Elements of Competency and Performance Criteria

Elements of Performance criteria

competency
1.Prepare materials, 1.1. Right PPE is selected according to the safety and security measures
tools and equipment

1.2. Tools and equipment are adequately selected according to the work to be done

1.3. Materials are identified according to the required quality

2.Prepare the 2.1. Construction site is cleaned by removing trees, bushes and other hazardous
construction site objects

2.2. Adequately excavate and level the construction area with respect to the desired
structure

2.3. Map out accurately the foundation in accordance with design dimensions

2.4. The trenches are dug efficiently with respect to the marked dimensions

3.Prepare mortar 3.1. Ingredients for mortar mix are appropriately selected

3.2. Mix ratio and method of mixing are correctly applied in accordance with
Rwanda standards requirements and design considerations

3.3. Mixing mortar is carried out at the convenient place

4.Erect stones 4.1.Types of stone structures are identified properly

structures
4.2.Stones are well selected according to their qualities and its use

4.3.Stones are shaped with respect to standard shapes, size and its use

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 4.4. Stone water reservoirs and open channels are constructed with respect to the
given shape, water holding capacity and applicable standard requirements

4.5.Foundationand stairs are erected efficiently accordance with structural design

and applicable standard

4.6.Retaining walls are erected with respect to the structural design and applicable
standard

4.7.Stone water tanks are constructed according to the designed shape, water
holding capacity and applicable standard

4.8.Stone finishes are applied on erected stone structure

5.Clean the 5.1.Tools and equipment are correctly cleaned by respecting cleaning method
workplace

5.2.Adequate cleaning of working area

5.3.Appropriates storage of tools and equipment by respecting storage method

INTRODUCTION
Masonry may be defined as the construction of building units bonded together with mortar.
The building units (commonly known as masonry units) may be stones, bricks or precast blocks of
concrete. When stones are used as the building units or building blocks, we have stone masonry.
Similarly, in brick masonry, bricks are used as the building units. A composite masonry is a
construction in more than one type of building units.
Rock, that is removed from its natural site and generally, cut or dressed and then finished for building
purposes, is called "Stone" and the art of building the structure with stones as constructional units is
called "Stone Masonry".

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LEARNING OUTCOME.1: PREPARE MATERIALS, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
1.1. Identification of tools used to construct stones
1.1.1. Tools used to construct stones

 Wheelbarrow: Is used for carrying materials

 Spade/shovel: Is used for mixing sand, cement, collecting the materials loading on and
off loading.
 Gauge box: Is used for measuring the proportion of materials and to control the ratio by
volume.

 Bucket: Used for carrying water

 Pan: Is used for carrying materials

 Hoe: Is used for digging, collecting materials and mixing mortar

 spirit level: Is used for levelling and checking the horizontal plane of

masonry works and to stretch the verticality of masonry work piece.

 Trowel: is hand trowel used in brick work or stone work for levelling, spreading and
shaping mortar or concrete
 Squares: This is used for controlling right angles when building walls and setting out.
 Building line: This is used for horizontal levelling and setting out of the building.
 Tape measure: These are used for measuring lengths.
 Hand brush: Is used for cleaning and also for painting.
 Scrapper: Is used to remove extra mortar from walls, floors, and to scrap the wall ready
for painting
 Roller brush: provides thin, uniform and even coats.
 Steel float: Is used to remove extra mortar from walls, floors, and to scrap the wall ready
for painting
 Strings / Building line: This is used for horizontal leveling and setting out of the building
 Club hammer: Used to break and rectify stones
 Sand paper etc…

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mortar hawk

gauge box Straight edge scraper

Scratching tool

Pointing trowel pincers

Masonry chisel

1.1.3. Maintenance of tools

MAINTAIN TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Clean construction tools: this operation may be done by using different methods such as, water,
grease, dry, or a combination of two. Each tool or equipment has to be cleaned by using the appropriate
method.

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 Identify and report any bad condition of tools: different defects of tools have to be identified and
reported in order to repair (doing its maintenance) or replace it anywhere.
Clean machine after the use: Actually, after using any machine, you have to clean it for increasing
its durability, and also you have to keep it in good conditions. If any machine has got any problem or
defect, you have to identify and to report any bad condition of it, either it may be repaired or replaced,
or to do it maintenance as well.
Note: It is highly advisable to control and to do the follow up of every tool, equipment, or machine
used daily in order to know its condition, and you have also to know what you can do after detecting
any defect of each of them.
Safe store of equipment and tools
Tools and equipment used in construction activities must be kept in a dry and clean place in order to
void rusting of them and any other damage that may occur due to improper keeping of tools and
equipment.
Advantages of performing maintenance of tools and equipment:
Increase the life span of tools
Increase productivity
Reduce overall cost
Increase the efficient when running
To avoid its destruction,
To avoid rusting
To avoid decay
To increase the durability of tools and equipment
To save time and money and reuse of those tools and equipment and to reduce the cost of buying
the others
Types of maintenance for tools and equipment are:
Preventive maintenance
Predictive maintenance
Corrective maintenance
Periodic maintenance
Maintenance of Tools and Equipment involves:
Cleaning
Repair
Replace
1.2. IDENTIFICATION OF EQUIPMENT
• Mortar mixers: Compact mortar mixer with 3-action paddle. Specifically designed for mixing
self-levelling material, fiber reinforced material and concrete repair material.
• Stone dressing machine: used for dressing stones
• Grinders.
• PPE.

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  Definition of PPE
PPE is defined as “all equipment (including clothing affording protection against the weather) which
is intended to be worn or held by a person at work and which protects them against one or more risks
to their health or safety”. PPE is equipment that will protect the users against health or safety risks at
work.
This does not include ordinary working clothes such as uniforms which do not have a specific health
or safety function, nor does it apply to equipment used whilst playing competitive sport.
However, equipment required for the safety of a sports instructor does fall within the category of PPE,
for example, a life jacket for a canoeing instructor.
 GUIDANCE ON THE SELECTION OF SPECIFIC PPE AND THEIR USE
The following sections provide more detailed information on selection of specific PPE. Some relevant
literature and websites for further information or purchase of materials are also listed Within these
subsections.
SEVERAL PPE USED IN STONE WORK
Safety hand gloves: they are used to protect the hands from sharp materials and cement powder that
can affect your hands.
Safety googles: They are most used to protect eyes from flying particles and intense radiation.
mask: for respiratory protection
Overall: for body protection against dirty
Safety shoes: For feet protection against sharp objects. Safety shoes are categorized into two types,
rubber and strong boot.
Helmet: for head protection against any object that can drop.
Ear plugs: for ear protection against the impact noise.
FUNCTION OF PPE (PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPEMENT)
• It reduces employment exposed to the hazards.
• It avoids accident on the workplace.
• It provides the security to the users.
• It contributes to the production in the working areas.
MAINTAINING AND STORING PPE
It is important that PPE is well maintained. Maintenance may include:
1. Cleaning
2. Examination
3. Replacement
4. Repair and testing
Where PPE is provided, adequate storage facilities for PPE must also be provided for when it is
not in use, unless the employee can take PPE away from the workplace.

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1.4. IDENTIFICATION OF MATERIALS USED TO CONSTRUCT STONE MASONRY
COMPLYING WITH RWANDA STANDARDS
General classification of building materials
Building materials are generally broadly classified as metals and non- metals.

1. Metals
Various metals used for construction works are classified as ferrous metals and non-ferrous
metals.
a. Ferrous metal
A ferrous metal is one in which iron is the main constituent and it attracts magnet.
A ferrous material contains about 0.5% to 3% Silica, less than 2% Manganese, 0.15 Sulphur and
0.6% Phosphorous.
Examples:
- Steel
- Cast Iron -
- Wrought Iron, ....
b. Non-ferrous metal
A non-ferrous metal is any metal including alloys, that does not contain iron in appreciable
amount which does not attract magnet.
Examples:
- Aluminium
- Copper
- Silver
- Gold
- Lead
2. Non- metals
Nom-metal materials are mainly classified as natural and artificial (synthetic materials).
a. Example of non-metal artificial material
- Plastics - Glass
- Cement
b. Natural
i. Mineralogical materials Are these materials which are composed of different minerals.

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 Examples:
- Rocks (sand, stones, gravels)
- Lime
- Water
- Composite materials (Concrete, Mortar, Bricks, Blocks, ….) ii. Organic
material
Organic materials are defined in modern chemistry as carbon-based compounds, originally
derived from living organisms.
Examples:
- Timber
- Grass

1. CEMENT
Cement is a hydraulic made of finely ground non-metallic, inorganic material when mixed with water
it forms a paste that sets and hardens by hydration which retains its strength and stability even under
water. Cement is produced by grinding and mixing of argillaceous and calcareous materials like clay
and limestone and then burning the mix at very high temperature.

Types of cement
It is possible to manufacture different types of cement by changing the percentages of their raw
materials.
• Portland cement
• Natural cement
• Expansive cement
• High-alumina cement
• Etc…
Types of Portland cement

a) Ordinary Portland cement.

b) Modified cement.
c) Rapid-hardening Portland cement.
d) Low heat Portland cement.
e) Sulphate-resisting Portland cement.
f) Etc…
It is possible to add some additive to Portland cement to produce the following types:

• Portland blast furnace cement

• Pozzolanic cement
• Air-entrained cement
• White Portland cement
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 • Colored Portland cement
• Etc…
I. Ordinary Portland cement
This type of cement use in construction when there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil or
groundwater.

II. Rapid Hardening Portland cement

This type develops strength more rapidly than ordinary Portland cement. The initial strength is higher,
but they equalize at 2-3 months
Setting time for this type is similar for that of ordinary Portland cement
Chemical composition and soundness requirements are similar to that of ordinary
Portland cement
Uses

▪ The uses of this cement is indicated where a rapid strength development is desired (to develop
high early strength, i.e. its 3 days’ strength equal that of 7 days ordinary Portland cement), for
example:
▪ When formwork is to be removed for re-use
▪ Where sufficient strength for further construction is wanted as quickly as practicable, such as
concrete blocks manufacturing, sidewalks and the places that cannot be closed for a long time,
and repair works needed to construct quickly.
• For construction at low temperatures, to prevent the frost damage of the capillary water.
• This type of cement does not use at mass concrete constructions.
Special Types of Rapid Hardening Portland cement
Ultra High Early Strength Cement
The rapid strength development of this type of cement is achieved by grinding the cement to a very
high fineness.

Rapid Hardening Portland cement.

This type prepares by grinding CaCl2 with rapid hardening Portland cement. The percentage of CaCl2
should not be more than 2% by weight of the rapid hardening Portland cement. By using CaCl2.

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III. Low Heat Portland cement
Composition

It contains less C3S and C3 A percentage, and higher percentage of C2S in comparison with ordinary
Portland cement.
Uses

It is used in mass concrete constructions: the rise of temperature in mass concrete due to progression
in heat of hydration cause serious cracks.
So it is important to limit the rate of heat evolution in this type of construction, by using the low heat
cement.
IV. Sulphate- resisting Cement Composition

It contains:

▪ Lower percentage of C3A and C4AF – which considers as the most affected compounds by
sulphates.
▪ Higher percentage of silicates – in comparison with ordinary Portland cement.
▪ For this type of cement – C2S represents a high proportion of the silicates.
Properties

Low early strength.

▪ Its resulted heat of hydration is little higher than that resulted from low heat cement.

Its cost is higher than ordinary Portland cement – because of the special requirements of material
composition, including addition of iron powder to the raw materials.

V. Portland Blast Furnace Cement

Production

This type of cement consists of an intimate mixture of Portland cement and ground granulated blast
furnace slag.

Slag – Is a waste product in the manufacture of iron.

FUNCTION OF CEMENT

 It fills up the voids in the fine and coarse aggregates.

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  Make the concrete impermeable.
 It provides strength to concrete on setting and hardening.
 It binds the aggregates into a solid mass by virtue of its setting.
 Hardens when mixed with water
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

Strength
The compressive strength of hardened cement is the most important of all properties. Therefore, it is
not surprising that the cement is always tested for its strength at the laboratory before the cement is
used in important works. Strength tests are not made on neat cement paste because of difficulties of
excessive shrinkage and subsequent cracking.

Setting time
The setting time of cement (PPC) when tested shall be as follows:
Initial setting time: not less than 30 minutes
Final setting time: not more than 10 hours

Soundness
The cement when tested for soundness shall not have an expansion of more than 10mm. It is important
that cement after setting does not undergo any noticeable change in volume. An excessive change in
volume expansion of a cement paste after setting shows that the cement paste is unsound. It means that
it is not suitable for the production of concrete

2. AGGREGATES
The properties of aggregate influence the characteristic on its fresh state, strength, durability and
structural performance on its hardened state. It is not surprising that aggregate quality is important.
Aggregate is cheaper than cement and it is therefore economical by mixing the large quantities of the
former and small quantities of the latter.

Classification of aggregate

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 i. Classification of aggregate according to the geological origin
The aggregate may be divided into categories, namely the natural aggregate and artificial
aggregate.
ii. Classification of aggregate according to the size
• Fine aggregate fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed stones with most
particles smaller than 4.75mm in diameter. or The material, whose particles can pass through 4.75mm
I.S. sieve size, is termed as fine aggregates

Coarse aggregate

coarse aggregates consist of one or a combination of gravels or crushed stones with particles
predominantly larger than 4.75mm and generally between 9.5 mm and 37.5 mm in diameter. The
material whose particles are of such size as are retained on 4.75mm, I.S sieve are called coarse
aggregates

CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES ACCORDING TO THE SHAPE

iii. Classification of aggregate based on unit weight

The aggregates can also be classified according to their unit weight as normal weight, heavyweight,
and lightweight aggregates.

PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES
1. It should be chemically inert.
2. It should be free from organic or vegetable matter.
3. It should be free from salt.

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 4. The sand should be free of clay material
5. It should contain sharp, angular and coarse grains.
6. It should be well graded.
7. It should be hard.

3. WATER
Water is mixed with the cement powder to form a paste which holds the aggregates together like glue.
Water must be clean, fresh and free from any dirt, unwanted chemicals or rubbish that may affect
mortar. Many mortar plants now use recycled water. Always check bore water before use.
N.B: Adding more water to a mix gives a weaker hardened mortar. Always use as little water as
possible, only enough to make the mix workable
IV. STONES
Rock, that is removed from its natural site and generally, cut or dressed and then finished for building
purposes, is called Stone
Stones used for civil engineering works may be classified in the following three ways:
• Geological
• Physical
• Chemical
Geological Classification
Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groups:
Igneous, Sedimentary and
Metamorphic rocks.
(i) Igneous Rocks: formed by cooling and solidifying of the rock masses from their molten
magmatic condition of the material of the earth. Eg: Granites, basal
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks: Due to weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks
disintegrates. The disintegrated material is carried by wind and water; the water being most powerful
medium. Flowing water deposits its suspended materials at some points of obstacles to its flow. These
deposited layers of materials get consolidated under pressure and by heat.
Chemical agents also contribute to the cementing of the deposits. These deposited materials become
rocks called sedimentary rocks. Eg: Sand stones, lime stones, mud stones etc
(iii) Metamorphic Rocks: igneous and sedimentary rocks undergo changes due to metamorphic
action of pressure and internal heat and become metamorphic rocks.eg: gneisses become from granite,
quartzite becomes from sand stone.
Physical Classification
Based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as:
(i) Stratified Rocks: These rocks are having layered structure eg: Sand stones
(ii) Unstratified Rocks: These rocks are not stratified, cannot be split into thin slab. Eg: Granite

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Chemical Classification

( i ) Siliceous rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable. Examples
of such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc.
( ii ) Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are hard
and durable but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are examples of this
type of rocks.
(iii ) Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a
calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.
The following are the names of commonly used stones:

(i) Basalt and trap

(ii) Granite
(iii) Sand stone
(iv) Slate
(v) Marble
(vi) Gneiss
(vii) Quartzite

L.O. 2: PREPARE THE CONSTRUCTION SITE

2.1. CLEANING OF CONSTRUCTION SITE.

Clear work area is the removal of an obstruction or unwanted item or items from the workplace.

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Employers may want to remember to keep the workplace free of debris and remind workers to put all
equipment, such as personal protective equipment (PPE), in designated places to prevent an accident.
Identification of risky (hazardous) objects
Work areas and walkways on the job site should always be kept clear of tripping hazards such as
electrical cords and debris, broken glasses as well as protruding nails and exposed wires.
Diminishing these hazards not only keeps workers safe, but helps you avoid setbacks in completing
the job on time.

OBJECTIVES OF CLEARING THE SITE

 Keeping your construction site clean is not just about aesthetics, it’s about the safety of
your workers.

 Also known as housekeeping, removing clutter and debris from your worksite is not only
helpful for your crew, but is required by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, or OHSA.
Process to keep work area clean
A. ASSIGN CLEAN-UP TASKS EVERY DAY
Make sure that workers are assigned specific clean up tasks every day on the job.
Separate chores such as disposing of litter, disposing of flammable or toxic materials and organizing
the worksite at the end of the day. Tasks are much more likely to get done if they are assigned to
specific people than if they are assigned to an entire crew.
B. ALWAYS KEEP WORK AREAS CLEAR
Construction sites generally create a lot of construction debris such as scrap wood, metal, excess
building materials, nails, and screws.

C. KEEP TRASHCANS AND DUMPSTERS ON SITE

Keep trashcans plentiful and invest in a dumpster or two for your construction site. Trashcans will help
collect the small scraps that don’t belong in any specific pile while dumpsters can hold the larger non-
recyclable materials.

D. DO A FINAL CLEANING

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The final cleaning should include sweeping, mopping, washing off any countertops or surfaces,
cleaning windows and removing any protective plastics or stickers from flooring and glass.

Clearing working areas

• Provide safe access to the job site.
• Keep walking and working surfaces clean.
• Keep stairways, passageways, and gangways free of material, supplies, and obstructions.
• Pick-up and place all debris or trash in its proper container.
• Hammer in, bend, or remove any nails protruding from scrap lumber.
• Cap or bend all exposed steel rebar ends.
• Remove any items that aren’t being used from the work area and store them in their proper
place.
• Keep lavatory and toilet facilities (stationary or portable) clean and sanitary.
Managing Waste on job site
• Place trash and recycling containers throughout the job site.
• Keep waste in metal cans or bins with self-closing covers and remove debris regularly.

• Never allow rubbish to fall freely from any level of the project. Use chutes or other approved
waste-removal devices.
• Seal waste and product drums and containers tightly to reduce evaporation, spillage, and
contamination.
• Ensure the disposal of scrap, waste, recyclables and surplus materials is in accordance with
Federal regulations and local codes.
• Never dispose of any waste into storm or sanitary sewers.
• Frequently schedule the safe collection and removal of combustible waste.
• Lock and secure used oil containers and dumpsters
2.2. EXCAVATION AND LEVELLING THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
Factors to be considered when selecting a building site:
Elevation of site, elevated sites are generally preferable to low lying ones, being drier and easier to
drain.
Availability of facilities e.g. hospital, transport etc
Availability of services e.g. water, electricity, sewage, etc
Types and conditions of subsoil e.g. gravel, sand, clay etc
Before any building work can commence, the area must be levelled i.e.
reducing levels

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2.2.1. Method of excavation
Excavation: refer to the process of removing earth to form a trench in the ground or digging a hole or
channel in the ground.
Method of excavation:
• Manual method this is method of excavation done by using hand tools like: Hoes, spades,
Machetes, and pick axes

• Mechanical method
This is method of excavation done by using Mechanical plants
(machines)

Following are the equipment that can be used for various types of work:
1. A bulldozer can quickly push the topsoil
2. A back actor is used for digging pits for column or piers
3. A mechanical auger is used for digging holes for piles
4. Tipper truck for transporting large amount of soil
5. Dump truck for transporting small quantity of soil at a short distance
6. Draglines for digging deep foundations
7. Face shovel: for pushing the soil forward
8. Pneumatic drill for drilling into solid rock

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Fig. bulldozer Fig. back actor

Fig. Tipper truck Fig. Mechanical auger

Fig. dump truck Fig. Mechnanical shovel

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Fig. dragline fig. Pneumatic drill
TECHNICS OF LEVELLING THE GROUND Grading and Levelling site
Grading is done to prevent water flowing towards the foundation of building. This is done by making
a grade slope of the foundation of the drainage.
Levelling is done to make the base of foundation level. Don’t be confused with earth cutting and
filling. Earth cutting/filling isn’t done for levelling purpose. That’s done to make the ground surface
even. When you decide to make a building/house on a land, you must go through the ground works
discussed above to ensure your building’s sustainability.
Grading and Levelling site can be performed by using one of the following techniques:
a. By using hand tools: tools used to level the ground are
Rake, hoes, pick axes, spades, wheel barrow and so on
b. By using machine/heavy equipment: the equipment used
are excavators, motor graders and compactors(rollers)
2. 3.SETTING OF SIGNS MARK OUT FOUNDATION OUTLINES Procedure of mark
out foundation outlines:
• Marking out foundation and wall thicknesses
• Marking out on the ground from the profiles
2.4. DIG OUT FOUNDATION TRENCHES

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Definitions
Excavation: refer to the process of removing earth to form a trench in the ground or digging a hole or
channel in the ground.
Delimit: to mark or fix the limit.
Foundation: A foundation is the base on which a building rests. Its purpose is to safely transfer the
load of a building to a suitable subsoil, evenly and without undue settlement.
Pegging: the process of driving or inserting pegs into the ground while setting out.
DIGGING OUT TRENCHES METHODS
Digging out trenches can be done either manually or mechanically.
Excavation by hand using spades, hoes, wheelbarrow, pick and shovels is a good method for
excavating trenches for foundations for small buildings.
If you want to achieve more speed and depth, then you can use machines like back actor.
You may need to dig even deeper into the subsoil to excavate trenches for strip foundations. The depth
of the excavation will be shown on the working drawings.
THEORY OF THE ANGLE OF REPOSE
Angle of repose: refer to the maximum slope measured from horizontal at which loose solid materials
will remain in place without sliding. All excavation over 1.2m deep must be sloped for avoiding the
sliding materials fall from excavated trench.
One method of ensuring the safety and health of workers in trench is to slope the sides of the cut to the
angle of repose. Angle of repose varies with the different kind of the soil; it varies from 00 up to 900

Timbering of trenches

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Removing the excavated soil
Removal of Excavated soil of foundation trenches can be done either manually with the help of
conventional implements, or with the help of special mechanical equipment.
Advantages of using mechanical plant in excavation
work done quicker,
avoid dangerous condition of work by human workers, say,
existence of ground water or collapse of soil,
achieve greater depth,
use fewer manpower and work done in lower cost (for larger scale work only)
Disadvantages
involve larger running and maintenance costs,
require a larger operating area,
access provision to working area,
less flexible in work planning,
Increase cost of work,
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
GENERALS TRENCHING AND EXCAVATION RULES Keep heavy equipment away
from trench
Keep surcharge loads at least 0.6m from trench edges

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 Test for low oxygen hazardous fumes and toxic gases when works are more than 1.5m.
Inspect the trench at the start of each shift.
Do not work under suspended or raised loads and materials
TIMBERING OF TRENCHES
When the depth of trench is large, or when the sub-soil is loose, the sides of the trench may cave in.
The problem can be solved by adopting a suitable method of timbering.

Timbering of trenches, sometimes also known as shoring consists of providing timber planks or
boards and struts to give temporary support to the sides of the trench.
Timbering of deep trenches can be done with the help of the following methods:
1.Stay bracing.
2.Box sheeting
3.Vertical sheeting
4.Runner system
5. Sheet piling.
Each method of timbering will be discussed as follow:
1. Stay bracing. This method (Fig.1) is used for supporting the sides or a bench excavated in fairly
firm soil, when the depth of excavation does not exceed about 2 metres. The method consists of
placing vertical sheets (called sheathing) or polling boards opposite each other against the two
walls of the trench and holding them in position by one or two rows of struts. The sheets are placed
at an interval of 2 to 4 metres and generally, they extend to the full height of the trench. The polling
boards may have width of about 200 mm and thickness of 44 to 50 mm. The struts may have size
1OO x 100 mm for trench up to 2 m wídth and 200 x 200 mm for trench up to 4 m width.

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(Fig.1)

2. Box sheeting. This method is adopted in loose soils, when the depth of excavation does not exceed
4 metres. Fig. 2. (a) Shows the box like structure, consisting of vertical sheets placed very near to
each other and keeping them in position by longitudinal rows (usually two) of wales. Struts are
then provided across the wales.

Another system of box sheeting, shown in Fig. 2. (b), is adopted for very loose soils. In this system,
the sheeting is provided longitudinally, and they are supported by vertical wales and horizontal struts
[Fig. 2.]. If the height is more, braces are also provided along with struts.

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 [Fig. 2.].
3.Vertical sheeting. This system is adopted for deep trenches (up to 10 m depth) in soft ground.

The method is similar to the box sheeting [Fig. 3 (a)] except that the excavation is carried out in stages
and at the end of each stage, an offset is provided, so that the width of the trench goes on decreasing
as the depth increases. Each stage is limited to about 3 m in height and the offset may vary from 25 to
50 cm per stage. For each stage, separate vertical sheeting, supported by horizontal wailings and struts
are provided.

4.Runner system. This system is used in extremely loose and soft ground, which needs immediate
support as excavation progresses. The system is similar to vertical sheeting of box system, except that
in the place of vertical sheeting, runners, made of long thick wooden sheets planks with iron shoe at
the ends, are provided. Wales and struts are provided as usual (Fig. 4). These runners are driven about
30 cm in advance of the progress of the work, by hammering

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 (Fig.3) (Fig.4)
5. Sheet piling Method:
Sheet piling is used in the following situations:
• When excavating over a large area.
• Excavating soil and its surrounding soil loose and soft.
• Water comes during excavation of soil.
• When Excavation depth is more than 10m.
• Greater width of trench.

Precautions to be taken during timbering:

Work during timbering the following precautions should be taken for the safety of the
workers and the safety of the surrounding property:

1. Slip of Earth:
Soil erosion during deep excavation suppresses labor. Therefore, special inspection should be done
on the outside of the trench during such excavation. If cracks appear in the ground, the excavation
should be stopped and the labors should be immediately instructed to move to a safe place.

2. Testing of struts:
The struts should be kept in a fixed position and its rigidity should be checked periodically.

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3. Sagging of Wales:
As the soil pressure on both sides of the trench increases, the Wales bend. Such Wales should be
inspected from time to time and, if necessary, bent Wales should be prevented by giving more
support or by placing strong planks.

4. Movement of timbering members:

Various timbering members like Sheeting, Wales, Struts, bracing etc. move to their original
position due to soil pressure and timbering is weakened.

Timbering work should therefore be inspected frequently and any defects found should be repaired
immediately. Such observation is especially necessary during the rainy season.

5. Removal of Timbering:
Timber boards, supports, Wales, etc. Should be removed safely in stages after completion of work.

6. Safety helmets:
If stones, pieces of wood or other materials are likely to fall during excavation in the trench, safety
helmets should be provided for the workers to wear on their heads.

7. Ladders:
Ladders should be arranged at certain distances in the trench so that the labour can escape from the
trench safely in case of an accident. When digging in hard soils, ladders should be arranged at a
distance of 30 m and in loose soils at a distance of 15 m.

8. Traffic control:
The movement of trucks, wagons, other machinery from the edge of the trench should be done
under the guidance of an experienced supervisor.

9. Tools:
Workers should be provided with proper tools. So that they can use such equipment during
emergencies and come out of the trench safely.

10. Supervisors:
Supervisors should be appointed to supervise the labourers working in the trenches. The labours
alone should not be allowed to go into the trench.

11. Protection of adjacent properties:

If the foundations of the surrounding building become unsafe due to excavation, such building is
to be protected by temporary support.

12. Shelter:
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 A suitable resting place should be arranged near the trench so that the labours can take their food
and rest. Workers should be forbidden to rest in the trenches.

13. Fencing and lights around the trench:

Wire fencing should be made around the trench to prevent pedestrians, vehicles or animals from
falling into the trench. Red lights should be kept at the edge of the trench at night to prevent
accidents.

14. Design and Arrangements of Timbering members: The size of the member should be
determined on the basis of calculating the load on the various members used in timbering such
as planks, struts, etc. The spacing and size of such members are determined to keep in view
the type of soil and depth of the trench.
Separation of top soil and refilling soil
Removing topsoil away from other reusable material
Remove top soil
Removing top soil involved the removal of the exposed layer of the earth surface, including any
vegetation or decaying much could make soil unsuitable for bearing structure load.
*bearing of soil is the ability of the soil to support structural loads.
Refill soil
Only strength soil should be used for filling
Make smooth sides and level base
The sides of trench should be smooth for avoiding irregularity materials falling from excavated trench.
Checking of depth and surface level is done by using a builder's level
Impact of levelling trench bases and making smooth sides:
• Fasten foundation works
• Provide structural stability to foundation
• Avoid mortar wastage

LEARNING OUTCOME 3: PREPARE MORTAR

1.Introduction
Mortar is a workable paste obtained by mixing a binding material (cement or lime) with fine aggregates
(sand) and water in a suitable proportion.
Mortar is used to bind masonry materials together. Mortar is made in variety of ways, depending on
the job and the binding strength required.

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Mortar for brickwork is composed of cement, lime and sand (fine aggregates) or mud mortar. For
decorative purpose it can be colored. Bricks and blocks are bedded in and jointer with mortars.
3.1.SELECTION OF MORTAR INGREDIENTS
i. Cement is a fine and powdery substance that acts as an essential base material in a great many
construction as binding material. The cement powder, when mixed with water, forms a paste. This
paste acts like glue and holds or bonds the aggregates together.
NB: As the cement content increases, so does strength and durability. Therefore, to increase the
strength, increase the cement content of a mix. The properties of good cement are:

 It should be fine, fresh and free from adulteration

 It should provide strength to masonry.

 It Stiffens or hardens early.

 It possesses good plasticity.

 It should be an excellent building material

 It has to be easily workable.

 Good moisture-resistant

ii. SAND
Sand is a natural product which is available in rivers (river sand) and in pit (pit sand). It may be also
artificially obtained by crushing stones into small aggregates.
However, sea sand should not be used for the following reasons:
It contains salt and hence structure will remain damp. The mortar is affected by efflorescence and
blisters appear.
It contains organic matter, which decompose after some time, reducing the life of the mortar.
The properties of good sand are:
1. It should be chemically inert.
2. It should be free from organic or vegetable matter.
3. It should be free from salt.
4. The sand should be free of clay material
5. It should contain sharp, angular and coarse grains.

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 6. It should be well graded.
7. It should be hard.
iii. Water
Water is mixed with the cement powder to form a paste which holds the aggregates together like glue.
Water must be clean, fresh and free from any dirt, unwanted chemicals or rubbish that may affect
mortar.
Many mortar plants now use recycled water. Always check bore water before use. Don’t use sea water
as it may rust the steel reinforcement in the concrete.
N.B: Adding more water to a mix gives a weaker hardened mortar. Always use as little water as
possible, only enough to make the mix workable.
Water must be: Clean,
 Fresh and
 Free from any dirt,
iv. Lime: is a calcium-containing inorganic material composed primarily of oxides and hydroxide,
usually calcium oxide and/or calcium hydroxide.
This is also used as a binding material for aggregates as cement but it is recommended to use it for
construction works that will not be in contact with dampness.
Varieties of lime are stone lime, shell lime and kankar lime.
Properties of good lime
Good plasticity

Easily workable

Stiffens quickly

Good moisture resistance

Low shrinkage
v. Additives /admixtures:
These are chemical products added in mortar/plaster in order to increase its performance, bond
strength, improve water resistance compared to non-modified mortars.
Benefits of using admixtures
1. It helps to maintain water content in mortars
2. Reduces efflorescence
3. Improves workability/consistency

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4. Improves strength
5. Minimizes water absorption
TYPES AND USES OF MORTAR ADMIXTURES
Types of mortar admixtures decide their respective uses, such as:
1. Waterproofing admixture. is used to reduce moisture movement through bedding of masonry or
renders.
2. Water retaining admixture. reduces the suction of water from mortar into the masonry blocks or
units and enhances the workability, cohesion and reduces the bleeding.
3. Air entraining mortar admixture. enhances the workability.
4. Accelerating mortar admixture. reduces the setting times and is used where early strength gain
is necessary.
5. Retarding admixture. increases the setting times and is generally used for ready-mixed mortars.
6. Polymer dispersion admixture. helps in air bonding and provides flexibility and water repellence
to masonry mortars.
7. Bonding aids (or bonding liquids) are often used in plaster mixes and spatter dash applications for
bonding plasters to substrates. They are by no means a substitute for good surface preparation and
workmanship, but they do impart good workability to the mix, although overdosing can lead to low
strength.
8. Pigments. are used to add color, pigments should comply with BS EN 12878 or an equivalent
quality standard. The pigments must be alkali‐tolerant and if exposed to sunlight, ultraviolet‐
resistant and should not increase the water requirement of the mix unduly.

3.2.APPLICATION OF MIXING RATIO AND MIXING METHOD

Mixing ratio of ingredients

Mixing ratios are the proportions of mortar components such as cement, aggregates and water.
The following is the recommended types of mortar used in different construction works

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PREPARATION OF MIXING BATCH
Batching is the process of measurement of specified quantity of ingredient in correct proportion.
Batching and mixing are extremely important parts of mortar manufactures they influence properties
of mortar both in plastic as well as in hardened stages. Batching is done by two methods

1. volume batching method

Batching by volume means measuring ingredients of mortar by its volume. Batching by volume means
the measurement of ingredients is done by volume. Generally, cement is measured by weight or
number of bags. Batching of aggregate should be done with the Form or gauge Box,
Batching of water is done with the help of calibrated canes & the measuring accuracy should be within
1%. Batching of admixture should be done as same accuracy for cement (mineral admixture) and water
(chemical admixture).
For e.g. proportion (1:4) i.e. 1 part of cement 2 part of sand

2. weight batching method

Batching is done according to the weight of ingredients. It is more preferable method than
volume batching.

3.3.QUANTIFICATION OF MIXING INGREDIENTS

Bricks and mortar in a brickwork of 1m3 of 1 brick thick with
0.19mx0.9mx0.09m of brick with 0.01m of joint. Mix ratio is 1:5.

Volume of brick :0.19*0.9*0.09=0.001539m3

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 Volume of 1 built brick :0.20*0.09*0.1=0.0018m3
Number of bricks:1m3/0.0018 m3 = 555.5 bricks
• Volume of bricks :555.5*0.001539m3
Volume of mortar = volume of wall- volume of bricks
=1m 3 - 0.8549145m3 =O.1450855m3
Quantity of cement: 1*dry factor*volume of mortar / total ratio
Quantity of sand: 5* dry factor*volume of mortar / total ratio
Water to cement ratio: ratio of weight of water to the weight of cement
Quantity of water: weight of cement * Water to cement ratio.
INGREDIENTS FOR MORTAR
FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS INGREDIENTS

i. Cement
The primary requirement of cementing materials is to provide strength and durability to the structure.
For cement mortar mostly Ordinary Portland Cement is used. However, for special types of works
other cement may be used appropriately to the work.
Cement performs the following functions when used in cement mortar:
Primarily, it fills the voids formed by fine aggregates and thereby makes the mortar impermeable.
It binds the fine aggregates into a solid mass with time on adding water to the mix.
It imparts strength after setting and hardening.

ii. SAND
The fine aggregate mainly used is sand. The required properties of good sand were discussed
earlier. Sand plays the following functions in mortar:
It reduces the shrinkage of the binding material and thereby prevents the formation of cracks.
It provides high resistance to the mortar to withstand compressive forces.
It divides the paste of the binding material and spreads to provide more surface contact area.
It makes the fat lime porous to assist in setting and hardening.
iii. Water
The quality of water required for mortar has been discussed earlier. Water plays a significant role in
the formation of mortar. It helps in mixing, transporting and in the proper laying of the mortar. As a
matter of fact, the quality and quantity of water contribute to the strength of the mortar.

Water plays the following roles in mortar:

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  It wets the surface of the aggregates to provide better bonding.

 It helps in the spreading of the cementing material over the surface of the
fine aggregate.

 By acting as a lubricant for the aggregate, the mortar is made workable.

 It causes hydration of cement and lime because of which setting and

hardening of cement mortar and lime mortar take place.
iv. Lime: is a calcium-containing inorganic material composed primarily of oxides and hydroxide,
usually calcium oxide and/or calcium hydroxide.
This is also used as a binding material for aggregates as cement but it is recommended to use it for
construction works that will not be in contact with dampness.
Lime performs the following functions when used in lime mortar:

 It binds the fine aggregates into a solid mass. However, it takes more time to set.

 It imparts adequate strength to the lime mortar on setting and hardening.

v. Additives/admixtures:
These are chemical products added in mortar/plaster in order to increase its performance, bond
strength, improve water resistance compared to non-modified mortars.
Benefits of using admixtures
1. It helps to maintain water content in mortars
2. Reduces efflorescence
3. Improves workability/consistency
4. Improves strength
5. Minimizes water absorption
3.4. APPLICATION OF MIXING MORTAR METHOD
TYPES OF MORTAR
Lime mortar: A mixture of lime, sand with water (1:3 to 1:6) (lime: sand) develops strength
slowly.
Cement mortar: A mixture of cement, sand with water (1:3 to 1:9) (cement: sand) it is workable
but for everyday use, only suitable for heavily loaded brickwork or in extremely wet situations.
Cement-lime mortar: A mixture of cement, lime and sand with water (1:1:6 to 1:2:11) (cement:
lime: sand).

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 Mud mortar: Is prepared from a puddle mud (soft mud) and water. In this, clay is purged or puddle
with water until it acquired consistency.
It is generally used in village for masonry works. It is also used in urban area. Single or double store
building can be built by using mud mortar but these houses have to be pointed or plastered with cement
mortar. It is also used in plastering the huts.
PROPERTIES OF A GOOD MORTAR
A good mortar spread readily, remains plastic while bricks are being laid, provides a good bind
between bricks and mortars, acquires early strength. Mortar should not be stronger than necessary, as
an excessively strong mortar concentrates the effects of any differential movement forms wider crack.
It should be cheap and durable
It should be easily workable
It should have a good adhesion with bricks, blocks and stones
It should set and harden quickly, so that speed of construction work may be maintained.
It should offer a good resistance to the penetration of rain water

MORTAR MIXING TIPS

A few pro tips can ensure the best results when mixing mortar:
Always wear eye protection and waterproof gloves and other PPE when mixing mortar.
If the mortar starts to dry during application, add more water. Do not add water once the mortar
begins to set.
Use a good grade of fine sand in your mortar mix. The sand should be free of clay material;
otherwise, it will create a paste that could expand and contract as the water dries up.
Cover the sand during storage so it does not absorb water, which could change your mortar mix
water requirements.
Each type of mortar mix contains different quantities of material. Be sure to use the correct type of
mortar mix for the application.
Waterproofing agent may be added to mortar for brick fences to prevent damp.
To color mortar, add dye before mixing the mortar.
Successful mortar mixing relies on consistency. Try to use the same materials and use the exact
amount of material batch after batch. You can use a pail or bucket to make sure you are using the same
amount of material for subsequent batches.

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 Mix mortar for not less than three minutes and not more than five minutes after the last materials
have been introduced into the mixer or tub.
When hand-mixing, be sure to add all components before adding the water.
It is best to use fresh cement (unopened bags) when mixing mortar. Cement bags that are opened
tend to absorb environmental humidity, thus changing the water percentage of the mortar mix.
Portland cement is recommended for mixing mortar.
Mortar is good for 90 minutes. After that time, discard the mortar because it starts to lose some of
its characteristics.
Weather can affect how mortar reacts and how manageable can be, so plan accordingly.

METHOD OF MIXING MORTAR

The process of combining mortar ingredients is known as mixing. Mixing is a unit operation that
involves manipulation of a heterogeneous physical system with the intent to make it more
homogeneous.
For producing the homogeneous mass of mortar, the ingredient is mixed. Depending upon the
requirement, quality, quantity, etc… the method of mixing is decided.
Generally, there are two methods for mixing the mortar:
1. Hand mixing (manual mixing): this is a mixing method using hand tool like (spade) and it is
normally used for small work.
2. Machine mixing (mechanical mixing): normally used for big project work.it uses mechanical
mixing equipment i.e cement mortar mixer.
HOW TO MIX MORTAR MANUALLY (HAND MIXING)
Steps of hand mixing:
Prepare yourself by picking up a bag of the appropriate cement for your job (Portland cement is the
most popular all-round choice), sand and water.
Load these items (sand and cement) into a large container respecting the mixing ratio, Ex: 1:3, 1:4…
You may want to consult a cement mix ratio to get the precise amounts required for different projects).
Mix them up with a spade until you get a homogeneous mass (dry mixing).
Next, pour a little water on top of the dry ingredients and start mixing (wet mixing). Just be aware
that the more water you use in your mix, the thinner the cement will be once it is ready for use.

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 Keep stirring (change the place in any manner), possibly switching from a spade to a rake, until the
mortar is wet enough.
Stop mixing when the mortar is wet enough to slip easily off the shovel but holds its shape if you
make a hollow in the mix.
Once this is done, pour it into the area that you intend to use the cement and apply before it becomes
rigid.

MACHINE MIXING
A mortar mixer does a better job than mixing by hand and it’s not such hard work!
Mixers can be run by petrol, diesel or electric motors. Find out how to operate your mixer correctly
and safely.
Steps of mechanical mixing:
1. Start or turn on the mixer
2. Put in about 2/3 of the water you need
3. Add the sand and then the cement
4. Mix together until it all looks the same color
5. Add the rest of the water a bit at a time until you get a mix that is workable but not too wet. Use
the least water you can
6. Mix for another 2 minutes
7. Pour out and make the next batch.
8.Don’t forget to wash out the mixer as soon as you have finished.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR MORTAR WORKS
Wheelbarrow: Is used for carrying materials
Spade/shovel: Is used for mixing sand, cement, collecting the materials loading on and off loading.
Gauge box: Is used for measuring the proportion of materials and to control the ratio by volume.
Bucket: Used for carrying water
Pan: Is used for carrying materials

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 Mortar hawk: Is used for holding mortar
Hoe: Is used for digging, collecting materials and mixing mortar

Mortar mixers: Compact mortar mixer with 3-action paddle. Specifically designed for mixing
self-levelling material, fiber reinforced material and concrete repair material.

LEARNING OUTCOME 4: ERECT STONE STRUCTURES

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN MASONRY
Following are some of the technical terms used in masonry work. Since these terms are frequently
used in the description and procedures, it is essential to understand the meaning of these terms. The
terms which apply exclusively to the brick masonry have been defined separately in the next chapter.
1. Course. A course is a horizontal layer of masonry unit. Thus, in stone masonry, the thickness
of a course will be equal to the height of the stones plus thickness of one mortar joint. Similarly,
in brick masonry, the thickness of a course will be equal to the thickness of modular brick plus
thickness of one mortar joint.
2. Header. A header is a full stone unit or brick which is so laid that its length is perpendicular to
the face of the wall. Thus, the longest length of a header lies at right angles to the face of the work.
In the case of stone masonry header is sometimes known as through stone. In the case of modular
bricks, a brick header will show its face measuring 10 cm x 20 cm on the face of the wall.

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3. Stretcher. A stretcher is a full stone unit or brick which is so laid that its length is along or
parallel to the face of the wall. Thus, the longest length of stretcher lies parallel to the face of the
work. Thus, in the case of modular bricks, a brick stretcher will show its face measuring 10 cm x
20 cm. 4. Header Course. A course of brick work showing only headers on the exposed face of
the wall is known as header course or heading course. Thus a header course of bricks will show all
the brick units measuring 10 cm x 10 cm of the face of the wall.
5. Stretcher Course. A course of brick work showing only the stretchers on the exposed face of
the wall is known as the stretcher course or stretching course.
6. Bed. This is the lower surface of a brick or stone in each course. This is the surface of stone or
brick perpendicular to the line of pressure.
7. Natural bed. Building stones arc obtained from rocks which have distinct planes of divisions
along which the stones can be easily split. This plane is known as natural bed. In stone masonry,
the direction of natural bed should he perpendicular to the line of pressure.
8. Bond. Bond is a term in masonry, applied to the over-lapping of bricks or stones in alternate
courses, so that no continuous vertical joints are formed and the individual units are lied
together.
9. Quoins. The exterior angle or corner of a wall is known as quoin. The stones or bricks forming
the quoins are known as stone quoins or quoin bricks. If the quoin is laid in such a manner that
its width is parallel to the face of the wall, it is known as quoin header. If, however, the length
of the quoin is laid parallel to the face of the wall, it is known as quoin stretcher. Quoin stones
are selected sound and large and their beds are properly dressed.

10. Face. It is the surface of the wall exposed to the weather.

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11. Back. The inner surface of the wall which is not exposed to weather is termed as back,

12. Facing. The material used in the face of the wall is known as facing.

13. Hearting. The inner portion of the wall between the facing and backing is known as the
hearting.
14. Side. It is the surface forming the boundary of bricks or stones in a direction transverse to the
face and bed.
15. Joint The junction of adjacent units of bricks or stones is known as a joint. Joints parallel to
the bed of bricks or stones is known as bed joint. Bed joints are thus horizontal mortar joints
upon which masonry courses are laid. Joints perpendicular to the face of the wall is known as
cross-joint or vertical joints. All joints are formed in cement mortar, lime mortar or mud
mortar. A joint which is parallel to the face of the wall is known as wall joint.

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16. Closer. It is the portion of brick cut in such a manner that its one long face remains uncut.
Thus, a closer is a header of small width.
17. Queen closer. It is the portion of a brick obtained by cutting a brick lengthwise into two
portions. Thus, a queen closer is a brick which is half as wide as the full brick.
18. King closer. It is the portion of a brick which is so cut that width of one of its end is half that
of a full brick, while the width at the other end is equal to the full width. It is thus obtained by
cutting off the triangular piece between the centre of one end and the centre of the other (long)
side.
19. Bevelled closer. It is the special form of king closer in which the whole length of the brick is
bevelled in such a way that half width is maintained at one end and full width is obtained at the
other end.

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20. Mitred closer. It is a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for full width. The angle of
splay may vary from 45° to 60°. Thus, one longer face of the mitred closer is of full length of
the brick while the other longer face is smaller in length.
21. Bat. It is the portion of the brick cut across the width. Thus a bat is smaller in length than the
full brick. If the length of the bat is equal to half the length of the original brick, it is known as
half bat. A three quarter bat is the one having its length equal to three quarters of the length of
a full brick. If a bat has its width bevelled, it is known as bevelled bat.
22. Perpend. It is that vertical joint on the face of the wall, which lies directly above the vertical
joints in alternate courses.
23. Frog. It is an indentation or depression on the top face of a brick or stone made with the object
of forming a key for the mortar. This prevents the displacement of the brick above.
24. Through Stone. A through stone is a stone header. Through stones are placed across the wall
at regular interval. If the thickness of the wall is small, through stone may be of length equal
to the full width of the wall. If, however the wall is considerably thick, two through stones with
an overlap are provided, as shown in Fig. 5.3 (b). Through stones should be strong, and
nonporous, and should be of sufficient thickness.

25. Sill. The bottom surface of a door or a window opening is known as a sill. Sill is thus the
horizontal member of brick, stone, concrete or wood provided to give support for the vertical
members of the opening, and also to shed off rain water from the face of the wall immediately
below the opening. Sill stones, when provided, are so dressed that they prevent the entry of
water to the interior of the building.
26. Lintel. It is a horizontal member of stone, brick, wood, steel, or reinforced concrete, used to
support the masonry and the super-imposed load above an opening.

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27. Plinth. Plinth is the horizontal projecting course of stone or brick, provided at the base of the
wall above the ground level. Plinth raises the level of ground floor above the natural ground
level, thus protecting the building from rain, water, frost and other weather effects.
28. Plinth course. It is the uppermost course of the plinth masonry.

29. String course. It is the continuous horizontal course of masonry, projecting from the face of
the wall for shedding rain water off the face. It is generally provided at every floor and sill
level. A string course breaks the monotony of a plane surface, and thus imparts aesthetic
appearance to the structure. The string course is suitably weathered and throated so as to throw
off water clear of the wall surface.

30. Jambs. Jambs are the vertical sides of a finished opening for the door, window or fire place
etc. Jambs may be plain or splayed or may be provided with the recess to receive the frames of
doors and windows.
31. Reveals. These are the exposed vertical surfaces left on the sides of an opening after the door
or window frame has been fitted in position.

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32. Corbel. A corbel is a projecting stone which is usually provided to serve as support for joist,
truss, weather shed etc. Corbels are generally moulded and given ornamental treatment.
Corbels should extend at least two-thirds of their length into the wall, so that they do not overturn
or come out of the wall(Fig.5.5)
33. Cornice. It is a projecting ornamental course near the top of a wall or at the junction of wall
and the ceiling. It penetrates the full width of the wall. It is weathered and throated to dispose
off rain water. In order to prevent overturning of cornice, extra weight in the form of parapet
wall should be provided (see Fig 5.6).

34. Coping. It is a covering of stone, concrete, brick of terracota, placed on the exposed top of a
wall, to prevent seepage of water.
35. It may also be provided on the top of compound wall. A coping is suitably weathered and
throated (Fig. 5.7).

.
36. Weathering. It is the term used to denote the provision of the slope on the upper surface as
sills, cornices, string courses, copings etc.
37. Throating. It is a groove provided on the underside of projecting elements such as sills
cornices, copings etc., so that rain water can be discharged clear of the wall surface.
38. Parapet. It is the portion of low height wall constructed along the edge of the roof to protect
the users. Parapet acts as a protective solid balustrade for the users. In the case of pitched roofs,
parapet is constructed to conceal the gutter at the eaves level.

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39. Arch. Arch is a structural construction of masonry constructed by mechanical arrangement of
wedge-shaped blocks of stone or brick arranged in the form of a curve supporting wall or load
above the opening.
40. Gable. It is a triangular shaped masonry work, provided at the ends of a sloped roof.
41. Freeze. It is a course of stone placed immediately below the cornice, along the external face
of the wall, intended to improve the appearance of the wall.

42. Blocking course. It is another course of stone placed immediately above the cornice. Apart
from improving the appearance of the wall, it adds to the stability of the cornice against
overturning.
43. Toothing. These are the bricks left projecting in alternate courses for the purposes of bonding
future masonry work.
44. Lacing course. It is the horizontal course of stone blocks provided to strengthen a wall made
of irregular courses of small stones, as shown in Fig. 5.10. The Lacing course may be either in
ashlar masonry or coursed rubble masonry or brick masonry.

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45. Spalls. Spalls are the chips or small pieces of stones obtained as a result of reducing big blocks
of stones into the regular stone blocks. These spalls are used in filling the interstices of stone
masonry.
46. Stoolings. These are the horizontal stones provided to receive jambs and mullions. These are
formed at the ends of sills, transoms and heads.
47. Template or bed block. It is defined as the block of stone or concrete provided under a beam
or girder to distribute the concentrated load over a greater area of the bearing surface.

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 48. Column. It is a vertical load bearing member of masonry, which is constructed in an isolation
from the wall, and whose width does not exceed four times its thickness.
49. Pier. Pier is an isolated vertical mass of stone or brick masonry to support beams, lintels, arch
etc, the width of which exceeds four times its thickness. If it is made monolithic with the wall
and projecting a little beyond to support the ends of a beam or truss etc, then it is called a
pilaster.

Buttress. It is a sloping or stepped masonry projection from a tall wall intended to strengthen the wall
against the thrust of a roof or arch.
50. Offsets. These are the narrow horizontal surfaces which are formed by reducing the thickness
of the wall. Walls of tall buildings are formed with offsets.
Similarly, offsets are also provided in masonry footings.

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 51. Thresh holds. Thresh hold is the arrangement of steps provided from the plinth level of
external door or verandah to the ground level. These may consist of stone, brick or concrete,
and are constructed at the last stage of construction activities of the building.

4.1. IDENTIFICATION OF TYPES OF STONE STRUCTURES

Stone is an essential and more permanent building material in construction than other natural building
materials. Based on the type, stones can be used in buildings for wall, flooring, roofing, masonry,
paving roads, foundation, retaining wall, stairs and also as aggregates for concrete.

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Depending upon the arrangement of stones in the construction, degree of refinement used in shaping
the stone and finishing adopted, stone masonry can be classified as follows: (a) Rubble Masonry

(b) Ashlar Masonry.

(A) RUBBLE MASONRY

In the rubble masonry, the blocks of stone that are used are either undressed or comparatively roughly
dressed. The masonry has wide joints, since stones of irregular sizes are used. Rubble masonry may
be out of the following types:

Random Rubble: Uncoursed

This is the roughest and cheapest form of stone walling. In this type of masonry, the stones used are
of widely different sizes.
Since the stones are not of uniform size and shapes, greater care and ingenuity have to be exercised in
arranging them in such a way that they adequately distribute the pressure over the maximum area and
at the same time long continuous vertical joints are avoided.

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Sound bond should be available both transversely as well as longitudinally. Transverse bond is
obtained by the liberal use of headers. Larger stones are selected for quoins and jambs to give increased
strength and better appearance.
This type of masonry is also known as uncoursed nibble masonry.
2. Random Rubble: Built to Courses
The method of construction is the same as above except that the work is roughly levelled up to form
courses varying from 30 to 45 cm thick. All the courses are not of the same height.
For the construction of this type of masonry, quoins are built first and line (string) is stretched between
the tops of quoins. The intervening walling is then brought up to this level by using different size of
stones. Fig. 5.15 shows the procedure, in which the stone has been numbered in the order in which
they are placed. This form of masonry is better than uncoursed random rubble masonry.

3. Square Rubble: Uncoursed (Square-snecked rubble)

Square rubble masonry uses stones having straight bed and sides. The stones are usually squared and
brought to hammer dressed or straight cut finish. In the uncoursed square rubble, also sometimes
known as square-snecked rubble, the stones with straight edges and sides are available in different
sizes (heights). They are arranged on face in several irregular pattern. Good appearance can be
achieved by using risers (a large stone, generally a through stone), leveller (thinner stones) and sneck
or check (small stone) in a pattern, having their depths in the ratio of 3:2:1 respectively. Snecks are

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the characteristics of this type of construction, and hence the name. This prevents the occurrence of
long continuous joints.
4. Square Rubble: Built to courses
This type of masonry also uses the same stones as used for uncoursed square rubble. But the work is
levelled up to courses of varying depth.
The courses are of different heights. Each course may consist of quoins, jamb stones, bonders and
through of the same height, with smaller stones built in between them up to the height of the larger
stones, to complete the course.

5. Square rubble: Regular coursed

In this type of masonry, the wall consists of various courses of varying heights, but the height of stones
in one particular course is the same (Fig.5.18)
6. Polygonal Walling (Polygonal rubble masonry)
In this type the stones are hammer finished on face to an irregular polygonal shape. These stones are
bedded in position to show face joints running irregularly in all directions. Two types of polygonal
walling may be there: in the first type the stones are only roughly shaped, resulting in only rough
fitting.
Such a work is known as rough picked. In the second type, the faces of stones are more carefully
formed so that they fit more closely. Such a work is known as closepicked work.

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7. Flint Walling (Flint rubble masonry)
The stones used in this masonry are flints or cobbles, which vary in width and thickness from 7.5 to
15 cm and in length from 15 to 30 cm. These are irregularly shaped nodules of silica. The stones are
extremely hard. But they are brittle and therefore may break easily. The face arrangement of the
cobbles may be either coursed or uncoursed or built to courses. Strength of flint wall may be increased
by introducing lacing courses of either thin long stones or bricks at vertical interval of 1 to 2 metres.

8. Dry rubble masonry.

Dry rubble masonry is that rubble masonry, made to courses, in which mortar is not used in the joints.
This type of construction is the cheapest, and requires more skill in construction.
This may be used for non-load bearing walls, such as compound wall etc.
(B) ASHLAR MASONRY

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 Ashlar masonry consists of blocks of accurately dressed stone with extremely fine bed and end joints.
The blocks may be either square and rectangular shape. The height of stone varies from 25 to 30 cm.
The height of blocks in each course is kept equal but it is not necessary to keep all the courses of the
same height.
Ashlar masonry may be subdivided into the following categories:
(1) Ashlar fine tooled
(2) Ashlar rough tooled

(3) Ashlar rock, rustic or quarry faced

(4) Ashlar chamfered

(5) Ashlar block in course

(6) Ashlar facing Ashlar fine tooled

This is the finest type of stone masonry work. Each stone is cut to regular and required size and shape
so as to have all sides rectangular, so that the stone gives perfectly horizontal and vertical joints with
adjoining stone. The beds, Joints and faces are chisel dressed, such that all waviness and unevenness
is completely removed and a fairly smooth surface is obtained. The face which remains exposed in the
final work is so dressed that no point on the dressed face is more than 1 mm from a 600 mm long
straight edge placed on the surface in any direction. The top and bed is also so dressed that no point
on it varies by more than 3 mm when checked with the straight edge.

.
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The side surfaces which are to form the vertical joints are also so dressed that no point on the surface
is more than 6 mm from the straight edge. The surfaces forming internal joints which are not visible
are also so dressed that no point on the surface is more than 10 mm from the straight edge. All angles
and edges that remain exposed in the final position are kept as true square and free from chipplings.
The thickness of courses is generally not less than 15 cm. The width of stone is not kept less than its
height. Headers and stretchers are laid alternately in each course or course of headers and course of
stretchers may be laid alternately or they may be laid as otherwise directed. The thickness of mortar
joint is kept uniform throughout and it should not be more than 5 mm. The exposed joints are finely
pointed.

2. Ashlar rough tooled (Bastard ashlar)

In this type of masonry, the beds and sides of each stone block are finely chisel dressed just in the
same manner as for ashlar fine, but the exposed face is dressed by rough tooling. A strip, about 25 mm
wide and made by means of a chisel is provided around the perimeter of the rough dressed face of each
stone.
The rough tooled face when tested with a straight edge 600 mm in length, should not show any point
on the surface to vary by more than 3 mm in any direction. This type of masonry is also known as
bastard ashlar. The size, angle, edges etc. are maintained in order, similar to that for fine dressed
ashlar. The thickness of mortar joint should not be more than 6 mm.

3. Ashlar rock faced (rustic or quarry faced)

In this type of masonry, the exposed face of the stone is not dressed but is kept as such so as to give
rock facing. However, a strip of about 25 mm wide, made by means of a chisel, is provided around the
perimeter of the exposed face of every stone.
The projections on the exposed face (known as bushings) exceeding 80 mm in height are removed by
light hammering. Each stone block, however is maintained true to its size, with perfectly straight side
faces and beds, and truely rectangular in shape. This type of construction gives massive appearance.
The height of each block may vary from 15 cm to 30 cm. The thickness of mortar joint may be upto
10 mm.

4. Ashlar chamfered

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This is special form of rock-faced ashlar masonry in which the strip provided around the perimeter of
the exposed face is chamfered or bevelled at an angle of 45° by means of a chisel to a depth of 25 mm.
Due to this, a groove is formed in between adjacent blocks of stone. Around this bevelled strip, another
strip of 15 cm is dressed with the help of chisel. The space inside this strip is kept rock faced except
that large bushings in excess of 80 mm projections are removed by a hammer

5. Ashlar block in course

This type of masonry is intermediate between rubble masonry and ashlar masonry. The faces of each
stone are hammer dressed, and the height of blocks is kept the same in any course, though it is not
necessary to keep uniform height for all the courses.
The vertical joints are not as straight and as fine as in ashlar masonry. The depth of courses may vary
from 15 to 30 cm. This type of masonry is adopted in heavy works such as retaining walls, bridges etc.

6. Ashlar facing
Ashlar facing masonry is provided along with brick or concrete block masonry, to give better
appearance. The sides and beds of each block are properly dressed so as to make them true to shape.
The exposed faces of the stone are rough tooled and chamfered. The backing of the wall may be made
in brick masonry.

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 .

4.2. SELECTION OF TYPES OF STONE OF GOOD QUALITY

Selection of stone for stone masonry depends up on:

1) Availability

2) Ease of working

3) Appearance

4) Strength and stability

5) Polishing characteristics

6) Economy

7) Durability
The properties / qualities of stones:
The proprieties of stones which are important for stone masonry are strength and durability.
Economy and appearance are additional requirements. The main considerations for durability are the
lasting qualities of the stone itself and the locality where it is to be used. Porous stones are unsuitable
for areas prone to heavy rainfall and frost.
Stones, e.g. marbles having low porosity and low coefficients of expansion and contraction should be
used in areas subjected to large variations in rainfall and temperatures.

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Stones are well selected according to their qualities and its use
Crushing strength: For a good building stone, the crushing strength should be greater than l000kg
per cm2.
Appearance: Good building stone should be a uniform color, and free from clay holes, spots of other
color bands etc capable of preserving the color for longtime. Durability: A good building stone should
be durable. The factors like heat and cold alternative wet and dry, dissolved gases in rain, high wind
velocity etc affect the durability.
Fracture: For good building stone its fracture should be sharp, even and clear. Hardness: The
hardness greater than 17, treated as hard used in road works. It is between 14 to 17, medium hardness,
less 14 said be poor hardness.
Percentage wear: For a good building stone, the percentage wear should be equal to or less than 3
percent.
Resistance to fire: A good building stone be fire proof. Sandstone, Argillaceous stone resists fire quite
well
Specific gravity: For a good building stone the specific gravity should be greater than 8.7 or so.
Texture: A good building stone should have compact fine crystalline structure should be free from
cavities, cracks or patches of stuff or loose material.

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Water absorption: For a good building stone, the percentage absorption by weight after 24 hours
should not exceed 0.60.
Stones are shaped with respect to standard shapes, size and its use.
Uses of stones:
1.Structure: Stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, arches, roofs, floors, damp proof
course etc.
2.Face works. Stones are adopted to give massive appearance to the structure. Wall are of bricks and
facing is done in stones of desired shades. This is known as composite masonry.
3.Paving stones: These are used to cover floor of building of various types such as residential,
commercial, industrial etc. They are also adopted to form paving of roads, foot paths etc.
4.Basic material: Stones are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material for cement concrete,
morum of roads, calcareous cements, artificial stones, hallow blocks etc.
5.Misalliances: Stones are also used for (i) ballast for railways (ii) flux in blast furnace (iii) Blocks in
the construction of bridges, piers, abutments, retaining walls, light houses, dams etc.
COMPARISON BETWEEN BRICK MASONRY AND STONE
MASONRY
(1) Stone is stronger and more durable than brick and for public buildings; it is decidedly more
suitable than brick. It reflects strength in every inch of it. It is in tune with nature. Its color
improves and looks more serene with age.
On the other hand, brick is an artificial product made as a copy of stone. It is flimsy material and
plastering is only a camouflage for its defects.
(2) Stone is water proof. On the other hand, Brick absorbs moisture and with dampness certain
salts rise in the walls from the ground and cause disintegration of bricks.
Especially brick should not be allowed to come in contact with urine or sewage and in such places it
must always be covered with cement plaster or any other protective coat.

(3) Brick offers greater facility for ornamental work in plaster as a rough shape can first be given
to it by means of any tool. This is not so in case of stones.

(4) Plaster does not stick so well to stones as it does to brick.

(5) On account of the regular shape and uniform size of brick, a proper bond can be obtained with
comparative ease.

(6) Due to the handy size of brick, brick masonry can be more rapidly constructed than stone
masonry.

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(7) Brick wall requires a fixed quantity of mortar and even with careless masons, the regular shape
of the brick considerably reduces the possibility of hollows being left in the body of the wall.
This is not so with some stone walls.

(8) It is possible to build brick walls of any thickness

e.g., 4 1/2 in, 3 in, 9 in, 13 1/2 inch etc. Whereas, the minimum thickness of ordinary stone wall is 15
in. Stone walls of a smaller thickness than 15 in, have to be constructed with properly dressed stones,
which involves a comparatively high cost.
(9) Brick does not absorb as much heat as stone does.
So, brick is more fire resistant than stone.
4.3. SHAPING AND CUTTING THE STONE TO BE USED
Stones found in nature, have to be quarried from their thick beds. After quarrying large pieces of stones,
it is essential to break them into smaller sizes so that they can be used in a building. They are also
dressed into suitable shapes and polished to give a smooth surface, if desired.
Various types of finishes and the methods of dressing and cutting the stones to get the desired
surfaces are described below:
1. Scrabbling: Irregular edges of the stones are broken off and the stone is shaped somewhat.
2. Hammer dressed: Large raised portions of the stones are cut and the stone is made somewhat flat
but rough due to hammer marks.
3. Boasted or droved finish: The stone is cut to a little level face and is finished by means of a
boaster.
4. Tooled finish: In this case the chisel marks are continuous and parallel throughout the width of
stone.
5. Furrowed finish: In this case about 1 cm vertical or horizontal grooves are sunk with a chisel
having its end shaped as a hollow semi-circle.
6. Reticulated finish: In this type of work, irregular shaped sinking is made within the center portion
of the stone having a 2 cm wide margin on its sides. 48
7. Vermiculated finish: The sinking is of the reticulated type except that they are more curved and
give a worm eaten type of appearance.
8. Combed or dragged finish: This type of finish is done on soft stones. A comb is driven over the
surface of this stone to remove all elevating portions.
9. Punched finish: Depressions are formed on the rough surface with a punch.
10.Picked finish: This type of finish is obtained by dressing stones with a point and the depressions
are smaller than the above type.

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11.Chisel drafted margins: They give a better appearance and help in getting uniform joints.
12.Moulded finish: Mouldings of various types can be worked on the stones to improve their
appearance.
13.Rubbed finish: The surfaces of the stones are rubbed get a smoother surface finish.
14.Polished finish: Stones which can take polish, e.g., granites, marbles, limestones are first rubbed
to a smooth surface and then polished by using rubber and pad, sand and water, pumice, and putty
powder.
15.Sand Blasting: This is done to imprint letterings and designs on the surface of granites.

TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS FOR STONE DRESSING

The following tools are used for dressed stones (Figs. 5.24 and 5.25).

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Page 60 of 77
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4.4. CONSTRUCTION OF STONE WATER RESERVOIRS AND OPEN CHANNELS
STRUCTURES.
Identification of water holding capacity
Mention of water holding capacity
Water Holding Capacity: This is the volume of the tank when filled to the brim. Calculated by
multiplying the length x width x height e.g. 3m x 2m x 2m = a nominal capacity 12,000 litres.

Capacity Calculation Formula

According to IS Code 1172 (1993), the value of the minimum water requirement has been retained
as 135 litres per head per day. It varies based on the building types.

Example of Calculation
Assume we need to calculate the size of a water tank for a residential building with 10 persons.
Total Water Requirement = Number of people X Minimum Water requirement =
10 X 135 Litres = 1350 Litres
We know, 1 m3 = 1000 litres of water.
So the required storage volume for 1350 Litres = 1.35 Cubic Metre. Now we have calculated the
volume of water requirement.

The sizes of the tank for different storage capacity is tabulated below-

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Table 2. Sizes of tank for different storage capacity

Types of water reservoir

CHANNELS STRUCTURES

Definitions
1. Water reservoir is an artificial lake where water is stored. Most reservoirs are
formed by constructing dams across rivers.
2. Reservoir definition, a natural or artificial place where water is collected and
stored for use, especially water for supplying a community, irrigating land
3. A reservoir is a large pool of water, either natural or man-made, that provides a
source of water for people in a specific geographic area.

Figure 42. Water resservoir

An open channel is a type of flow in which one surface is free (= not restricted by
anything). A canal is an example of open channel flow.

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Figure 43. Open channel
Types of water reservoir
1. Storage or conservation reservoirs.

 These reservoirs are primarily used to maintain minimum supplies of water for
irrigation, hydroelectric generation, domestic and industrial water supply schemes, etc.
 during lean months of discharge in the rivers.
 During high floods the excess water in the river goes waste while in dry months it may
not be sufficient to meet the minimum needs.
 The storage reservoir is constructed to store the excess water of floods and released
gradually when required.

1. Flood control reservoirs.

• This reservoir is also called flood mitigation reservoir.
• The main purpose of this reservoir is to temporarily store the flood water and release slowly
at a safe rate after the floods, so that it may not cause any damage on the down-stream side.
• So this reservoir may be said a flood prevention reservoir also.
• This reservoir requires provision of large spillways and sluice-ways so that excess stored
flood water is rapidly release downstream, but only at the safe rat

3. Distribution reservoirs

• It is a small capacity reservoir which is mainly constructed to meet the water

supply requirements of a particular city.
• It is made of masonry or cement concrete and may be covered from the top.
• This reservoir is filled by treated water at some constant rate.
• Since demand of water remains fluctuating during the day, water may have to be
drawn from this reservoir at times at rate much more than the inflow rate.
• Hence these reservoirs allow pumping units and treatment units to work at
predetermined constant rates.

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 • During no demand or very little demand the water coming from treatment units
and pump units goes on storing in the reservoir.
• During peak demand this stored water from the reservoir is used to make up the
required supplies.

4. Multipurpose reservoirs.

• The reservoir planned and designed keeping only one purpose in view is known as single-
purpose reservoir.
• Reservoir planned and designed keeping more than one purpose in view is called Multi-purpose
reservoir.
• For example, a reservoir designed to protect the downstream areas from floods and also to
conserve water for irrigation, water-supply, hydroelectric purpose etc, shall be called a Multi-
purpose reservoir.

Purpose of water reservoir

Though reservoirs are designed for irrigation, flood control, and water supply, some common
purposes of reservoirs are as follows:
• Prevent or control the flood.
• Hydroelectric or Power generation
• Fishing and Boating
• Irrigation
• Water Supply
• Water Storage
• Water Sports
• Wildlife habitat
• Wildlife Parks

• Types of Open channels shapes

Classification of Open Channel Based On Shape: Based on Shape open channel has different types
as below:
• Rectangular channel. Triangular Channel.
• Trapezoidal Channel. Circular Channel.

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 Figure 44. Different types of open channel

4.5. ERECTION OF FOUNDATION AND STAIRS

DESCRIPTION OF FOUNDATION
A foundation is a lower part of the building usually located below ground level, to transmit the loads
of the super- structure to the subsoil. It is in contact with the ground soil.
Sub-soil: The soil below the foundation or the soil on which the foundation is constructed.
Footing: The lowermost part of the foundation contact with the subsoil.
FUNCTION OF A FOUNDATION
a. Distribute the loads of the whole structure (building, bridge, antenna) over a
large area,
b. To give a levelled surface and hard to elevate the super- structure,
c. To increase the stability of the structure against overturning,

d. It resists against insects, animals and water

penetration,
e. It resists against soil movements due to movement and stress in the soil.
Foundation loads (what are the loads imposed on a foundation The foundation is designed for
withstanding all the weight and loads of the entire building. In details what are those loads that the
foundation will be designed for:
Dead loads: these are the weight of all the fixed parts of the building. Those parts which will not be
removed, such as walls, roof, slab, columns, etc.
Superimposed loads or live loads: these are loads which are due to the use of the building. It the
loads from persons, furniture, machine and all things which occupy the building. When the use of the
building gets changed, also the live loads can be changed. (example: the live load of a library will be

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the loads of books, tables, people who read the books, furniture and all things contained in that library.
The live loads of the classroom will be the loads of desks, students, and their notebooks.
How should be a good foundation?
A good foundation, well designed, and suitably designed will have to fulfill the following conditions:
1. It Will distribute all the loads of the structure uniformly on the ground, without causing
any settlement,
2. It will have a rigid base to distribute the loads on the subsoil; even when the loads are
distributed in different quantities,
3. It will be sufficiently deep, for fixing the structure sufficiently on the ground,
It will be well located to minimize the attacks which may affect its performance.

SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATION
Settlement: is the vertical downward movement of the base of the structure. It strongly affects the
structure.

CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT
i. Elastic compression of the foundation and the underlying soil,
ii. Plastic compression of underlying soils, iii. Ground water lowering,
iv. Vibrations due to piles driving; blasting of rocks; oscillation of machinery,
v. Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of expansive clays vi. Earth change due to surface
erosion, vii. Adjacent excavation
CAUSES OF FAILURES OF FOUNDATIONS

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There are a number of reasons why the foundation can fail in one way or another. Most common
reasons for this failure can be due to the following:
1. Unequal settlement of sub-soil,
2. Unequal settlement of masonry,
3. Sub-soil moisture movement,
4. Excessive lateral pressure on the walls,
5. Lateral movement of the sub-soil, 6. Weathering of the sub-soil due to trees,
7. Atmospheric agencies.
CONDITIONS WHICH MAY AFFECT THE FOUNDATION
 The load bearing of the soil (ground)
 The depth of the foundation
 The distance from the trees to the foundation (roots of the trees)
 The height of the ground water table
 The variation in ground water table
 Total weight of the building
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
Basically, we distinguish two main types of foundations:
i. Shallow foundation and ii. Deep foundation
SHALLOW FOUNDATION
A shallow foundation has its depth equal or less than its width.
Shallow foundation may have the following footing:
1. Spread footing
2. Strap footing
3. combined footing
4. Mat foundation
A. SPREAD FOOTING
A spread footing is the one which supports one wall or one column.
A spread footing may be:
 Strip footing: spread footing for wall

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  Pad footing: isolated spread footing for a column

*A strip footing gives a continuous longitudinal support of the wall. The width of the foundation is
given by:

W=

The wall rests on the concrete footing, and an offsets on both sides is left. (10-20cm)
Stepped strip foundation
When the existing ground has a high slope; it would be difficult to get a horizontally leveled ground.
This would cost a lot of money in excavating. The other possible option is to use a stepped foundation
where the excavation is done in the form of steps located at various levels.

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A stepped foundation is the one made by excavation the ground in various levels in form of steps. It is
used when the ground has a very high slope. Its advantage is to reduce the amount of excavation works.

Pad footing or isolated footing

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A pad footing is the footing located below the single column. Its required area is calculated as:

A= where P: dead load+ live load

L: safe bearing capacity of soil Pad footings are of the following types:
i. Simple pad footing ii. Stepped pad footing iii. Sloped pad footing
i. Simple pad footing
It is a concrete block projecting out from the column face on all sides. Most of the time, the shape of
the column is the same as the shape of the footing. The masonry offset left on each side is 10cm to
20cm.

ii. Stepped pad footing

If the load is more, or the safe bearing capacity of the soil is low; the base area is large. For this reason,
we may provide masonry offsets in form of consecutive steps before the load is transferred to the
concrete base.
B. strap or cantilever footing
A strap footing is a component of a building's foundation. It is a type of footing, consisting of two or
more column footings connected by a concrete beam called strap, or strap beam, or plinth beam.
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It is used to help distribute the weight of either heavily or eccentrically loaded column footings to
adjacent footings.

C. Combined footing
A combined footing is the one which supports two columns at the same time. The combined footing
may have a rectangular shape, or trapezoidal shape.
The rectangular combined footing will be used when the two columns have the same size, and
probably they are subjected to the same amount of loads.
The combined trapezoidal footing is used when the loads on the two columns are not the same.
Consequently; those columns are not having the same size.

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When will we adopt the use of combined footing?
During the construction of foundation and its use, we will adopt the use of combined footing when:
1. Columns are very near to each other 2. The bearing capacity of the soil is less.
3. Each footing needs more area.
D. Raft foundation or Mat foundation
A raft foundation is the one that covers the entire area of the building, and supports all the walls and
columns of that building. Raft foundations are designed in the same way as concrete slabs.

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 When do we use a raft foundation?
 When the allowable bearing capacity of the soil is low; and the building is heavy.
 Where the soil mass is compressible so that it can cause differential settlements.

DESCRIPTION OF STAIR
A stair is a set of steps leading from one floor to the other. It is constructed to afford means of ascent
and descent between various floors of the building.
A stair is to be designed to span a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances,
called steps.

Figure 53. Parts of staircase

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COMPONENTS & TERMINOLOGY
 flight: A series of steps between different levels or storeys of a building
 landing: An area of floor at the top of or between flights of stairs for changing direction in
the stairs & providing a resting place between long flights of stairs.
 tread - The part of the step that is stepped on.
 riser - The vertical portion of the step between steps.
 nosing - An edge part of the tread that extends from the riser beneath.
 winders - Winders are steps that are narrower on one side than the other. They are used to
change the direction of the stairs without landings. A series of winders form a circular or
spiral stairway.
 stringer or string - The structural member that supports the treads. There are typically two
stringers, one on either side of the stairs; though the treads may be supported many other
ways. The stringers are notched so that the risers and treads fit into them.
 handrail: A rail fixed parallel above the pitch line at the sides of a stair.
 balusters: Vertical members which support a handrail.
 Newel: A vertical post which might provide support for either the handrail, or support for
the upper end of an outer string.

 bullnose – when one or both sides of the stairs are open, the first step above the lower floor
may be wider than the other steps. The rounded portion of the step is called a "bullnose"
 SCOTIA: It is a moulding provided under the nosing to provide strength to nosing.
 SOFFIT: it is the underside of a stair.
 PITCH OR SLOPE: It is the angle which the line of nosing of the stair makes with the
horizontal
 HEAD ROOM: It is the clear vertical distance between the tread and overload structure
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD STAIRCASE LOCATION
 They should be located near the main entrance to the building.
 There should be easy access from all the rooms without disturbing the privacy of the
rooms.

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  There should be spacious approach.
 Good light and ventilation should be available. WIDTH OF STAIR
 It should be wide enough to carry the user without much crowd on inconvenience.
 In Residential building, a 90 cm wide stair is sufficient while in public 1.5 to 1.8 m
width may be required. LENGTH OF FLIGHT
 The number of steps should not be more than 12 & less than 3 from comfort point of
view.

PITCH OF STAIR
 Pitch should be limited to 30o to 45o
HEAD ROOM
 Height of head room should not be less than 2.1 to 2.3 m.
BALUSTRADE
 Stair should always be provided with balustrade. STEP DIMENSION
 The rise and going should be of such dimensions as to provide comfort to users.
 The going should not be less than 25 cm, though 30 cm going is quite comfortable.
 The rise should be between 10 to 15 cm.
 The width of landing should not be less than width of stair.
MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
(a)The material should have fire resistance and sufficient strong.
THUMB RULES FOR DIMENSIONS OF STEP
(a) (2 X Rise in cm) + (Going in cm) = 60
(b) (Rise in cm) + (Going in cm) = 40 to 45
(c) (Rise in cm) X (Going in cm) = 400 to 450
TYPES OF STEPS
(a) Flier
(b) Bull Nose
(c) Round Ended
(d) Splayed
(e) Commode

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(f) Dancing
(g) Winders
CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRCASE
1. Straight Staircase 2. Turning Staircase
a. Quarter Turn
b. Half Turn (Dog-Legged & Open well Staircase)
c. Three-Quarter Turn Staircase
d. Bifurcated Staircase
Continuous Staircase
a. Circular Staircase
b. Spiral Staircase
c. Helical Staircase

Calculation of stair
EXAMPLE
EX: 1.How to calculate the angle of staircase? / Calculating slope of staircase.

Let us now find out the angle or slope of the staircase as shown below.
Type-
1:

If the riser & tread are known.

Given data:

Riser = 160mm.

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Tread = 250mm.

Slope = [riser ÷ tread] = [ 160mm.÷ 250mm.] = 0.64

Here, slope = tanθ

So, Tanθ = 0.64, θ = tan-1 0.64 = 32.62°

2.
Type-
2

If the height & horizontal distance of the staircase are known.

Given data:

Height of landing = 1300mm. Horizontal distance = 2000mm. tanθ = [opposite ÷ adjacent]

= [height ÷ horizontal distance] = [ 1300mm.÷ 2000mm = 0.65

θ = tan-1 0.65 = 33.02°

Example 2
How to calculate the number of risers & treads in a staircase? / Design of risers & treads in a
staircase.

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Let us calculate the number of risers & treads for the below-given drawing.

Given data:

Landing slab thickness = 200mm.

Top to bottom surface landing height = 1.3m. = 1300mm.

The inner span between the landings = 2m. = 2000mm.

First, let us assume the riser depth as =160mm.

So, the number of risers = landing height ÷ riser height.

Top-to-top landing height = Top to bottom height of landing + landing thickness

= 1300mm + 200mm = 1500mm.

The no. of risers = [1500mm ÷ 160mm] = 9.375 nos.

As the risers should be the whole number, let us provide 9 nos. of risers & we will divide the
landing height by the number of rises to get the corrected riser depth.

The actual height of the riser

= landing height ÷ no. of risers = 1500mm ÷ 9nos = 166.66mm.

Now, the number of treads = [number of risers - 1]

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From the above drawing, you can observe that the total no. of treads is always less by one from the
given no. of risers.
So, the number of treads = [9nos.1] = 8 nos.

The tread width

= [horizontal clear span between landings ÷ the no. of treads.]

= 2000mm ÷ 8nos = 250mm.

4.6. ERECTION OF RETAINING WALLS STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION TO RETAINING WALL

Retaining wall is a structure that holds or retains soil behind it.

Types of Retaining Walls

1. Gravity Retaining Wall

2. Crib Retaining Wall
3. Gabion Retaining Walls
4. Cantilever Retaining Wall
5. Counter-fort / Buttressed Retaining Wall
6. Anchored Retaining Wall
7. Piled Retaining Wall
8. Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Retaining wall
9. Hybrid Systems

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 1. Gravity Retaining Wall

Figure 62. Gravity Retaining Wall

2. Crib Retaining Wall

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 3. Gabion Retaining Walls

4.Cantilever Retaining Wall

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3. Counter-fort / Buttressed Retaining Wall

4. Anchored Retaining Wall

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 6.Piled Retaining Wall

7.Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Retaining wall

Figure 69. Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Retaining wall

8.Hybrid Systems

Retaining walls that use both mass and reinforcement for stability are termed as Hybrid
or Composite retaining wall systems.

Figure 70. Hybrid Systems

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 Function of retaining wall
•Preventing soil erosion: A retaining wall can be used to prevent soil from being washed away,
through erosion.
•Stability: A retaining wall can be used to prevent The sloping caused by lateral pressure of the
soil
•Visual interest: in order to create a visually appealing landscape design, you may need to build
a retaining wall to hold back earth. For example, you may use the walls to create an artificial hill
to enclose your garden,
•The retaining walls may be commonly required in the construction of hills roads, masonry dams,
abutments etc.
•The retaining walls hold back the required load in one or a combination of the following ways;
self-weight or gravity, anchorage and shape.

4.7. CONSTRUCTION OF STONE WATER TANK STRUCTURE

Introduction to water tank

A water tank is used to store water to tide over the daily requirements. In general, Storage
tanks are built for storing water, liquid petroleum, petroleum products and similar liquids.
Analysis and design of such tanks are independent of chemical nature of product. They are
designed as crack free structures to eliminate any leakage.

Classification of water tanks based on the location

(a) Overhead Water Tank
(b) Underground Water Tank
(c) Water Tank Resting on Ground

Classification of water tanks based on materials

(1) Reinforced Cement Concrete Water Tank
(2) Masonry Water Tank
(3) Plastic Water Tank
(4) Fiberglass Water Tank
(5) Steel Water Tank
Classification based on shapes
1. Rectangular water tank.
2. Circular water tank.
3. Cylindrical water tank 4. Oval-shaped water tank.
5. Spherical tank

Basic Components of Water Storage Tanks are,

• Inlet Pipes
• Outlet pipes
• Drain pipe
• Overflow pipe

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 • Air vents (with insects’ screen) Level indicator Float valve.
• Warning pipe

Mention of water holding capacity

Water Holding Capacity: This is the volume of the tank when filled to the brim. Calculated
by multiplying the length x width x height e.g. 3m x 2m x 2m = a nominal capacity 12,000
litres.

Capacity Calculation Formula

According to IS Code 1172 (1993), the value of the minimum water requirement has been
retained as 135 litres per head per day. It varies based on the building types.

Example of Calculation
Assume we need to calculate the size of a water tank for a residential building with 10 persons.
Total Water Requirement = Number of people X Minimum Water requirement =
10 X 135 Litres = 1350 Litres
We know, 1 m3 = 1000 litres of water.
So the required storage volume for 1350 Litres = 1.35 Cubic Metre. Now we have calculated
the volume of water requirement.

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Table 1: Size of the tank with respective water storage capacity

4.8.Application of finishes on erected stone structure.

TYPES OF STONE STRUCTURE FINISHES
1. Scrabbling: Irregular edges of the stones are broken off and the stone is shaped
somewhat.

Figure 30. Scrabbling

2. Hammer dressed: Large raised portions of the stones are cut and the stone is made
somewhat flat but rough due to hammer marks.

Figure 31. Hammer dressed

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 3. Boasted or droved finish: The stone is cut to a little level face and is finished by means
of a boaster.

Figure 32. Boasted or droved finish

4. Tooled finish: In this case the chisel marks are continuous and parallel throughout the
width of stone.

Figure 33. Tooled finish

5. Furrowed finish: In this case about 1 cm vertical or horizontal grooves are sunk with a
chisel having its end shaped as a hollow semi-circle.

Figure 34. Furrowed finish

5. Reticulated finish: In this type of work, irregular shaped sinking is made within the
center portion of the stone having a 2 cm wide margin on its sides.

Figure 35. Reticulated finish

6. Vermiculated finish: The sinking is of the reticulated type except that they are more
curved and give a worm eaten type of appearance.

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Figure 36. Vermiculated finish

7. Combed or dragged finish: This type of finish is done on soft stones. A comb is driven
over the surface of this stone to remove all elevating portions.

Figure 37. Combed or dragged finish

8. Punched finish: Depressions are formed on the rough surface with a punch.

Figure 38. Punched finish

10.Picked finish: This type of finish is obtained by dressing stones with a point and the
depressions are smaller than the above type.

11.Chisel drafted margins: They give a better appearance and help in getting uniform joints.

Figure 39. Chisel drafted margins

12.Moulded finish: Moldings of various types can be worked on the stones to improve their
appearance.

Figure 40. Moulded finish

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13.Rubbed finish: The surfaces of the stones are rubbed get a smoother surface finish.
14.Polished finish: Stones which can take polish, e.g., granites, marbles, limestones are first
rubbed to a smooth surface and then polished by using rubber and pad, sand and water, pumice,
and putty powder.
15.Sand Blasting: This is done to imprint letterings and designs on the surface of granites.

Figure 41. Sand blasting finish

IDENTIFICATION OF CONSTRUCTION METHODS

The following points should be kept in mind while supervising the stone masonry work:
1. The stones used should be strong, tough, hard, and should conform with specifications of
the work. The stones should be free from defects like cracks, flaws, cavities, veins etc.
2. Each stone block (unit) should be well watered before use so that it does not absorb the
water of the mortar.
3. All the stones should be laid on their natural bed.
4. Stones to be used should be dressed properly according to the type of masonry.
5. Proper bond should be maintained. Formation of vertical joints should be avoided.
6. No tensile stresses should be allowed to develop in the masonry. 7. Masonry work
should be raised uniformly, so that the nonuniform distribution of load on foundation is
avoided. However, where it is not possible, and where one part of the wall has to be kept
behind, the wall should be raked back at an angle of 45° or less. This will facilitate in
having proper connection in new work and the old work (Fig. 5.43). If a cross-wall is to
be inserted later, footing or recesses should be provided (Fig. 5.43 b).

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8. Broken stones, small pieces and chips should not be used for facing and backing.
However, these may be used in hearting for proper packing with mortar.
9. The facing and backing of the wall should be well bound by through stones. The through
stones should be laid staggered in the successive courses. The centre to centre distance
between them should not exceed 1.5 m.

10. The mortar to be used for the work should be of proper quality and proportion. Generally,
lime mortar may be used for work above plinth level. But in damp proof construction, cement
mortar may be used for masonry below plinth level. Cement mortar may be used for masonry
above plinth level also if high compressive strength is required.
11. Quoins used to form the jambs for windows, doors and other openings should be of the
full height of the course. The breadth and length of quoin should at least be 1.5 times and
twice its depth respectively.
12. Vertical surfaces (Le. facing and backing) of the wall should be constructed perfectly in
plumb. They should be frequently checked. 13. Battered surfaces, if any, should be properly
checked with the help of wooden template and plumb.
14. When it is required to raise new construction over the old or dry one, it should be well
cleaned and wetted before starting the construction.
15. Double scaffolding should be adopted to carry out the stone masonry construction at
higher level.

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 16. The exposed joints of the masonry should be properly pointed by cement mortar or lime
mortar, by raking them first up to a depth of about 2 cm.
17. After the construction is over, the whole work should be cured at least for 2 to 3 weeks.
The strength of stone masonry depends upon the following three factors:
1. Type of stone (Le. sand stone, lime stone etc.)
2. Type of masonry (Le. coursed rubble, Ashlar etc.) and 3. Type of mortar
(i.e. lime mortar, cement mortar or gouged mortar).

The basic stresses, based on compressive strength of stone units and various types of
mortars are given in Table 5.5

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LEARNING OUTCOME 5. CLEAN THE WORKPLACE

5.0. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this learning outcome, a trainee will be able to clean the stone construction
workplace, tools, equipment and their proper storage.
5.1. Clean tools and equipment

At the end of work; all tools and equipment should be cleaned to remove dusts and other wastes
on them.

5.1.1. Purposes of cleaning tools and equipment:

1. Avoid rust of the tools and equipment
2. Preventing equipment damage.
3. Increase the durability of the tools and equipment
4. Improve safety and health of the employees.
5. Reduces overall tool cost through maintenance
5.1.2. Methods of cleaning tools and equipment:
1. By water 3. By brush
2. By oil 4. By air compressor
5.2. Clean the workplace

Also the workplace should be cleaned to remove waste materials.

5.2.1. The importance of a clean 5.3. Store tools and equipment
workplace
3. Increase the appearance of the work
1. Provide safety to the employees place
2. Improve health to the employees 4. Elevate your brand

5.2.2. Methods of cleaning work

place: 1. By water
2. By brush
3. By air compressor

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Adequate storage facilities for tools and equipment must also be provided for when it is not in use, unless
the employee can take tools or equipment away from the workplace.

5.3.1. Importance of proper storage of tools & equipment

1. Improve safety and health of the employees.

2. Improves appearance of construction areas.
3. Reduces overall tool cost through maintenance
4. It ensures that tools are in good repair at hand.
5. Teaches workers principles of tool accountability.
6. Avoid rust of the tools and equipment

5.3.2. Points to follow in storing tools and equipment:

1. Have a designated place for each kind of tools and equipment.
2. Label the storage cabinet or place correctly for immediate finding.
3. Store them near the point of use.
4. Wash and dry properly before storing.
5. Store sharp tools properly when not in use with sharp edge down.
6. Put frequently used items in conveniently accessible locations.
7. Gather and secure electrical cords to prevent entanglement or snagging.
8. Cutting boards should be stored vertically to avoid moisture collection.
9. Metal equipment can be stacked on one another after drying such as storage dishes and bowls.
10. Make sure the areas where you are storing the equipment are clean and dry.

5.3.3. Process of storing tools and equipment:

1. Selection of area for storing tools and equipment
2. Prioritize tools and equipment
3. Separate tools and equipment
4. Remove unused tools and equipment

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References

1. Ashurst, J. (2001). Conservation of Building and Decorative Stone Structure. Taiwast House.

2. Doran, D. (2013). Construction Materials. Routledge House.

3. Gage, J. (2016). Guide to new England Stone Structure. Powwow-River.

4. Group, A. P. (2010). Building with Rocks and Stone.

5. T.F.Fwa. (2005). Highway Engineering. CRC Press.

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