HỌC VIỆN HÀNG KHÔNG VIỆT NAM

KHOA ĐIỆN TỬ VIỄN THÔNG HÀNG KHÔNG

HỆ THỐNG VIỄN THÔNG

GV: ThS. Phạm Thuý Oanh

1
TELEPHONE NETWORK

6.2
TELEPHONE NETWORK

6.3
PSTN (Public Switch telephoneNetwork)

6.4
TELEPHONE NETWORK

Major Components of Telephone Network:

1. Local loops
2. Trunks
3. Switching Offices

6.5
TELEPHONE NETWORK

Local Loops: Local Loops are the twisted pair cables that are used to connect
a subscriber telephone to the nearest end office or local central office.
Trunks: It is a type of transmission medium used to handle the
communication between offices
Switching Offices: As there is a permanent physical link between any two
subscribers.

6.6
TELEPHONE NETWORK

Advantages:
• It is a circuit-switched network.
• There is no transmission delay as any receiver can be selected.
• It is cheap in price because it is a widely spread network.
Disadvantages:
• It requires a large time for connection.
• It has a low transmission speed.

6.7
TELEPHONE NETWORK

6.8
PSTN (Public Switch telephoneNetwork)

6.9
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

6.10
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

6.11
CABLE TV NETWORK

6.12
CABLE TV NETWORK

6.13
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

6.14
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

- Mux/Demux STS: performs signal mx/demux, convert

optical-electric signal
- Regenerator: repeater
- Drop/Add Multiplexer: enables the addition or removal
of signals from various sources

6.15
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

ANSI T1.105 and T1.117 specify the ANSI standards

Line rates ranging up to 10 Gbps (gigabits) per second

6.16
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

6.17
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

6.18
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

6.19
6.20
 The Cellular Concept
System Design
Fundamentals
F7 F2

F7 F2 F6 F1
F1 F3

F6 F1
F1 F3 F5 F4 F7 F2

F5 F4 F7 F2 F6 F1
F1 F3

F6 F1
F1 F3 F5 F4

F5 F4

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 Cell Shape
R
R
R
Cell
R R

(a) Ideal cell (b) Actual cell (c) Different cell models

there are many factors The cell shapes need to

that cause reflections cover a area without
and refractions of the creating ambiguous
signals regions

hexagon is closest approximation to a circle

2023-11-17 22
 Signal Strength Signal strength
(in dB)

Cell i Cell j
-60 -60
-70 -70
-80 -80
-90
-90 -100
-100

Select cell i on left of boundary Select cell j on right of boundary

Ideal boundary
2023-11-17 23
 Signal Strength Signal strength
(in dB)

Cell i Cell j

-60
-70
-60
-80
-70
-90
-80
-90 -100
-100

2023-11-17 24
 Frequency Reuse Concept
Radio coverage,
called a cell.

f
The same frequency can be
reused in different cells, if they
are far away from each other

2023-11-17 25
 Frequency Use

GSM 900 (124 frequences):

• Uplink: 890- 915 Mhz
• Downlink: 935 - 960 MHz
Bandwidth for each channel: 200 Khz

GSM 1800 (374 frequences)

• Uplink: 1710 - 1785 MHz
• Downlink:1805 - 1880 MHz

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 Cellular Architecture
• MS – Mobile Station
• BSC – Base Station Controller
• MSC – Mobile Switching Center
• PSTN – Public Switched
MS Telephone Network

BSC

segmentation
of the area
MSC PSTN into cells

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 Interference
• Two types of interference are important in such a cellular architecture:
• a), Cochannel interference
– The interference due to using the same frequencies in cells of
different clusters.
• b), Adjacent channel interference
– The interference from different frequency channels used within a
cluster whose side lobes overlap.
• The allocation of channels within the cluster and between clusters
must be done so as to minimize both of these.

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 Handoff and Roaming
• Call Handoff (or handover) is the switching of an on-going call to a
different traffic channel from one Base Station to another Base
Station
– frequency / time / code
• Handoff categories
– Handoff inside cell - for performance or quality improvement.
– Handoff between cells - MS moves from one cell/BS to another
cell/BS within the same MSC (or operator) during an existing call.
• Handoff can be classified:
– Hard handoff: When there is an actual break in the connectivity
while switching from one Base Station to another Base Station,
‘break before make’ policy
– Soft handoff: Soft Handoff is a mechanism in which the device
gets connected with two or more base stations at the same time,
‘make before break’ policy

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Handoff within, between cells,
and Roaming

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 Handoff Case
• In case of cellular telephony
– The transfer of a voice call from one BS to another.
• In case of WLANs
– Transfer the connection from one AP to another
• In case of hybrid networks
– Transfer a connection from a BS to another, from an AP to
another, between a BS and an AP.

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 Handoff Requirements
• Processing handoff is an important task in any cellular
radio system.

– Handoffs must be performed successfully

– as infrequently as possible

– be imperceptible to the users.

• In order to meet these requirements, system designers

must specify an optimum signal level at which to initiate a
handoff.
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 Handoff Threshold
• Once a particular signal level is specified as the minimum
usable signal for acceptable voice quality at the base
station receiver, a slightly stronger signal level is used as
a threshold at which a handoff is made. This margin,
– given by Δ = Pr handoff – Pr minimum usable
– If Δ is too large, unnecessary handoffs which burden
the MSC may occur,
– if Δ is too small, there may be insufficient time to
complete a handoff before a call is lost due to weak
signal conditions.
• Therefore, Δ is chosen carefully to meet these conflicting
requirements.
2023-11-17 33
Signal strength
Handoff Region Signal strength
due to BSi due to BSj

Pi(x) Pj(x)

Pmin
Δ
BSi MS BSj
X1 X3 X5 Xth X4 X2

• By looking at the variation of signal strength from either base station it

is possible to decide on the optimum area where handoff can take place.

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 When to handoff
• Ensure that the drop in the measured signal level is not
due to momentary fading and that the mobile is actually
moving away from the serving base station.
– the base station monitors the signal level for a certain
period of time before a handoff is initiated.
– This running average measurement of signal strength
should be optimized,
– Information about the vehicle speed, which can be
useful in handoff decisions, can also be computed from
the statistics of the received short-term fading signal at
the base station.

2023-11-17 35
 The Time to Make A Handoff
• In GSM, Handoff takes 1 to 2 seconds, delta is between 0 and 6 dB.

• The faster handoff process supports a much greater range of options

for handling high speed and low speed users and provides the MSC
with substantial time to “rescue” a call that is in need of handoff.

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 Methods for Reducing Handoff
Call Dropping
• Reasons to drop a handoff call
– Received signal below an acceptable level before handoff is done.
– No free channel.
– Too many handoff calls that MSC can’t handle.
• Handoff call (on-going call) dropping is less desirable compared to
new call blocking.
• Handoff calls are given higher priority than new calls in using network
resources.
• Methods to reduce handoff call dropping
– 1.Handoff queuing: call is put in the queue of the BS when no free
channel. When a channel is available, that channel will be assigned to
that call.
– 2.Handoff reservation: certain number of channels are reserved for
handoff calls only. So, no other calls, like new calls, can use these
channels.

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Hard Handoff

2023-11-17 38
Soft Handoff

2023-11-17 39
 Location Management
• Location Area (LA) Concept
– To track the location of the MSs, a cellular service area is
partitioned into several location areas (LAs) or registration areas.
– Each LA is given an LA address (ID).
– Every LA consists of a group of BSs.
– An MSC covers several LAs.
• Location Area Hierarchy
– One or more MSCs connected to a VLR (Visitor Location Register)
to exchange location info using SS7 (Signaling System #7).
– The VLR exchanges location info with HLR (Home Location
Register) using SS7.

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 Location Area

Partition the region

into different
location areas.

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Mobility Management

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MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Office) or
MSC
- Provide mobile to PSTN
subscriber connectivity
- Serve handoff initiated by mobile
or BTS
- Serve handoff initiated by mobile
or BTS based on channel
conditions as well as movement of
the mobile.
- Provide connections of all mobile
phone users with the telephone
central office

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 GSM system architecture with essential
components
PLMN &
Internet
ISC
MS PSTN
OMC ISDN
BTS
PDN
BSC

GMSC

MSC
BSC
MS BTS
EIR
AUC
HL R
BTS VL R
MS
2023-11-17 44
Essential components for GSM
• BTS • HLR
– Base Transceiver Station – Home Location Register
• BSC • VLR
– Base Station Controller – Visited Location Register
• MSC • EIR
– Mobile Switching Center – Equipment Identity Register
• GMSC • AUC
– Gateway MSC – Authentication Center
• MS • OMC
– Mobile Station – Operation and Maintenance
• ISC Center
– International Switching Center

2023-11-17 45
 Essential components
• BTS
– The cell is formed by the radio area coverage of a Base Transceiver
Station.
• BSC
– Several base stations together are controlled by one BSC.
• MSC
– The combined traffic of the mobile stations in their respective cells is
routed through a switch, the Mobile Switching Center.
• GMSC
– Calls originating from or terminating in the fixed network are handled
by a dedicated Gateway Mobile Switching Center.
• OMC
– Operation and maintenance are organized from a central place, the
Operation and Maintenance Center.

2023-11-17 46
 Essential components
• Several databases are available for call control and network
management:
– Home Location Register (HLR)
• For all subscribers registered with a network operator,
permanent data (such as the user's service profile) as well as
temporary data (such as the user's current location) are stored
in the HLR.
• In case of a call to a user, the HLR is always first queried, to
determine the user's current location.
– Visited Location Register (VLR)
– Authentication Center (AUC)
– Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

2023-11-17 47
 Essential components
• Several databases are available for call control and network
management:
– Home Location Register (HLR)
– Visited Location Register (VLR)
• A VLR is responsible for a group of LAs.
• A VLR stores the data of subscribers who are currently in its area of
responsibility.
• This includes parts of the permanent subscriber data which have
been transmitted from the HLR to the VLR for faster access.
• The VLR may also assign and store local data such as a temporary
identification.
– Authentication Center (AUC)
– Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

2023-11-17 48
 Essential components
• Several databases are available for call control and network
management:
– Home Location Register (HLR)
– Visited Location Register (VLR)
– Authentication Center (AUC)
• The AUC generates and stores security-related data such as
keys used for authentication and encryption.
– Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
• EIR registers equipment data rather than subscriber data.

2023-11-17 49
 Addresses and Identifiers
• GSM distinguishes explicitly between user and equipment and deals
with them separately.
• The user identity is associated with a mobile station by means of a
personal chip card, the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
– It allows to distinguish between equipment mobility and subscriber
mobility.

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 Addresses and Identifiers
• GSM distinguishes between subscriber identity and telephone
number.

• Besides the personal identifier, each GSM subscriber is assigned one

or several ISDN numbers.
– Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)

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 Addresses and Identifiers
• 1 International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)
• 2 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
• 3 Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)
• 4 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)
• 5 Location Area Identity (LAI)
• 6 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
• 7 Local Mobile Subscriber Identity (LMSI)
• 8 Cell Identifier (CI)
• 9 Base Transceiver Station Identity Code (BSIC)
• 10 Identification of MSCs and Location Registers

2023-11-17 52
 2.1 International Mobile Station Equipment
Identity (IMEI)
• The IMEI uniquely identifies mobile stations internationally.
• It is a kind of serial number.
• The IMEI is
– allocated by the equipment manufacturer and
– registered by the network operator, who
– stores it in the Equipment Identity Register.

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 International Mobile Station Equipment
Identity (IMEI)
• By means of the IMEI one recognizes obsolete, stolen, or
nonfunctional equipment and, for example, can deny
service.
• For this purpose, the IMEI is assigned to one or more of
three categories within the EIR (Equipment Identity
Register):
– The White List is a register of all equipment.
– The Black List contains all suspended equipment.
– Optionally, an operator may maintain a Gray List, in
which malfunctioning equipment or equipment with
obsolete software versions is registered.

2023-11-17 54
 2.2 International Mobile Subscriber Identity
(IMSI)
• When registering for service with a mobile network operator, each
subscriber receives a unique identifier, the International Mobile
Subscriber Identity (IMSI).
• A mobile station can only be operated
– if a SIM with a valid IMSI is inserted into equipment with a valid
IMEI, since this is the only way to correctly bill the associated
subscriber.

2023-11-17 55
 2.6 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity
(TMSI)
• The VLR being responsible for the current location of a subscriber can
assign a Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI), which has only
local significance in the area handled by the VLR.
• It is used in place of the IMSI for the definite identification and
addressing of the mobile station.
• The TMSI is stored on the network side only in the VLR and is not
passed to the HLR.
• A TMSI may be assigned in an operator-specific way, it can consist of
up to four octets (4 X 8 bits).

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Inter-LA Movement

2023-11-17 57
Inter-MSC Movement

2023-11-17 58
GSM Example:
Location Update HLR
( (
5) 4)
(
(
VLR MSC 3) MSC VLR
6)
(
2)

Mobile
( Switching
1) Center

2023-11-17 59
Coverage of an area with three sectorized
BTSs
• Coverage of an
area with three
sectorized BTSs.

• Each BTS
covers a
segment of
120 degrees.

2023-11-17 60
 Mobile Station (MS)
• MS consist of two major • Mobile equipment
components personalization with the SIM
– the Mobile Equipment
– the Subscriber Identity
Module (SIM)
• SIM
– mobile equipment into a
complete mobile station
• IMEI, IMSI and MSISDN etc.

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SIM

2023-11-17 62
 Data Stored on a SIM
• Administrative data
• Security related data
• Subscriber data
• Roaming data

2023-11-17 63
 Multiple Access
Technology

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
Contention Protocols

2023-11-17 64
 Outline
• Multiple access techniques are used to allow sharing of a finite
amount of radio spectrum by many simultaneous users.
• The major multiple access techniques:
– Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
– Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
– Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
• Direct Sequence CDMA
• Frequency Hopping CDMA
– Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

2023-11-17 65
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• The frequency band is divided into channels of equal bandwidth
such that each conversation is carried on a different frequency.
• Best suited to analog mobile radio.
• Single channel per carrier.
• BS dynamically assigns a carrier frequency to each active MS.
• Used in All first generation cellular systems and early cordless
telephones.

2023-11-17 66
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• Separation of whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands
• A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole
time
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
Advantages: c
• no dynamic coordination f
necessary
• works also for analog signals
Disadvantages:
• waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is t
distributed unevenly
• Inflexible guard band
2023-11-17 67
 FDMA Transmitter
ω1
m1(t)
FDMA Transmitter
Modulator
1
ω2
m2(t) Modulator RF
2
∑ Modulator
…

ωn
mn(t) Modulator
n

2023-11-17 68
 FDMA Receiver

Demodulator m1(t)
BRF ω1
1

Demodulator m2(t)
RF BRF ω2
2
Demodulator

…
Demodulator mn(t)
BRF ωn
n
FDMA Receiver

2023-11-17 69
 FDMA: Channel Structure
Guard Band Wg Sub Band Wc

1 2 3 4 … N
Frequency

Total Bandwidth W=NWc

f1’ f2’ fn’ f1 f2 fn

… …
Frequency
Reverse channels Forward channels
Protecting bandwidth

2023-11-17 70
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

• A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain

amount of time
Advantages:
• only one carrier in the
medium at any time k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

• throughput high even c

for many users
f
Disadvantages:
• precise
synchronization
necessary t
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

• TDMA systems divide the radio spectrum into time

slots, and in each slot only one user is allowed to
either transmit or receive.
• TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer-and-burst
method, thus the transmission for any user is
noncontinuous.
• TDMA is a more expensive technique
– needs a highly precise synchronization between
transmitter and receiver
• Most of second generation systems use TDMA

2023-11-17 72
 TDMA system
M1(t) M1(t)

M2(t)

Demodulator
M2(t)

Modulator

RF
RF
Mn(t) Mn(t)

Timing and Timing and

synchronization synchronization

Simplified block diagram of a TDMA system

2023-11-17 73
 TDMA
Frequency f ’ Slot Frequency f

… … … … … …
#1

#1

#1
#1
MS #1 t t
… … … … … …
#2

#2

#2

#2
MS #2 t t
…

… … … … … …

#n

#n
#n

#n
MS #n t t

Frame Frame Frame Frame

BS
Reverse channels Forward channels
(Uplink) (Downlink)

2023-11-17 74
 TDMA FRAME

26 frames = 24 frames for traffic + 2 frames for control

Each frame has 8 slots
Each time slot has 156.25 bits
2023-11-17 75
 Time and frequency division multiplex combined

• Combination of both methods

• A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain
amount of time (e.g. GSM)
Advantages:
– better protection against
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
tapping
– protection against frequency c
selective interference f
– higher data rates
Disadvantage:
• precise coordination
t
required
 Code Division Multiplex (CDM)
• Each channel has a unique code
• All channels use the same spectrum k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
at the same time
Advantages: c
– bandwidth efficient
– no coordination and synchronization
necessary
– good protection against interference f
and tapping
Disadvantages:
– lower user data rates
– more complex signal regeneration t

• Implemented using spread

spectrum technology
 Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
• Systems with CDMA are broadband systems
• All the subscribers in a cell use the same frequency band
simultaneously
• The subscribers are assigned orthogonal codes to separate the
signals.
• The signal of one subscriber is spread spectrally over a multiple
of its original bandwidth.
• Some second generation systems use CDMA
• Most of third generation systems use CDMA

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An Example of Frequency Hopping Pattern

Frequency

Time

2023-11-17 79
 Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum for CDMA
Transmitter Receiver

Spreading Despread

Digital signal
Digital signal Spreading signal s(t)
s(t) m(t)

Code Code
c(t) c(t)
Power Power Power

Frequency Frequency Frequency

2023-11-17 80
 Space Division Multiple Access
(SDMA)
• Space division multiple access (SDMA) controls the
radiated energy for each user in space.
• SDMA serves different users by using directed antennas.
• Sectorized antennas may be thought of as a primitive
application of SDMA,
• In the future, adaptive antennas will be used to
simultaneously steer energy in the direction of many users
– It appear to be best suited for TDMA and CDMA base
station architectures．

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Multiple access procedures

2023-11-17 82