KOLKATA, WEDNESDAY 05 MARCH 2014

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Zircon makes the grade
DOUBTS ABOUT A CLASSIC through 10 steps, to 208Pb. Now, the emission of
Lead atom migration
PLUS POINTS
Making flies flirt
Neuroscientists have successfully
controlled a fly’s behaviour with
thermogenetics — a new technique that
Although serious questions have been
all these massive particles, usually in groups uses lasers to remotely activate brain
TIMEKEEPER USED IN GEOLOGY raised based on the possibility of migration of
of four particles, called an alpha particle,
lead atoms as a result of radiation, John
result in powerful alpha particle projectiles
neurons. Using the whimsically
named Fly Mind-Altering
Valley and others note in their paper that the
and also strong recoil of the emitting nuclei. Device (also known as
HAVE BEEN PUT TO REST, matter has not been studied so far at the atom-
This is the activity that jostles the zircon FlyMAD),
atom scale and the relation of radiation dam-
crystal structure and in time the crystals could
SAYS S ANANTHANARAYAN age to Pb migration is poorly understood. The
break down to amorphous, or shapeless enti-
group, therefore, worked on a sample particle
ties. While the studies conducted are on intact

A
ssessing the antiquity of the very ancient earth of zircon derived from pre-existing rock in the
crystals of zircon, the mechanism of conver-
calls for finding things that were around at that Jack Hills, western Australia, and used the me-
sion of U or Th to Pb, and some features of the
far off time. Most rock or minerals that are on thods of Atom Probe Tomography, which is to
variation in levels of residual isotopes found,
hand now were formed later on or have chan- look into the layers of a material by analysis of
with ambiguous age estimates, have suggested
ged and corroded, to be of no use in counting the kind of atoms the material gives off as it is
that there is loss of lead atoms from the sam-
the years. Zircon, an extremely hardy mineral, ples and this has gravely affected the credibili-
etched or evaporated, using an electric field,
is an exception and, as it contains traces of John W Valley. by Scanning Electron Microscopy, where
radioactive uranium and thorium that decay a surface is scanned atom by atom by a
into two forms of the lead, it has been possible of sand and is a common trace con- beam of electrons, which get scattered at researchers were able to trigger complex
to date samples as far back as 4.4 billion years. stituent in hard rock. the surface, and by Secondary Ion Mass courtship behaviour in a target fly,
But this same feature of radioactivity rav- Uranium and thorium atoms often Spectroscopy, where secondary emission essentially causing the insect to “fall in
ages the crystal structure of zircon and leads to find a place in the crystal structure of from the surface is analysed. love” with a ball of wax.
a migration of decay products, which has zircon, but the element lead is positive- Using these hypersensitive methods, The research, led by Barry Dickson of
raised questions about how reliable date asse- ly rejected. This is a useful feature the group reached into the core layer of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in
ssment based on zircon crystals can be. John W because uranium and thorium atoms the particle of rock, the interior, which Ashburn, Virginia, is similar to
Valley, Aaron J Cavosie, Takayuki Ushikubo, are radioactive and decay, after some revealed its most ancient age of 4.382 bil- optogenetics; a method that activates
David A Reinhard, Daniel F Lawrence, David J steps, into forms of lead. The levels of lion years. The outer layers showed an neurons using light and that has
Larson, Peter H Clifton, Thomas F Kelly, Simon uranium or thorium and lead, in a age of about 3.4 billion years, or later previously been used to control
A Wilde, Desmond E Moser and Michael J sample, can thus indicate the age of the growth, at higher temperatures, for behaviour in mice. However, while
Spicuzza, of Wisconsin, Puerto Rico, Perth in sample since it was formed. The ratio which there is geological evidence in the optogenetics require fibre-optic cables to
Australia and Ontario in Canada report in the of the different forms of lead that are Jack Hills region. And the oldest rock at be embedded into mice skulls to activate
journal Nature Geoscience that their detailed found in the sample can also indicate the core was analysed, using Apt and the genetically-altered neurons,
study of radioactive effects on zircon crystal the age. And the fact that lead cannot Sims, to reveal that there had been clear thermogenetics achieves the same effect
structure shows that the enter the zircon crystal except by being radiation damage, with movement and by using infrared lasers to deliver the
mobility of lead ato- formed in situ through radioactivity Taksyuki Ushikubo, John Valley and Noriko Kita at the Secondary Ion Mass concentration of lead atoms into clus- “instructions” directly to the fly’s brain.
ms in the oldest makes sure that the levels of lead Spectronomy laboratory as Wisconsin. ters, creating peaks and lows in the levels Scientists have previously influenced fly
samples is too measured have actually arisen recorded, at a fine scale. behaviour by adding a heat-activated
little to affect from radioactivity. ty of the assessment as a means of age deter- But a detailed study has been able to show protein called TRPA1 to neurons
the accuracy The uranium (U) nucleus mination. that the movement of lead atoms was through associated with certain actions. When
of age assess- exists in two forms and their Accurate determination of the age of for- short distances and there had been no leakage flies modified in this way are placed in a
ment. decay leads to different final mation of the earth’s crust and the timing of of lead atoms in the clusters forced by radia- hot box, the targeted neurons activate
Zircon is a forms of lead (Pb). One start- the impact event that is credited with the for- tion effects. The clustering, or non-uniformity and trigger certain behaviours. FlyMAD,
mineral compo- ing form is 238U, or urani- mation of the moon, are of importance for the was also at the fine scale and did not affect however, uses a video camera to track
sed of atoms of um with 238 massive understanding of the origins of the internals measurements using methods like Sims, the fly as it moves around a box before
the element zirconi- particles in the nucleus, and the surface of the earth and the moon, and which cover many clusters. The group has directing an infrared laser at the insect
um, combined with and this decays, with their evolution. Apart from Pb levels, the lev- described the mechanism leading to anom- and activating the parts of its neural
silicon and oxygen, for- the emission, in steps, els of isotopes of oxygen in zircons also pro- alous results earlier reported and, with an circuit that control courtship.
ming part of a group of com- of 32 massive particles, to vides a peephole to the quality of oxygen in examination of 409 of the clusters formed, has In the picture from Nature, the subject
pounds that are formed with the 206Pb, or lead with 206 primordial atmospheres and, hence, the pace made a precise assessment of the age of one of fly can be seen attempting to mate with a
silicate group, which form nearly 90 massive particles in the of evolution of life. In the context, uncertainty the grains of rock, at 3.374 billion years, with ball of wax, circling and “singing” to it
per cent of the earth’s crust. Zircon occurs nucleus. The other form, 235U, of the reliability of the U-Th-Pb survey in zir- an uncertainty of only six million years. by vibrating its wings. This courtship
in most kinds of rock in the form of tiny crys- decays, with emission of 28 mas- con, which is the only method available for age A conclusion drawn is that a sea of molten behaviour continued for 15 minutes after
tals. It is hard and chemically inert and per- The grain of sive particles, to 207Pb. In the case of assessment in the four billion-year range, rock that covered much of the earth was the laser had been shut off, “suggesting
sists unchanged in form in most occurrences zircon. thorium, it is 232Th that decays, affects a series of conclusions. before the formation of the crust and the sam- that the heat had triggered a lasting,
ples of zircon, and soon after the formation of complex behavioural state”.
the earth. The result then constrains the Another test conducted by the
uncertainties in models of how the earth and neuroscientists was able to instantly
the moon may have formed. Apart from clear- make flies walk backwards by activating
ing doubts about the reliability of zircon- TRPA1 that had been added to neurons
based age assessment, the precise methods associated with muscular coordination.
that have worked with the Jack Hills zircon The paper written by Dickson and his
can now be used with zircon derived from team is currently awaiting peer review,
meteorites or lunar samples, for a further although some neuroscientists have
understanding. already welcomed thermogenetics as
easier to use than current optogenetic
Some views of the terrain in Jack Hills, western Australia.
THE WRITER CAN BE CONTACTED AT simplescience@gmail.com techniques.
Dickson said he would like to combine

INTENSITY OF ENTRY
the TRPA1 control method with an

No room for complacency alternative technique that uses a

TAPAN KUMAR MAITRA EXPLAINS enter via the aqueous phase of the
cuticle, first into the acid compo-
different light-activated protein known
as channelrhodopsin. Scientists say they
could then activate different neural
INDIA PROVIDES A MODEL FOR GLOBAL IMPROVEMENT IN ANIMAL circuits at the same time in order to “see
HEALTH, WRITES NEIL SARGISON which one wins”.

THE MANY WAYS IN WHICH PESTICIDES nents of the cutin and then into JAMES VINCENT/THE INDEPENDENT

T
the pectin and water-permeable he UK’s Chief Scientist has said that ate in optimum conditions. The key to this is
PENETRATE PLANTS cytoplasmic membrane. In condi-
tions of increased humidity, the
as far as global food production is con- to address more fundamental veterinary
cerned, the world is facing a “perfect clinical principles. Quite simply, genetic
What might have been

P
esticides can readily pene-
trate a plant through its roots,
especially if preplanting tre-
atment of the seeds was carried
out, or the toxicants were incorpo-
rated into the soil. Pesticides pene-
trate the roots notwithstanding the
poor solubility of individual sub-
stances in water. This is associated
with their solubility in lipids.
Pesticides are evidently absor-
bed by the roots in the same way
as nutrient substances are, by dif-
fusion, exchange adsorption and
active transfer of molecules and
ions.
This process may be of a passive
nature, when the pesticide ions
and molecules adsorbed on the
surface of the roots penetrate, in
an unchanged form, the free space
of a cell and further move with
the flow of water along the con-
ducting vessels and cells of the
green organ tissues. Pesticides
may simultaneously enter a plant
by metabolism when, being adsor-
bed on the outer surface of the
cytoplasm of the roots’ cells, they
are immediately involved in inten-
sive metabolism. As a result of
biochemical reactions, the pesti-
cides may be irreversibly decom-
posed or may form complexes
with the components of a cell. The
intensity of entry via the roots
grows with an increase in the
dose.
The movement of a pesticide
from the soil solution into a plant
depends on soil properties. Clay
and humous soils greatly adsorb
pesticides and in this connection
the latter become less accessible
to plants. The moisture content of
the soil is of considerable impor-
tance. The intensive absorption
by a plant of insecticides from the
soil in conditions of adequate
moisture is closely related to the
vigorous inflow and movement of
water and nutrient substances.
In the treatment of growing
plants, pesticides penetrate them
mainly through the leaves (cuticle
and stoma) in the form of a liquid
or vapour. Penetration through
the cuticle depends in many
aspects on the anatomic and mor-
phological features of the integu-
ment tissues.
According to modern notions,
the cuticle consists of these
unevenly distributed components:
cutin — polymerised high-molec-
ular acids and alcohols having
simultaneously hydrophilic and
lipophilic properties; cuticular
hydrophobic waxes — low-molecu-
lar ethers of fatty acids and mona-
tomic alcohols of the fatty series
with a short chain; pectin — a hy-
drophobic substance of an amor-
phous structure permeable to
water and polar compounds; and
cellulose — a hydrophilic sub-
stance with a fibrous structure
having high tensile strength.
The cuticle covers the entire
surface of a leaf and the substom-
atic chamber (the surface of the
mesophyllous and palisade cells
inside a leaf open to the access of
air) in the form of a solid film and
is the main obstacle preventing
the penetration of pesticides in
the leaf. It is characterised by a
negative charge and can adsorb
water. The cuticle has a lipoid
matrix, and lipophilic substances
can penetrate through it. The ecto-
desmae of the cuticle are one of
the possible ways for the penetra-
tion of hydrophilic compounds.
Pesticides penetrate a plant
through its leaves only if they are
in the form of a solution or emul-
sion. After crystallisation, no pen-
etration of the substances takes
place. Hydrophilic pesticides can
Pesticides are evidently absorbed by the roots in the same way as nutrient substances are.
micropores of the cuticle and cu-
tin are saturated with water. With
insufficient moisture, the microp-
ores of the cuticle are filled with
air, and the drops of the pesticide
solution, encountering air locks in
the pores, cannot come into con-
tact with the water in them. In this
case, the aqueous way of penetra-
tion is greatly hampered.
When there is insufficient mois-
ture in a plant, pesticides penetrate
in the lipoid way. Lipophilic sub-
stances penetrate through the fat
components of the cell membrane.
The penetration of pesticides
through the cuticle is determined
by their solubility in water or in
separate components of the cuti-
cle and cell membrane and depen-
ds on the degree of their polarity.
The cuticle is well permeable to
oils, therefore many pesticides
soluble in oil readily penetrate it.
Having passed through the cuticle
and cuticular layers, the pesticide
molecules encounter an obstacle
along their path to the protoplast
in the form of the cellulose layers
of the cell membrane. Pesticides
may also enter a plant directly
through the epidermis, hark, and
integument tissues of its stem.
THE WRITER IS ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, HEAD,
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, ANANDA MOHAN
COLLEGE, KOLKATA, AND ALSO FELLOW,
BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF BENGAL, AND CAN BE
CONTACTED AT tapanmaitra59@yahoo.co.in
storm”. This threat combines the ever- improvements and sustainable disease con-
growing problems of a global reduction in trol programmes can only succeed if ani- Geoscientists at the University of
available productive land, regional scarci- mals are first kept alive through good nutri- Sydney and the GFZ German Research
ties of replenishable water and the failure tion and basic health management. The Centre for Geosciences have used
of drugs and chemicals to control diseases. focus of veterinary medicine worldwide sophisticated plate tectonic and 2D
This warning cannot be ignored. The key to needs to move away from the needs of indi- numerical modelling to create a map
averting catastrophe is in planning ahead, vidual animals seen out of context at treat- that shows what the earth would have
sharing knowledge and in looked like had Gondwana, the
recognising that to do nothing supercontinent, broken up differently.
is not an option. It looks at how the world would be
We cannot afford to be com- completely different if the South
placent. Efficient livestock sys- Atlantic and West African rift had split,
tems are essential to meet the instead of the rift that emerged along
escalating needs of the world’s the Equatorial Atlantic margins.
burgeoning population, so any Gondwana broke up 130 million years
threat to food production has to ago leading to the creation of South
be taken seriously. As with all America and Africa. However, for
forms of agriculture, livestock millions of years before this, the
production must be economi- southern continents of South America,
cally, environmentally and so- Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and India
cially viable. While there are were united as Gondwana. It is still
many reasons for the current unclear why Gondwana fragmented, but
unsustainability of livestock it is understood that it first split along
production, improving animal The focus of veterinary medicine worldwide needs to move away from the East Africa coast in a western and
health affords the greatest po- the needs of individual animals towards health management of groups of eastern part, before South America
tential for a rapid achievement animals within the overall context of their environment, management
and contemporary agriculture.
separated.
of better production efficiency. Researchers Christian Heine and
In fact, improved animal health addresses ment centres or clinics, towards health Sascha Brune looked at why the South
the issue of food security, has obvious socio- management of groups of animals within Atlantic part of
economic benefits and improves human the overall context of their environment, the giant rift
health standards through the control of management and contemporary agricul- system
zoonotic diseases (those that can transfer ture. There is a need to integrate this appro- became an
between humans and animals), in accor- ach with cutting-edge scientific research to ocean
dance with the broad principles of “one address the challenges presented by the so- basin,
health”. called “perfect storm”. while
The situation in India — with a popula- In partnership with our Indian colleagues, the
tion of about 1.2 billion, cultural and eco- we have the ability to recognise that various northern
nomic dependence on livestock production, scenarios, such as the high rate of calf mor- part
a large productive land area and an enthu- tality in Indian buffalo herds, are preven- along the
siastic and receptive veterinary profession table and can be addressed by identifying West
— provides a model for global improvement the underlying primary causes, rather than African rift
in animal health to meet the requirements deferring to dogma. We are also conversant got stuck.
for sustainable agriculture. with the arguments as to why buffalo sur- “Extension along
Improvements in animal health must be vival is not necessarily a high priority with- the so-called South Atlantic and West
founded on robust scientific principles in in the context of the way in which they are African rift systems was about to split
keeping with the principles of “planned ani- currently farmed in India. However, when the African-South American part of
mal health”. The University of Edinburgh considering global food production, this sit- Gondwana north-south into nearly equal
has an emphasis on animal productivity uation is inefficient and, I believe, unten- halves, generating a South Atlantic and
using precisely that maxim, as well as a able. a Saharan Atlantic Ocean,” Brune said.
focus on production animal genetics, infec- The University of Edinburgh-India col- “In a dramatic plate tectonic twist,
tion and immunity and epidemiology with laboration, combining expertise in planned however, a competing rift along the
a strong research focus on the principal con- animal health with local knowledge of ani- present-day Equatorial Atlantic margins
straints, including looking at the issues cre- mal husbandry, infectious diseases and won over the West African rift, causing
ated by drug resistance. The long-term socio-economic factors, to the benefit of it to become extinct, avoiding the break-
application of this state-of-the-art epidemio- global food security aims to minimise the up of the African continent and the
logical and post-genomic research will impact of the challenges to global food pro- formation of a Saharan Atlantic ocean.”
prove to be important in securing efficient duction. Their model shows how South America
and sustainable global animal health man- would have been about twice the size it
agement. THE WRITER IS HEAD OF THE FARM ANIMAL SECTION, ROYAL is now, with a huge expanse of land
(DICK) SCHOOL OF VETERINARY STUDIES AT THE UNIVERSITY
In the meantime, everything must be done OF EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND. HE ATTENDED A RECENT attached to the northeast corner.
to ensure that these groundbreaking rese- INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE IN BANGALORE AND CAN BE
arch programmes and technologies can oper- CONTACTED AT neil.sargison@ed.ac.uk HANNAH OSBORNE/IB TIMES