ans: The anisotropic nature of wood refers to the fact that its properties and behavior vary with
direction. Wood is not uniform in all directions, and its physical and mechanical characteristics are
significantly influenced by the orientation of its fibers. This anisotropy is a result of the structural
arrangement of wood cells, primarily composed of long, hollow cellulose fibers.

**Key Factors Contributing to Anisotropy in Wood:**

1. **Cellulose Fiber Orientation:**

- Wood fibers are aligned in the direction of the tree growth. The longitudinal (parallel to the grain)
orientation has different properties compared to the radial (perpendicular to the growth rings) and
tangential (along the growth rings) orientations.

2. **Growth Rings:**
- The growth rings in wood, formed by variations in cell size and density during different seasons,
contribute to anisotropy. Radial and tangential directions cross multiple growth rings, affecting wood
properties.

**Effects on Wood Performance:**

1. **Strength Variation:**
- Wood is typically strongest along the grain (longitudinal direction) due to the aligned fibers. In
contrast, it is weaker across the grain (radial and tangential directions). This anisotropic behavior
influences how wood behaves under different loading conditions.

2. **Mechanical Properties:**
- Anisotropy affects various mechanical properties, including modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of
rupture (MOR), and shear strength. These properties vary significantly depending on the direction of the
applied force or stress.

3. **Dimensional Changes:**
- Wood exhibits differential dimensional changes with variations in moisture content. The tangential
direction is more responsive to changes in moisture than the radial direction, leading to uneven swelling
and shrinkage.

4. **Cracking and Splitting:**

- The anisotropic nature contributes to the susceptibility of wood to cracking and splitting along certain
directions, particularly in applications where wood is exposed to changes in moisture content or
temperature.

5. **Preferred Use in Structural Applications:**

- Understanding wood's anisotropic behavior is crucial in engineering and construction. Longitudinal
grain orientation is preferred in load-bearing members to maximize strength, while radial and tangential
orientations are considered for other applications where dimensional stability is important.
6. **Woodworking Considerations:**
- Woodworkers need to consider the anisotropic nature of wood when planning cuts, joinery, and
shaping. The orientation of the wood fibers can affect the ease of working with the material and the final
appearance of the wood product.

In summary, the anisotropic nature of wood is a fundamental aspect that influences its performance and
behavior in various applications. Knowledge of this characteristic is essential for designing structures,
selecting appropriate wood species for specific uses, and understanding how wood responds to
environmental conditions.
Q9b: Briefly describe the chemical composition of wood.

Ans: The chemical composition of wood is complex and primarily consists of various organic
compounds. The major chemical components of wood include:

1. **Cellulose:**
- *Composition:* Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound in wood, constituting about 40-
50% of its dry weight.
- *Structure:* It is a linear polymer made up of glucose molecules linked together by β-1,4-glycosidic
bonds. The long chains of cellulose molecules provide strength and rigidity to wood fibers.

2. **Hemicellulose:**
- *Composition:* Hemicellulose makes up about 20-35% of the dry weight of wood.
- *Structure:* It is a branched polymer composed of various sugar monomers, such as glucose, xylose,
mannose, and others. Hemicellulose has a less ordered structure compared to cellulose and contributes to
the flexibility of wood fibers.

3. **Lignin:**
- *Composition:* Lignin accounts for around 20-30% of the dry weight of wood.
- *Structure:* Lignin is a complex, three-dimensional polymer formed by the polymerization of
phenolic compounds. It acts as a binder, filling the spaces between cellulose fibers and providing rigidity
to the cell walls. Lignin also contributes to the resistance of wood against decay and insects.

4. **Extractives:**
- *Composition:* Extractives include a variety of compounds present in small amounts (less than 5%)
in wood.
- *Types:* Extractives consist of resins, gums, tannins, essential oils, and other compounds. Their
composition varies among different wood species and can influence the wood's color, odor, and resistance
to decay.

5. **Ash:**
- *Composition:* Ash represents the inorganic mineral content present in wood.
- *Types:* Ash includes minerals such as calcium, potassium, magnesium, and others. The amount of
ash varies depending on factors like wood species and growth conditions.

6. **Water:**
- *Composition:* Water content is a variable component in green wood.
- *Role:* Water is essential for the living tree but is removed during the drying process in wood
processing. The moisture content affects wood properties, such as density and dimensional stability.
The chemical composition of wood varies between different species, growth conditions, and tree ages.
The combination of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin gives wood its unique mechanical and structural
properties, making it a versatile and renewable material used in various applications. Understanding the
chemical composition of wood is crucial for its utilization in industries such as construction, furniture,
paper, and bioenergy.
Q10. Write short note on TWO of the followings:
(a) Marshal Method of Mix Design
(b) Fiber Reinforced composites
(c) Asphalt Concrete
(d) Penetration test of Asphalt Concrete

Ans: Marshal Method of Mix Design

The Marshall Method of Mix Design is a widely used procedure for designing hot-mix asphalt (HMA)
mixes for flexible pavements. It was developed by Bruce Marshall in the 1930s and has since become a
standard method in the asphalt industry. The Marshall mix design aims to produce asphalt mixes with
desirable properties, including stability, durability, flexibility, and resistance to deformation.

**Key Steps in the Marshall Method:**

1. **Selection of Aggregates:**
- The aggregates, including coarse and fine aggregates, are selected based on their gradation, quality,
and properties. The aggregate blend influences the performance of the asphalt mix.

2. **Selection of Asphalt Binder:**

- The type and grade of asphalt binder are chosen based on the climate conditions, traffic loads, and
desired performance characteristics. The Superpave Performance Grade (PG) system is often used for
asphalt binder selection.

3. **Compaction of Specimens:**
- Specimens, typically cylindrical in shape, are compacted using the Marshall compaction apparatus.
The compaction effort is represented by the number of blows per face.

4. **Measurement of Stability and Flow:**

- The compacted specimens are subjected to a stability test, which involves applying a load until failure.
The stability value is the maximum load sustained by the specimen. Additionally, the flow value,
representing the deformation under the applied load, is measured.

5. **Calculation of Air Voids:**

- The air voids in the compacted asphalt mix are determined to assess the compactness of the mix. The
ideal range of air voids is typically between 3% and 5%.

6. **Optimization of Mix Design:**

- The Marshall Method allows for adjustments in the mix design, such as asphalt binder content, to
achieve the desired balance of stability, flow, and air voids. This iterative process helps optimize the mix
for specific project requirements.

**Significance of Marshall Mix Design:**

1. **Quality Control:**
- The Marshall Method serves as a tool for quality control during asphalt mix production. It ensures that
the produced mix meets specified design criteria for stability, flow, and other performance characteristics.

2. **Adaptability:**
- The method is adaptable to a range of aggregate types, asphalt binders, and project conditions. It
allows for adjustments to accommodate local materials and environmental factors.

3. **Performance Prediction:**
- Marshall mix design provides insights into the potential performance of the asphalt mix under traffic
loads and environmental conditions. This helps in predicting the behavior of the mix in the field.

4. **Consistency:**
- By following a systematic procedure, the Marshall Method promotes consistency in asphalt mix
design. It provides a standardized approach that can be replicated across different projects.

While the Marshall Method has been widely used, it is worth noting that advancements such as the
Superpave mix design method have also been introduced to address certain limitations and enhance the
performance prediction capabilities of asphalt mixes.

Asphalt Concrete
Asphalt concrete, often referred to as simply "asphalt," is a widely used construction material for flexible
pavements, such as roads, highways, and airport runways. It is a composite material consisting of mineral
aggregates (commonly crushed stone, gravel, or sand) and asphalt binder. Asphalt concrete is known for
its durability, flexibility, and ability to withstand heavy traffic loads.

**Components of Asphalt Concrete:**

1. **Mineral Aggregates:**
- The aggregates in asphalt concrete provide structural support and contribute to the overall strength of
the mixture. They are graded to achieve an optimal particle distribution, ensuring proper packing and
interlocking.

2. **Asphalt Binder:**
- Asphalt binder is a bituminous material derived from crude oil refining. It serves as the glue that binds
the aggregates together. The asphalt binder provides flexibility to the mixture, allowing it to withstand
deformation and traffic loads.

**Key Characteristics of Asphalt Concrete:**

1. **Flexibility:**
- Asphalt concrete is a flexible pavement material, allowing it to deform under loading and recover its
original shape. This flexibility helps distribute stresses caused by traffic loads, reducing the likelihood of
cracking.

2. **Durability:**
- Asphalt concrete exhibits excellent durability and resistance to weathering, provided proper mix
design and construction practices are followed. It can withstand various environmental conditions,
including temperature variations, moisture, and freeze-thaw cycles.
3. **Skid Resistance:**
- The textured surface of asphalt concrete provides good skid resistance, contributing to vehicle safety
by reducing the potential for sliding or slipping.

4. **Smooth Surface:**
- Well-constructed asphalt pavements typically have a smooth surface, enhancing the comfort of driving
and reducing fuel consumption.

5. **Quick Construction and Rehabilitation:**

- Asphalt pavements can be constructed or rehabilitated relatively quickly compared to other pavement
types. The use of hot-mix asphalt allows for rapid compaction and immediate use.

6. **Recyclability:**
- Asphalt concrete is recyclable, and reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) can be incorporated into new
asphalt mixes. This promotes sustainability and reduces the demand for new raw materials.

**Construction Process:**

1. **Mixing:**
- Aggregates and asphalt binder are heated separately before being mixed together. The hot-mix asphalt
(HMA) is produced at an asphalt plant.

2. **Transportation:**
- The hot-mix asphalt is transported to the construction site in trucks while maintaining its elevated
temperature.

3. **Placement and Compaction:**

- The asphalt mixture is placed on the prepared subgrade and compacted using heavy rollers. Adequate
compaction ensures the desired density and performance of the pavement.

4. **Surface Finishing:**
- The finished surface is often sealed with a thin layer of asphalt to enhance durability and
waterproofing.

Asphalt concrete has proven to be a versatile and cost-effective material for pavement construction,
providing reliable performance and ease of maintenance. Regular maintenance, such as crack sealing and
overlaying, helps extend the service life of asphalt pavements.