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had better not try to attack it, just as the showy white tail of the skunk
acts as a sort of danger-signal to its own particular foes. It is
important for the Aeolis, not merely to be an unpalatable nettle in
animal shape, but also to be conspicuous enough to prevent its
being experimented upon as an article of food, in mistake for
something less nasty.
Professor Herdman subsequently conducted some
experiments [158] with fishes, with the view of testing his theory that
the shapes and colours of Nudibranchs serve the purpose either of
protection or warning, and bear direct relation to the creature’s
edibility. These experiments, on the whole, distinctly tended to
confirm the theory. Aeolis was evidently very nasty, and probably
stung the mouths of the fishes who tried it. For the complete success
of the theory, they ought to have let it severely alone, but the fish
were evidently accustomed to make a dash at anything that was
dropped into their tank. Another conspicuous mollusc, Ancula
cristata, was introduced, Professor Herdman and his collaborator
each commencing operations by eating a live specimen themselves.
They found the taste pleasant, distinctly like that of an oyster. The
fish, however, when the experiments were conducted under
conditions which made the scene as much like ‘real life’ as possible,
did not agree with Professor Herdman. The Ancula crawled over
various parts of the tank for several days untouched by the fish, who
sometimes went close to them and looked at them, but never
attempted to taste them. Experiments with species whose colours
were protective, such as Dendronotus, were also conducted, and the
decided edibility of these species was established, the fish
competing eagerly for them, and tearing them rapidly to pieces.
Mr. W. Garstang, of the Plymouth Laboratory of the Marine
Biological Association, confirms[159] Professor Herdman’s views as
to the shape and colour of Opisthobranchs. Pleurobranchus
membranaceus is known to secrete, on the surface of the body, an
acid which reddens blue litmus paper. It is, therefore, no doubt
distasteful to fish, which all abominate the taste of acids, and is
conspicuously marked with red-brown and yellowish ‘warning’
colours. Haminea and Philine, on the other hand, are good to eat,
and consequently possess ‘protective’ coloration. Runcina Hancocki,
which is of a brown colour, crawls over brown mud and weeds, but
avoids green weeds, on whose surface it would appear conspicuous.
Elysia viridis varies its colour according to its habitat, being green
when on green weeds, and dark olive, brown, or reddish brown, on
pools among tufts of littoral algae. Green specimens of Hermaea
dendritica were kept in captivity, and placed in a dish with green and
red sea-weeds. They were never observed crawling upon the red
weed, upon which they would have been very conspicuous.
Archidoris flammea occurred on bright red sponges, to which its
colour was so closely assimilated that Mr. Garstang at first quite
overlooked it. Goniodoris castanea was found under stones, feeding
on compound Ascidians (Botryllus), which it sufficiently resembled to
be very inconspicuous in that position.
Again, Jorunna Johnstoni lives[160] upon stones on our southern
coast, associated with a certain sponge (Halichondria sp.), which it
resembles so closely in outline, in colour, in character of surface, and
in its projecting plumes, as to make it very difficult even for the
careful observer to distinguish the one from the other. And, since
fishes, are known to be distinctly averse to sponges of any kind as
an article of food, this resemblance must be decidedly to the
advantage of the Jorunna. Another Nudibranch (Calma glaucoides
A. and H.) imitates the ova of certain fishes, on which it feeds. Its
elongated and depressed form of body, transparent integuments,
and silvery gray papillae combine to give it a strong resemblance to
the spawn of the fish, which is deposited on stones, the roots of
Laminaria, etc.[161]
The common Lamellaria perspicua appears to possess the power
of protectively assimilating its colour, markings, etc., to the Ascidians
on which it lives. A recent case, occurring off the Isle of Man, is thus
described by Professor Herdman.[162] “The mollusc was on a colony
of Leptoclinum maculatum, in which it had eaten a large hole. It lay
in this cavity so as to be flush with the general surface; and its dorsal
integument was not only whitish with small darker marks which
exactly reproduced the appearance of the Leptoclinum surface with
the ascidiozooids scattered over it, but there were also two larger
elliptical clear marks which looked like the large common cloacal
apertures of the Ascidian colony.... Presumably the Lamellaria
escapes the observation of its enemies through being mistaken for
part of the Leptoclinum colony; and the Leptoclinum, being crowded
like a sponge with minute sharp-pointed spicules, is, I suppose,
avoided as inedible (if not actually noxious through some peculiar
smell or taste) by carnivorous animals which might devour such
things as the soft unprotected mollusc.”
Parasitic Mollusca
Various grades of parasitism occur among the Mollusca, from the
true parasite, living and nourishing itself on the tissues and
secretions of its host, to simple cases of commensalism. Some
authors have divided these forms into endo- and ectoparasites,
according as they live inside or outside of their host. Such a division,
however, cannot be rigidly carried out, for certain forms are
indifferently endo- and ecto-parasitical, while others are ecto-
parasitic in the young form, and become endo-parasitic in the adult.
It will be convenient, therefore, simply to group the different forms
according to the home on which they find a lodgment.
Commensalism
Mollusca are concerned in several interesting cases of
commensalism, or the habitual association of two organisms, as
distinguished from parasitism, where one form preys more or less
upon the other.
Mr. J. T. Marshall has given[178] an interesting account of the
association of Montacuta ferruginosa with Echinocardium cordatum.
The Echinoderm lives in muddy sand in Torbay, at a depth of about 6
inches, and the Montacuta lives in a burrow leading from its ventral
end and running irregularly in a sloping direction for 3 or 4 inches,
the burrow, which is made by a current from the Echinoderm, being
almost exactly the width of the Montacuta. The Montacuta were
always arranged in the burrows in order of size, the largest being
close to the Echinoderm, and the smallest of a string of about six at
the other end of the burrow. In another part of S. Devon, where the
sand was soft and sloppy, the Echinocardia rise to the surface and
travel along the sand; in this case the Montacuta were attached to
their host by means of a byssus, and were dragged along as it
travelled.
The Rev. Dr. Norman has noted[179] a somewhat similar habitat
for Lepton squamosum. This rare little British species was found at
Salcombe, living in the burrows of Gebia stellata, in all probability
feeding upon the secretions from the body of the crustacean. Dr.
Norman suggests that the extreme flatness of the shell of the Lepton
is of great advantage in enabling it not to get in the way of the Gebia
as he scuttles up and down his burrow. Another species of Lepton is
found on the coast of Florida in a precisely similar locality,[180] while
a third species, occurring on the Oregon and California coasts,
actually attaches itself to the inner surface of the abdomen of a
Gebia.[181]
Fig. 32.—Ephippodonta Macdougalli Tate, S.
Australia. A, Burrow of prawn, the X indicating
the position of the mollusc; sp, sponge. B,
Ventral view of Ephippodonta; by, byssus; f,
foot; m, mantle; mm, fused mantle borders. C,
View of interior of shells; h, hinge; m´m´,
adductor muscles. (A × ½; B and C × 2.)
A very singular case of commensalism has been recently
discovered with regard to a genus of Australian bivalve shells,
Ephippodonta. This genus is never found except in the burrow of a
species of prawn (Axius plectorhynchus Str.). For some reason at
present unexplained, the burrow of this particular prawn appears to
be exceedingly popular as a habitat for certain bivalves, for, besides
two species of Ephippodonta, a Kellia and three Mylitta are found
there, and there alone. Sometimes the prawn, when the rock is hard,
builds a tunnel of mud upon it, at other times it excavates the soft
calciferous sandstone. “This burrow is lined with a tenacious brown
mud, composed of excrementitious matter; and, in addition to the
mud lining, there is always more or less present an orange-coloured
sponge which I have never found elsewhere. Upon the mud or
sponge, and adhering very closely, are found the Ephippodonta.
They quickly form a pit-like depression by means of their foot, and
appear almost covered by the mud.” During the winter months
(March-July) the prawn appears to fill his burrow, possibly as a
provision against stormy weather, with large quantities of minced
seaweed, underneath which immense numbers of very young
Ephippodonta are found living.[182] The extreme flatness of the
Ephippodonta must be due to the same cause as the flatness of the
Lepton noticed above, namely, the necessity of not impeding or
interfering with the lively motions of the prawn. In the case of Lepton
the two valves close completely and the shell is still very flat; in
Ephippodonta, on the other hand, the same result is produced by the
valves being opened to their widest possible extent. As in Entovalva,
a continuation of the mantle covers the outer surface of the shell.
Variation
It is a familiar experience to the student, not only of the Mollusca,
but of every branch of animal or vegetable life, to come across
examples which exhibit certain slight deviations from the type form
as usually understood. These deviations may be more or less
pronounced, but, as a rule, a series of forms can be discovered,
gradually leading up to or down from the type. The definition of what
constitutes a species,—and, still more, the rigid application of such
definition—will always remain a difficult task, so long as the personal
element persists in him who defines.[183] What seems to one
authority ample ground for distinction of species, another may regard
as of comparatively trivial importance. The practical outcome of
these divergent views is sufficiently illustrated by the attitude of Mr. F.
P. Marrat on the one hand, and of what may be called the modern
French school of conchologists on the other. Mr. Marrat holds, or
held, that the great genus Nassa, of which more than 150 species
are generally recognised, is one shell (species) in an endless variety
of forms. The modern French school go to the other extreme, and
apparently proceed upon the view that almost any difference in form,
however slight, is sufficient to constitute a separate species.
It will be generally admitted, however, that some structural
difference in the organisation of the animal (as distinct from that of
the shell alone) is necessary for the permanent constitution of
specific rank.[184] What amount of structural difference is required,
what particular organ or organs must exhibit this difference, will
depend largely upon the idiosyncrasy of the observer. But if this, or
something like this definition of a species be accepted, it will follow
that a so-called ‘variety’ will be a form which exhibits differences
from the type which do not amount to permanent structural
differences in the organisation of the animal. The final court of
appeal as to what affords sufficient evidence for ‘permanent
structural differences’ will have to be, as with Aristotle of old, the
judgment of the educated man.
It is, however, more to our present purpose to discuss the causes
of variation than to lay down definitions of what variation is. One of
the most obvious causes of variation lies in a change or changes in
the environment. If we may assume, for the moment, that the type
form of a species is the form which is the mean of all the extremes,
and that this form is the resultant of all the varied forces brought to
bear upon it, whether of food, climate, temperature, competition of
numbers, soil, light, amount of water, etc., it will follow that any
change in one or more of these forces, if continuous and
considerable, any change, in other words, of the environment, will
produce its effect upon the organism in question. And this effect will
be for the better or for the worse, according to the particular nature
of the change itself as tending towards, or away from, the optimum
of environment for the species concerned. Hence may be produced
varieties, more or less marked according to the gravity of the
change, although it must be noted that at times a change apparently
unimportant from our point of view, will produce very marked results
upon the species. It is indeed scarcely possible to predict with any
certainty, in the present state of our knowledge (beyond certain
broad results) what will be the particular effect upon a species of any
given change in its surroundings.
Effects of Change in the Environment as tending to produce
Variation.
(a) Changes in Climate, Temperature, Elevation, etc.—In the
eastern basin of the Baltic the marine Mollusca are much more
stunted than in the western.[185] For instance, Mytilus edulis near
Kiel is 8–9 cm. long, while near Gothland it only attains a length of
3–4 cm. Mollusca living at only a shallow depth (e.g. Tellina balthica,
Mya arenaria, Cardium edule) do not differ much in size in different
parts of the Baltic, but in the far eastern basin the calcareous layers
of the shells of Mya arenaria and Tellina balthica are extraordinarily
thin, and disappear very rapidly after death, leaving only the cuticular
membrane, still united by the ligament, in a perfect state of
preservation. These remarkable variations are no doubt to a large
extent due to the violent changes of temperature which are
experienced in the Baltic, and by which the steady development of
the animals in question is interrupted and thrown out of gear. The
same species occur on the coasts of Greenland and Iceland, where
they attain a considerably larger size than in the Baltic, in spite of the
lower mean temperature, probably because their development is not
interrupted by any sudden change from cold to heat or vice versâ.
Karl Semper has shown that Limnaea stagnalis is developed,
lives and feeds best in a mean temperature of about 20° C. (= 68°
F.). This mean, however, must not be the mean of two distant
extremes, for the Limnaea cannot digest its food and grow in a
temperature which is less than 14° or 15° C. (= 57° or 59° F.), or
more than 30° to 32° C. (= 86° to 90° F.). In certain localities,
therefore, the interruption to the growth of this species must be
serious and prolonged, and may tend towards the production of
more or less dwarfed varieties. Thus specimens from Malham Tarn,
a lake in Yorkshire 1250 feet above the sea, are permanently
dwarfed, and have a very thin and fragile shell. Limnaea peregra in
the Pyrenees, Alps, and Himalayas is generally of a very delicate
form and dwarfed habit, while the small variety known as lacustris
occurs, according to Jeffreys, only in mountain lakes in Zetland,
Scotland, Ireland, and N. England. Specimens brought by Mr.
Bateson from lakes near the Sea of Aral, which are salt for some
months and comparatively fresh for others, exhibit clearly the effect
of changes in the environment (Figs. 33 and 34). Excess of heat
produces similar results to excess of cold. L. peregra var. thermalis,
found in the warm springs of the Pyrenees and the Vosges, and the
var. geisericola, from the hot water of the Iceland geysers, are alike
thin and dwarfed forms.
Many instances may be given of ‘varieties due to locality.’ In some
of these, the cause which predisposes towards variation can be
inferred with some approach to certainty, in others we must be
content to note the fact, without at present being able to perceive its
explanation.