Articles

a/ an singular countable noun

the plural countable noun
zero uncountable noun
A. Generic meaning
1. Countable
+ Singular (the): e.g. The tiger lives in jungle.
+ Plural (ɸ): e.g. ɸ People in the world look for peace.
2. Uncountable (ɸ): e.g. ɸ Sand is necessary for building.
B. Specific meaning
Indefinite
1. Countable
+ Singular (a/an): e.g. She is a student.
+ Plural (ɸ): e.g. They are ɸ students.
2. Uncountable (ɸ): e.g. ɸ I’d like beer, please.
Definite
1. Countable
+ Singular (the):
e.g. I bought a book yesterday. The book is very interesting.
+ Plural (the):
e.g. There are five new students in my class. The students are all freshmen.
2. Uncountable (the)
e.g. I had meat for dinner. The meat wasn’t very good.
C. Unique
Indefinite
1. Countable
+ Singular (a/n): You should draw a young moon here.
+ Plural (ɸ): Draw ɸ young moons all around here please.
2. Uncountable
Definite
1. Countable
+ Singular (the): The Moon rotates around the earth.
+ Plural (the): The two first runners.
2. Uncountable (the) e.g. That will depend on the Luck / Fate now.

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I. Indefinite article: a(n)
1. Basic use of a/ an

a // in front of
 a consonant e.g. a book, a T
 a consonant sound e.g. a uniform, a university / ju:/
an /n/ in front of
 a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) e.g. an orange, an umbrella
 a vowel sound e.g. an honest man, an F / ef/.
a(n)
 has an indefinite meaning or means any
 combine with a singular noun.

2. Classification in terms of meaning

Generic meaning (something or a person in general): a(n) + a noun

e.g. A cat is a domestic animal.
e.g. An architect is a person who designs buildings.

By means of label: a(n) + noun after the verb be

e.g. Andrew Bright is an architect.
e.g. He is an English teacher.

Nationality: A(n) + adjective = noun

e.g. She’s American = She’s an American.
e.g. He’s conservative = He’s a conservative.

Indicating
- occupation: e.g. He’s a doctor.
- religion: e.g. She’s an Anglican / Buddhist.
- politics: e.g. He’s a Socialist / a Republican.
Representative / example / typical or groups of class
e.g. A child needs love.
(All) children need love.

As a “certain person”: A(n) + title (e.g. Mr.) = a certain person whom I don’t know
e.g. A Mr. Smith phoned you.
e.g. A Mrs. Patricia was waiting for you.

Quantity: a(n) = only one

- Not specifying any particular person or thing:
e.g. I’d like an apple. (i.e. only one; this means some or any in plural)
e.g. I’d like some apples / I don’t want any apples.

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- Means “only one” e.g. I have a car.

Something mentioned for the first time

e.g. I looked up and saw a plane.
e.g. There were a man and a woman in the garden.

Difference between a/ an and one

- One when counting:
e.g. It was one coffee, not two.
- One when setting scenes (with day, morning) in story-telling
e.g. One morning, he went to the church to find something interesting there.
- a(n) and one being interchanged when referring to:
+ Whole number: a/ one hundred, thousand, million
+ Fractions: a/ one quarter, third, half
+ Money: a/ one pound/ dollar
+ Weight/ measure: a/ one pound/ kilo, foot/ meter

a(n) with reference to measurement: referring to one unit of measurement in terms

of another. To emphasize each, we use per instead of a/an:
+ Price in relation to weight: 80p a / per kilo
+ Distance in relation to speed: 40 km an / per hour
+ Distance/ fuel consumption: 30 miles a / per gallon
+ Frequency/ time: twice a / per day

a(n) after what and such

- a(n) used with countable nouns after What in exclamations:
e.g. What a surprise! What an interesting story!
- What a lot ...! (not How much/ many...!) used for exclamations:
e.g. What a lot of flowers! What a lot of trouble!
- a(n) used after such when we wish to emphasize degree:
e.g. That child is such a pest! My boss is such an idiot!
a(n) with pairs of nouns
e.g. a cup and saucer a hat and coat a knife and fork

a(n) with reference to illnesses / conditions

- the indefinite article is compulsory:
to have a cold, a headache, a sore throat, a weak heart, a broken leg
- the indefinite article is optional:
to catch (a) cold
to have (a) backache / stomach / toothache
- with illnesses plural in form (measles, mumps, shingles) no article is used.
My children are in bed with mumps.
- with illnesses defined as uncountable (flu, gout, hepatitis, etc.) no article is used:

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 I was in bed with flu for ten days.

II. definite article: THE

1. Basic use
the // before consonant sound: the day, the key, the house, the way ...
the / i:/ before vowel sounds: the end, the hour, the inside, the ear, the eye...
the has a definite reference (i.e. something assumed to be known to the speaker / reader)
the can combine with singular, plural countable, and uncountable nouns.

2. classification in terms of Meaning

Making general statements

e.g. The cobra is dangerous. (a certain class of snakes)
# e.g. Cobras are dangerous. (the whole class)
e.g. A cobra is a very poisonous snake. (as an example of a class of reptile)

The groups as a whole

- the + nationality adjective
e.g. The British = the British people in general
e.g. The Japanese = the Japanese people in general
- the + plural names
+ Families: The Price sisters have opened a boutique.
+ Races: The Europeans are a long way from political unity.
+ Politics: The Liberals want electoral reform.
- the given to particular groups to emphasize their identity: the Beatles, the Jesuits

Specific group: the + collective nouns or plural countable: the police, the public, etc.
Particular groups are picked out from the rest of the human community.
e.g. Getting the unions and the bosses to agree isn’t easy.
Something mentioned for the second time
e.g. Singleton is a quiet village near Chichester. The village has a popular of
a few hundred people.

The - the modifier “of- phrase”: making clear the meaning of the noun. The topics
referred to (e.g. freedom, life) are specified by means of “the + noun + of”:
e.g. The freedom of the individual is worth lighting for.
e.g. The life of Napoleon was very stormy.

Specifying by means of the ...+ clause or the .... + phrase (means certain)
e.g. The Smith you’re looking for no longer lives here.
e.g. The letters on the shelf are for you.

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Specifying within a limited context: (limited enough for the listener / reader)
- People: e.g. Who’s at the door? - It’s the postman. (= the usual postman)
- Place: e.g. Where’s Jenny? - She’s gone to the butcher’s (shop).
- She’s at the supermarket/ in the garden.
- Things: e.g. Pass me the salt, please.
- Parts of whole: “the whole”) is known, so the can be used to name its parts.
+ a human being: the body, the brain, the head, the heart,
the lungs, the mind, the stomach, the veins
+ a room: the ceiling, the door, the floor
+ an object: the back/ the front, the centre, the inside/ the outside,
the top/ the bottom.
+ a town: the shops, the street
+ an appliance: the on/off switch

In time expressions:
- in time sequence: the beginning, the middle, the end, the first/ last, the next, the
following day, the present, the past, the future
- with parts of the day: in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening
- with seasons: (the) spring/ summer, autumn, winter.
- in dates: I’ll see you on May 24th.
- in fixed time expressions: all the while, at the moment, for the time being, in the end

Unique items
- Institutions and organizations: the Boy Scouts, the United Nations
- Historical events, etc.: the French Revolution, the Victorian age
- Ships: the Canberra, the Discovery, the Titanic
- Documents and official titles: the Great Charter, the Queen
- Political parties: the Conservative Party, the Labor Party
- Public bodies: the Army, the Government, the Police
- The press (The is part of the title): The Economist, The New Yorker, The Spectator,
The Times
Note: the press, the radio, the television.
Compare: What's on (the) television? What's on TV?
Items with zero: Life, Newsweek, Punch, Time
- Titles (books, films. etc. The is part of the title): The Odyssey, The Graduate
Items with zero: Exiles, Jaws,
- Beliefs: the angels, the Furies, the gods, the saints
Compare God, Muhammad, etc. (proper nouns)
- Climate, etc: the climate, the temperature, the weather
- Species: the dinosaurs, the human race, the reptiles
Compare: Man developed earlier than people think.

Other references with the

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- with superlatives: It's the worst play I've ever seen.
- with musical instruments: Tom plays the piano/the flute/ the violin.
- fixed phrases with the...the : the sooner the better
- fixed expressions: do the shopping, make the beds

III. The zero article

1. Basic use
plural countable  Girls do better than  boys at school.
zero article () uncountable  Butter makes you fat.
proper nouns  John lives in London.

Abbreviations with zero, often acronyms (i.e. words made from the first letters of other
words), include:
- Organizations: NA TO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
- Chemical symbols:H2O (water)
- Acronyms which form 'real words':
BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
radar (Radio Detection And Ranging)

II. classification in terms of Meaning

a. The class as a whole: zero article + countable / uncountable

Zero article + plural countable nouns
People: Women are fighting for their rights.
Places: Museums are closed on Mondays.
Food: Beans contain a lot of fiber.
Occupations: Doctors always support each other.
Nationalities: Italians make delicious ice-cream.
Animals: Cats do not like cold weather.
Insects: Ants are found in all parts of the world.
Plants: Trees don't grow in the Antarctic.
Products: Watches have become very accurate.

b. Zero article + uncountable nouns (always singular)

Food: Refined foods like sugar should be avoided.
Drink: Water must be pure if it is to be drunk.
Substances: Oil is essential for the manufacture of plastic.
Collections: Money makes the world go round.
Colours: Red is my favorite color.
Activities (-ing): Smoking is bad for the health.
Other activities: Business has been improving steadily this year.
Sports, games: Football is played all over the world.
Abstract: Life is short; art is long.

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 Politics: Capitalism is a by-product of free enterprise.
Philosophy: Determinism denies the existence of free will.
Languages: English is a world language.

c. Unique Items: zero article + proper nouns

- Zero article + names of people
First names: Elizabeth was my mother's name.
Surnames: These tools are made by Jackson and Son.
Full names: Elizabeth Brown works for this company.
Initials: J. Somers is the pseudonym of a famous author.
Names can be modified by adjectives: young Elizabeth, old Frank Robinson, Frank
Robinson Jr (= Junior, AmE), Tiny Tim.
- Zero article + titles
Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms, Dr (full stops may be used optionally after the abbreviations
Mr., Mrs. and Dr).
Mr. and Mrs. are always followed by a surname or first name + surname (not just a
first name!):
Mr. and Mrs. Jackson are here to see you.
Mr. and Mrs. cannot normally be used on their own as a form of address. Miss is
also followed by a surname (Miss Jackson) but is used as a form of address by
schoolchildren (Please Miss!).

d. Zero article for days, months, seasons and holidays

Mondays are always difficult. Monday is always a difficult day.
June is my favorite month. Spring is a lovely season.
Christmas is the time for family reunions.

e. Zero article for artists and their work: The names of artists can represent their work
as a whole: Brahms, Keats, Leonardo, Lorca, Rembrandt
Bach gives me a lot of pleasure. (i.e. Bach's music)
Chaucer is very entertaining. (i.e. Chaucer's writing)
Adjectival combinations: early Beethoven, late Schubert, etc.
g. Zero article for academic subjects and related topics: Art, Biology, Chemistry,
Geography, History, Physics, etc.:
According to Henry Ford, 'History is bunk'.
English is a difficult language to learn well.
Adjectival combinations: e.g. Renaissance Art, American History

h. Combinations with the zero article

Zero article for times of the day and night: combinations are common with at, by, after
and before:

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 at dawn/daybreak, at sunrise/sunset, at noon/midnight/ dusk/ night
by day/night
before morning
at/ by/ before/after 4 o'clock: We got up at dawn to climb to the summit.

i. Zero article for meals in general: breakfast, lunch, tea, dinner, supper:
Dinner is served. Michael's at lunch. Let's have breakfast.
Note that the is used when a meal is specified:
The breakfast I ordered still hasn't arrived.
and a is used if the noun is specific:
That was a very nice dinner.

k. Set combinations
* Zero article for nouns like school, hospital: (Appendix 2)
- Referring to their 'primary purpose', that is the activity associated with them: e.g. He's
in bed (for the purpose of sleeping):
bed church class college court hospital
market prison school sea town university
work
Frequently combining with be in/at, have been/gone to:
He was sent to prison for four years.
The children went to school early this morning.
- Noun used with the when the item, etc. is specified:
Your bag is under the bed. There's a meeting at the school at 6.
Words such as cathedral, factory, mosque, office, etc. are always used with a or the.

* Zero article for transport

by air by bicycle by bike by boat by bus
by car by coach by land by plane by sea
by ship by train by tube on foot
We traveled all over Europe by bus.
- By + noun is used in fixed expressions of this kind, but not where the means of transport
is specified:
I came here on the local bus. You won't go far on that old bike.
* Zero article in fixed phrases
 Prepositional phrases
at hand, risk
by accident, arrangement, chance, contrast, hand, heart, mistake, order
for example, fear (of), instance
in addition, advance, case, effect, fact, favor, hand, mind, place, return, trouble, time
on account, call, demand, hand, oath, purpose, time
out of hand, sight
to measure, order

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under contract

 Parallel structures
arm in arm day to day door to door eye to eye heart to heart
time after time from time to time year after year year by year

 Double structures
hand in glove hand over fist hand to mouth head over heels
husband and wife man and boy man and wife

 Verb + noun: lose face, make conversation, take part, talk shop, give way ...
* Zero article for 'pairs' joined by and
day and night father and son
husband and wife light and dark
young and old pen and ink
sun and moon
This business has been run by father and son for 20 years.
Have you ever read Peace and War.

* Zero article after what and such

The noun is stressed after What, and such is stressed before the noun:
+ plural countable:
‘What fools they are!
We had ‘such problems getting through Customs!
+ (singular) uncountable:
‘What freedom young people enjoy nowadays!
Young people enjoy ‘such freedom nowadays!
l. Zero article for unspecified quantity
Sometimes we do not use some or any to refer to indefinite number or amount:
I have presents for the children. I have news for you.
Are there presents for me too? Is there news for me too?

m. Deliberate omission of a(n) and the

Newspaper headlines: HOTEL FIRE DISASTER
Nouns in the use of the zero article is very common in journalism (function as
apposition): e.g. Film star Britt Ekland...: War hero Douglas Bader...;

n. a(n) zero article () + nouns in apposition

D.H. Lawrence, an author from Nottingham, wrote a book called 'Sons and Lovers'.
(This implies that the reader may not have heard of D.H. Lawrence.)
D.H. Lawrence, the author of 'Sons and Lovers, died In 1930.
(This implies that many people have heard of D.H. Lawrence, or, if not, of Sons and Lovers'.)

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D.H. Lawrence, author of 'Sons and Lovers', died in 1930.
(This implies that everyone has heard of D.H. Lawrence.)

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