IET Smart Cities

Research Article

Smart agriculture: real-time classification of eISSN 2631-7680

Received on 31st July 2020

green coffee beans by using a convolutional

Revised 2nd September 2020
Accepted on 3rd September 2020
E-First on 13th October 2020
neural network doi: 10.1049/iet-smc.2020.0068
www.ietdl.org

Nen-Fu Huang1 , Dong-Lin Chou1, Chia-An Lee1, Feng-Ping Wu1, An-Chi Chuang1, Yi-Hsien Chen1,
Yin-Chun Tsai1
1Department of Computer Science, National Tsing Hua University Hsinchu, Taiwan
E-mail: nfhuang@cs.nthu.edu.tw

Abstract: Coffee is an important economic crop and one of the most popular beverages worldwide. The rise of speciality
coffees has changed people's standards regarding coffee quality. However, green coffee beans are often mixed with impurities
and unpleasant beans. Therefore, this study aimed to solve the problem of time-consuming and labour-intensive manual
selection of coffee beans for speciality coffee products. The second objective of the authors’ study was to develop an automatic
coffee bean picking system. They first used image processing and data augmentation technologies to deal with the data. They
then used deep learning of the convolutional neural network to analyse the image information. Finally, they applied the training
model to connect an IP camera for recognition. They successfully divided good and bad beans. The false-positive rate was
0.1007, and the overall coffee bean recognition rate was 93%.

1 Introduction
Coffee is an important economic crop and one of the most popular
beverages in the human society [1]. Coffee is cultivated in over 70
countries, primarily in the equatorial regions of America, Southeast
Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and Africa. Green coffee beans are
the most traded agricultural products in the world. With the rapid
increase in speciality coffee retailers and cafes in the 1990s,
speciality coffee became one of the fastest-growing markets for the
foodservice industry. Many countries have developed their own
speciality coffee associations. According to the Specialty Coffee
Association of America (SCAA), a cup of speciality coffee is not
defined as a cup of coffee that has been brewed and sent to
consumers. Instead, it emphasises the whole process of producing
the cup of coffee. However, green coffee beans are often mixed
with impurities and unpleasant beans [2]. If these impurities and
cowpeas are not manually picked out before roasting, the overall
coffee quality and flavour are affected.
In the present, the field of artificial intelligence applications can
be divided into three categories: speech recognition [3], image
recognition, and natural language processing [4]. Image
recognition technology can be applied in areas such as smart cities,
medical care, and agriculture. In smart cities [5], traffic flow
analysis can be used to improve traffic congestion and reduce
traffic accidents. Medical imaging [6] through MRI or computed
tomography can be used in the early detection of disease roots and
in treatment. Agricultural imaging [7] can be used for the
identification of crop pests, which can reduce the loss of crops
during plantation and increase crop yields. Therefore, it is hoped
that image recognition technology can be applied for identifying
green coffee beans, thereby improving the quality and flavour of
coffee.
The definition of defect beans [8] provided by the SCAA is
presented in Tables 1 and 2. There are two types of defects:
primary defects and secondary defects. Through the definitions
provided by the SCAA, we can determine what type of green
coffee beans are defective beans. If bad beans are roasted together
with good beans, the coffee does not taste like speciality coffee. To
solve this problem, we must manually select green beans.
However, this process involves considerable labour and time cost.
There are already plenty of different methods been proposed to
classify different species of coffee beans, including artificial neural
network (ANN), K nearest neighbour (KNN) [9], support vector
machine (SVM) [10] and near-infrared (NIR) [11]. Most methods
provide >90% of accuracy on classifying different species of coffee
beans. However, few methods are proposed to detect defects on
unroasted green coffee beans. Before applying deep learning, area
and circumference [12] of a coffee bean, are considered as
important basis while judging, and gave us about 78.5% of
accuracy while inspecting coffee beans with defects. Image
processing technique and threshold applying [13] can also help to
inspect defects on green coffee beans with about 83% of accuracy.
Currently, many vision sorting systems [14] are available in the
market. These systems can be used to distinguish good and bad
varieties of items such as peanuts, seeds, rice, and green coffee
beans mainly on the basis of colour. However, a range of colours
must be set for these systems, which require a robotic arm to pick
out the items. This method is slow and inefficient. Accordingly, we
propose a method that involves using deep learning technology to
determine the standard of good and bad items.
We preprocessed images of green coffee beans obtained through
image processing technology by using the convolutional neural
network (CNN), which is a popular technology in deep learning.
CNN is good at the colour and shape extraction of images.
Therefore, we can easily get features of good and bad bean images
such as partial black, broken and so on. We trained the exclusive
coffee bean prediction model to quickly distinguish which raw
beans were good and bad. By using this method, the considerable
time required for the manual selection of coffee beans can be
reduced and the development of speciality coffee beans can be
promoted. An automatic green coffee bean identification system
Table 1 Definition of a primary defect bean according to the
SCAA
Primary defect Number of occurrences equal to one full
defect
full black 1
full sour 1
pod/cherry 1
large stones 2
medium stones 5
large sticks 2
medium sticks 5

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Table 2 Definition of a secondary defect bean according to
the SCAA
Second defect Number of occurrences equal to one full
defect.
parchment 2–3
hull/husk 2–3
broken/chipped 5
insect damage 2–5
partial black 2–3
partial sour 2–3
floater 5
shell 5
small stones 1
small sticks 1
water damage 2–5

Fig. 2 Green coffee beans we bought from a shop

Fig. 1 Flowchart of data preprocessing

Table 3 List of hardware

CPU GPU Memory
Intel(R) Core(TM) i5-7640X NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1080 Ti 48 GB

was developed in this study to enhance the speed and accuracy of

green coffee bean identification through artificial intelligence. The
Fig. 3 Vibration bucket makes a pile of coffee beans line up in a lane on
experiment results indicate that the developed tool can serve as a
the conveyor
reference for related studies.

2 System architecture and implementation

We established the process flow displayed in Fig. 1. We first
collected the data, preprocessed the data, augmented the data, and
finally resized the image in a data format acceptable to the neural
network. This entire process automatically generated the required
data sets. Central server specification and each step in the process
flow are explained in the following sections.

2.1 Central server Fig. 4 Image of the environment setting

(i) Operating system: In our experiment, we use the Ubuntu 14.04
as the operating system for our central server.
(ii) Hardware: In recent years, central processing unit (CPU)
performance and graphics processing unit (GPU) technology have
been improved tremendously. Training time of the learning module
through the GPU parallel computing technology can be greatly
reduced. We use the GPU developed by Nvidia to accelerate the
training time in parallel. The hardware list of our central server is
shown in Table 3. Since we need to read and normalize all the
coffee bean images before the GPU training process, we need
larger memories to accommodate enough images and faster CPU
processing speed.
2.2 Data collection
Since insufficient pictures of coffee beans were available on the
Internet, we were required to buy green coffee beans from a coffee
shop. Fig. 2 shows a few coffee beans we bought from the shop.
The store helped us to divide the green coffee beans into good and
bad beans so that we could directly take pictures.
In the past, collecting data sets was a difficult job while
building a neural network. It sometimes took more time than the
training itself. We considered an automatic coffee bean data collect
mechanism with conveyor. In this mechanism, a vibrating bucket
makes a pile of coffee beans line up in a lane and drop on the
conveyor. After dumping coffee beans into the vibration bucket,
the bucket will make a pile of coffee beans line up in a lane and
send to the conveyor consecutively by vibrating. The vibrating
bucket is shown in Fig. 3.
A high-resolution IP camera is set above the conveyor in order
to take a photo while coffee beans pass through, and it is connected
to a desktop computer. We have fine-tuned a pre-trained object
detection model Yolov3 with coffee beans. When the objects pass
through the camera, the model will recognise the object and then
give a command to the camera to take a photo. With this
mechanism, we are able to collect data sets automatically instead of
taking photos manually. The environment is shown in Fig. 4.
We previously used a webcam to take the photos. However, we
found out that when coffee beans moved over a certain speed on

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Table 4 Values of the IP camera parameters
Camera parameter Value
brightness 255
contrast 225
colour tone 134
saturation 127
sharpness 25
gamma 200
backlight control 69
exposure time 1/500
resolution 1080p
Fig. 5 Image of raw data taken with the IP camera
Fig. 6 Images of coffee beans after the background was removed
Fig. 7 Images obtained by rotating the centre of each coffee bean by 40°
the conveyor, motion blur was observed on the photos we took. It
led to severe accuracy drop in this system. Therefore, we switched
the camera from an ordinary web camera to a high-resolution IP
camera. With this new camera, we are able to adjust the exposure
time, white balance, and other camera parameters manually. This
new camera is connected to the computing unit by RJ45 ethernet
port. The parameters we set for the IP camera are shown in Table 4.
Different from the original web camera, the exposure time of the
new IP camera can be set up to 1/10,000 s. With lower exposure
time and sufficient light source, we managed to take photos of an
object moving in high-speed on the conveyor without motion blur.
Values of the camera parameters are presented in Table 4.
These data sets will then be cropped and resized to a reasonable
resolution in order to become valid data sets for our training. The
images that we have shown below are all in relatively low
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resolution in that training the model with high-resolution photos
requires more powerful GPU and much more time. We decided to
resize the photos of coffee beans but still retained most of the
features on the appearance.
We photographed 1000 good beans and 1000 bad beans, as
displayed in Fig. 5.
2.3 Data preprocessing
(i) Image segmentation: To reduce the burden and time spent
cutting images manually, we cut the coffee beans in the raw data
through program automation, converted the raw data into
greyscale, and assigned threshold values. Finally, we obtained the
precise position of the green coffee beans [15].
(ii) Image background removal: We endeavoured to reduce the
interference from the background on the training model. Although
the background seemed to be black, the value of RGB was still
between 0 and 255, which is not absolutely black, so we still
needed to remove the background of the green coffee beans. We
used colour detection methods to remove the background [16].
(a) Colour detection: The advantage of colour detection is that a
mask can be generated through two bounds, namely an upper
bound and a lower bound. By using the mask, we can remove the
background value of the range from the image. Therefore, we were
required to use ultra-black material for our background. The
background could be easily removed from the image. Fig. 6
illustrates the bean images obtained after the background was
removed. The left image displays a good bean, whereas the right
image displays a bad bean.
2.4 Data augmentation
At the beginning of the data collection process, data of good and
bad beans were insufficient. Therefore, data of good and bad beans
were set at 1000. However, insufficient training data could cause
overfitting for the CNN model. Data augmentation [17] technology
provides methods for flipping, offsetting, cutting, enlarging, and
shrinking the images to enhance the original data set. We did not
wish to change the size, shape, and colour of the original image.
Therefore, we only used the rotation and flip operations to enhance
the collected data set.
As depicted in Fig. 7, we enhanced the data set by rotating the
centre of each coffee bean by 40° and collected the flipped images.
We originally rotated the images by 30°. However, the experiment
indicated that when the angle was 180°, the flipped and rotated
pictures produced duplicate images. Finally, as presented in
Table 4, we obtained a data set nine times larger than the original
data set by rotating the images of 1000 good and bad beans.
Through flipping, we obtained a data set four times larger than the
original data set. Finally, we obtained a data set 36 times larger
than our training and testing data sets.
2.5 Image resizing
After the rotation and flip data were enhanced, we resized the data
set to a fixed length and width image and used this image as the
training material of the CNN model. In data preprocessing, we
resized the image to width and length of 180 pixels each. The detail
of the methods used are as follows:
(i) Resizing: The maximum length and width of the current image
were counted, and a square with a black background was created.
The original image was combined with a black background and
finally resized to 180 × 180 pixels.
We used a method that only required the knowledge of the length
and width of the current picture. Therefore, the proposed method
was suitable for dealing with video stream preprocessing. The
length and width of all coffee beans cannot be obtained in advance
when the video is streamed. Therefore, this resizing method was
suitable for our implementation technique.
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Table 5 Architecture of CNN model tuned Yolov3 object detection model to our system. When the
Structure of the CNN object on the conveyor passes through the camera, the object
Layer Filter Stride Output map size Activation detection model will give out a command to the camera to take a
photo. Coffee beans classification model will then judge the bean
convolution 1 5×5 1 180 × 180 × 32 ReLU
based on this photo, and give instructions to the air gun if the
pooling 1 4×4 4 45 × 45 × 32 — coffee bean was judged as bad bean.
convolution 2 5×5 1 45 × 45 × 64 ReLU
pooling 2 3 —
3×3 15 × 15 × 64
3 Experiments and results
fully connected1 — — 1024 ReLU
fully connected2 — — 2 Softmax
In the experiment, we prepared 72,000 images through data
augmentation. Of the 72,000 images, 36,000 images were good
beans and 36,000 images were bad beans. In total, 7000 images of
good and bad beans each were selected randomly from the
Table 6 Number of training and testing data sets augmented data. The remaining data were used as the training data.
Training data sets The number of training and testing data sets are shown in Table 6.
Coffee type Training data Testing data
good bean 29,000 7000 3.1 Google object detection Application Programming
bad bean 29,000 7000 Interface (API)
The Google object detection API provides many training models
such as faster R-CNN, single shot MultiBox detector, R-FCN.
Since faster R-CNN has higher accuracy than other models, we use
faster R-CNN as our model choice. We use the faster R-CNN with
inception v2 coco provided in the API as a pre-training model. It
gives a fair trade-off between accuracy and speed for GPU
accelerated environments. Before training the model, we need to
prepare the data set and label. We need to first convert the image
and the label into a TFRecord format (see in Fig. 8). The TFRecord
format is a binary file format recommended by Google that can
hold information in any format, and Tensorflow also provides a
rich API to help us read and write TFRecord files.
Fig. 8 Flow of Google object detection After preparing the data set and label, we need to train the
model. We apply the trained model to the identification. In Fig. 9,
this is the result we have identified through the trained model. We
can see that the picture is full of various boxes. In the
identification, it is impossible to determine the correctness and
quality of the coffee beans accurately. We have read many papers
using this method on the Internet, and many people have
encountered such problems. They suggested that we can increase
the number of steps to improve the problem. However, the problem
Fig. 9 Result of using Google object detection API in green coffee bean still cannot be solved after trying this suggestion.
identification Finally, we found that most of the object detection applications
are applied to the detection of large objects such as human
2.6 CNN model architecture identification, car identification, animal identification etc. and
these objects have obvious feature differences. However, we have
In this implementation, we used CNN models for the greyscale
to be very close when we pick green coffee beans. This will allow
coffee bean image training (Table 5).
us to observe the coffee beans in more detail. Therefore, the
Through compressing image's third dimension into one
application of coffee bean identification is more difficult to
dimension, we can obtain a greyscale image. The greyscale image
complete by using Google object detection API. Although, Google
enabled easy detection of the shape of the green coffee beans and
object detection API is convenient and easy to use.
their dark colours.
In the CNN model architecture, we mainly used the rectified
linear unit (ReLU) activation function for the convolution layer. 3.2 Object detection based on the CNN
The ReLU applies the non-saturating activation function [18], as In the designed CNN model architecture, the preprocessed data
indicated in (1). It effectively removes negative values from an were used as the training data. Originally, we used the RGB colour
activation map by setting them to zero. It increases the non-linear space to perform data preprocessing before training. However,
properties of the decision function and overall network without when the coffee beans were of different colours, correctly
affecting the receptive fields of the convolution layer. Other identifying the good and bad beans became difficult. Therefore, we
functions, such as the saturating hyperbolic tangent (2) and used greyscale images to preprocess the data. The shape of the
sigmoid function [19] (3), are also used to increase non-linearity. greyscale image could be detected easily. The training results are
The ReLU is often preferred to other functions because it trains the illustrated in Figs. 10 and 11. Fig. 10 displays the line chart of the
neural network several times faster than other functions without a training and testing accuracies under ten epochs. The training and
significant decrease in generalisation accuracy testing accuracies increased steadily. The final testing accuracy was
∼94.68%. Fig. 8 also displays the line chart of the loss for training
f (x) = max (0, x) (1) and testing. Loss in both testing and training gradually decreased.
In the late stages of training, the loss was smaller than those for
f (x) = tanh(x), f (x) = tanh(x) (2) testing. The final testing loss was ∼0.14.

σ(x) = (1 + e− x)−1 . (3) FP

2.7 Recognition mechanism
Streaming with high resolution and frame rate is a heavy work load
for the recognition model. As a result, we decided to apply a fine-
FPR = . (4)
FP + TN
Fig. 10 depicts the training result, whose confusion matrix is
presented in Table 7. In the testing data, 435 of the 7000 good
beans were misidentified as bad beans and 309 of the 7000 bad

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Fig. 10 Training and testing accuracy

Fig. 13 Prototype of our system

Finally, we set an IP camera with the same camera parameters

as those used in the data collection and connected it to our training
model. We detected each frame from the video stream and cut the
coffee bean images by using image segmentation. Then, through
the data preprocessing method described in Section 2, the captured
bean images were cut and imported into our training model for
identification.
Fig. 12 displays a screenshot of the output at the time of
recognition. The green frames in the figure were predicted as good
beans, whereas the red frames were predicted as bad beans. Users
can select the quality of coffee beans accurately and efficiently
Fig. 11 Loss of training and testing through the instant identification analysis of images. In our current
test, we could identify the green coffee bean in 1 ms when the
Table 7 Confusion matrix of the result video stream reached 24 frames per second [21]. The quality of the
Prediction outcome Total green coffee beans could be judged smoothly and accurately.
p n The previous data training only ran ten epochs. To ensure that
the training has reached the bottleneck and improved the overall
actual value p′ 6565 435 P′
accuracy, we added five epochs to the original training. The
n′ 309 6691 N′
comparison of the result is shown in Table 8. We decreased the
total P N value of True Positive and False Positive. Increase the value of
False Negative and True Negative. Lower false positive rate
indicates fewer misjudgments. We reduced the chance of
misjudgment of bad coffee beans, and improved the accuracy of
the overall identification.

4 Conclusions and future work

In this study, we used greyscale images for training. Therefore, in
Fig. 12 Results in a screenshot of the video stream the identification process, we also converted the images into
greyscale for identification. However, greyscale images are
Table 8 Comparison of epochs vulnerable to ambient light because only one-dimensional image
Epoch 10 15 information is retained.
The CNN model was used to classify good beans and bad beans
true positive 6791 6565
in our experiment. The overall coffee bean identification accuracy
false negative 209 435 was ∼94.63% and the FPR was 0.0441. By connecting the coffee
true negative 6295 6691 bean identification model to an IP camera, we could instantly
false positive 705 309 distinguish the good and bad beans from the green coffee beans
false positive rate 0.1007 0.0441 selected by the human eye. By using object detection and image
accuracy, % 93.47 94.63 recognition technology, we could reduce the time and labour costs
involved and help develop the speciality coffee industry. The
prototype of our system is shown in Fig. 13.
beans were misidentified as good beans. The less the bad beans, the The system now can only handle one side of the coffee beans.
better is the quality of the speciality coffee. The measure of interest When the defect appears on the back side of the bean, we will not
in this study was the false positive rate (FPR) [20] (4). In this be able to screen out. Since the defects on the back side of the
formula, false positive (FP) represents how many bad beans will be coffee beans will also be detected as bad beans in our inspecting
predicted as good beans, true negative (TN) represents how many system currently, we will have coffee beans which are labelled as
bad beans will be predicted as bad beans. This index indicates the good beans repeat the inspecting process. Most of the defects
proportion of bad beans misjudged as good beans. The lower the appear on the back side of the coffee beans will be screened out
FPR was, the closer we were to the standard of speciality coffee. after a few tries. Moreover, we will need to train a new inspection
According to the results of our experiments, the FPR was 0.0441 model which is able to detect defects on both sides of coffee beans.
when the testing data included 7000 images each of good and bad To achieve that, we need to collect more data that contain back side
coffee beans. of the coffee beans. After developing the solution mentioned
above, the system will be capable of screening out defects on both

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Fig. 14 Architecture of identification
sides of coffee beans; meanwhile, both side of the coffee bean will
be inspected, respectively.
The model currently runs on a desktop personal computer.
However, considering the cost and convenience, we are planning to
move the whole process to an edge computing device like NVIDIA
Jetson Nano or Raspberry Pi 4 with Intel Neural Compute Stick in
the future. After replacing the computing unit, the device will
become easier to transport and less costly for users.
Artificial intelligence is feasible for the image recognition of
green coffee beans, and it can provide accurate and efficient
results. Furthermore, good and bad beans can be accurately
distinguished by using a camera, which solves the problem of
spending considerable time and effort for selection. In the future,
we hope to connect a robotic machine to select and remove bad
beans. The blueprint of the architecture of our system is illustrated
in Fig. 14.
In Fig. 14, we combine our system architecture with colour
sorter machine architecture. We placed the background on the track
and instantly identified it through the original webcam. The brown
objects are good coffee beans, and the yellow ones are bad coffee
beans. We replaced the original CCD technology or infrared
technology with a deep learning model and used the colour sorter
machine selection method. Then, we used an air gun to separate the
coffee beans. Finally, we separated the coffee beans into two
containers.
172
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5 Acknowledgment
This study was supported by the Ministry of Science and
Technology (MOST) of Taiwan under grant MOST 107-2218-
E-007-004.
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